Primitive Counting - Some Australian aboriginal tribes only

distinguished between one and two, referring to

Introduction to Mathematics: any number greater than two as "much" or
"many."
- The term "mathematics" finds its roots in the
Greek word "mathemata," initially used broadly - South American Indians along the Amazon had
to denote any subject of instruction or study. a counting system up to six, with larger numbers
expressed using combinations of smaller
- Initially, Pythagoreans narrowed down its
numbers.
scope to describe arithmetic and geometry,
contributing to the notion that mathematics - Similar systems were observed in the Bushmen
originated in Classical Greece (600 to 300 B.C.). of South Africa, who counted to ten using just
two words, resorting to descriptive phrases for
- However, the history of mathematics can be
larger numbers.
traced back further, with significant
mathematical knowledge existing in ancient Tallying as the Immediate Technique for
Egypt and Babylonia, dating back three or four Number Representation:
thousand years.
- Tallying, matching a collection to be counted
Early Human Desire for Understanding: with a set of easily employed objects (such as
fingers, shells, or stones), was a common
- Mathematics, broadly defined as the study of
technique.
quantitative or spatial issues, has been present
since the earliest days of human experience. - The term "tally" is derived from the French
verb "tailler," meaning "to cut," reflecting the
- Across various cultures and times, individuals
act of making marks or notches.
have sought to comprehend and master the
natural world around them, expressing the idea - Tallying was crucial for various purposes,
that there is an inherent order in the universe. including counting livestock, recording
victories, treaties, or village foundations.
Origins of Mathematics in Counting:
Transition from Tallying to Permanent
- Mathematics is widely believed to have
Representations:
originated from practical problems related to
counting and recording numbers. - To ensure the permanence of counts, primitive
people started making correspondences between
- The evolution of counting, including spoken
events or objects and marks on suitably
number words and written symbols, was
permanent materials.
gradual, making it challenging to determine
precise dates for its stages. - Physical representations included scratches on
stones, notches on wooden sticks or bone pieces,
- Anthropologists assert that nearly every
and knots in strings of different colors or
culture, regardless of its level of development,
lengths.
had some awareness of numbers, even if
rudimentary. - Grouping of tally marks became common, with
recognizable groups like those representing the
Examples of Primitive Number Systems:
fingers of a hand or multiples of 5, 10, or 20.

Significance of Grouping in Counting:

- Grouping marks in sets, such as groups of 5 or groups, detaching the number sequence from the
10, marked a significant improvement toward objects being counted.
abstract number concepts and written
communication. - The organization of counting by groups
showcased progress in reaching abstract
- Grouping represented a transition from concepts like "five," moving beyond descriptive
counting by ones to counting by identifiable ideas like "five fingers" or "five days."
 - The term "stockholder" originated from the
practice of splitting tally sticks, and "check"
Notches as Tally Marks originated from comparing written certificates
against security.
- Bone artifacts bearing incised markings
suggest the early use of tallying systems by Continued Use of Tally Sticks in Europe
humans during the Old Stone Age, possibly as
early as 30,000 B.C. - Tally sticks persisted in European countries for
record-keeping and obligations until fairly
- Notches served as a form of tally marks, with recently.
notable examples found on a wolf's shinbone in
Czechoslovakia dating back to 1937. - Examples include the use of "milk sticks" in
remote valleys of Switzerland for transactions
Potential Uses of Tallying among farmers owning cows in a common herd.

- Initially interpreted as hunting tallies, recent Legal Recognition and Cultural Significance
theories propose that ancient tallying was more
likely related to reckoning time. - Tally sticks, especially double tallies, were
legally recognized documents until the 1800s.
- French cave site discoveries in the late 1880s
indicate notched bones arranged in sequences - France's Code Civil, enacted in 1804,
matching lunar phases, suggesting a potential acknowledged the validity of tally sticks and
early form of lunar calendars. stocks as contracts for those accustomed to
using them.
Ishango Bone Discovery
Knots as a Tallying Method
- Unearthed at Ishango along the Nile, a fossil
fragment with notches dating back to 17,500 - The ancient practice of counting days and
B.C. objects by tying knots in cords, notably
referenced in the work of Herodotus in fifth-
- Notches arranged in columns, with patterns century B.C. Greece.
possibly indicating lunar counts, duplication, or
appreciation for certain numerical concepts. - Persian King Darius reportedly used a knotted
cord as a calendar, showcasing the diversity of
Near East Token Systems practical tallying methods across cultures and
time.
- Prehistoric Near East cultures used clay
objects, known as "counters" or "tokens," as
primitive reckoning devices.

- Tokens likely represented different

commodities, evolving over millennia into 16 The History of Herodotus
main forms with perforations for stringing.
- Herodotus, born circa 485–430 B.C., was a
Tally Sticks and Their Evolution prominent Greek historian, often regarded as the
"Father of History."
- Tally sticks, simple notched sticks, found use
as one of the earliest record-keeping devices. - Born in Halicarnassus on the southwest coast
of Asia Minor, Herodotus faced political
- Evolved into intricate systems like the British
troubles, leading to exile on Samos and later
Exchequer tallies, with notches representing
Athens.
fixed amounts of money and split for
verification. Travels and Exploration

Role of Tally Sticks in English Language - Herodotus embarked on extensive travels,

making three principal journeys, possibly as a
- The English language reflects the historical use
merchant, covering regions such as the Black
of tally sticks in finance, with references to
Sea, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
"foil" and "stock."
- Explored the Black Sea, sailed along the west - Described the emergence of Egyptian
coast to the Greek communities at the Dnieper civilization as a political act, with self-sufficient
River's mouth, and traveled in Asia Minor, agricultural communities uniting into the two
Syria, Iraq, and down the Euphrates. kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt.

- Ascended the Nile River in Egypt, exploring - The unification by Menes around 3100 B.C.
the pyramids and gaining a wealth of marked the beginning of a stable and enduring
information about the known world. civilization, protected by natural barriers.

Citizenship in Thurium Egyptian Civilization's Longevity

- Around 443 B.C., Herodotus became a citizen - Egypt's isolation and protection from external
of Thurium in southern Italy, spending his last invasion allowed for the development of one of
years finishing the monumental "History of the world's earliest and longest-lasting
Herodotus." civilizations.

Public Recognition - Egypt's stability was evident in the longevity of

its 32 dynasties, stretching from Menes'
- Herodotus received acclaim for his work unification to Cleopatra's era in 31 B.C.
during his lifetime. He recited portions of his
History in Athens, receiving substantial public Legacy and Recognition
recognition for its merit.
- Napoleon's acknowledgment of Egypt's
- The History of Herodotus, while centered on enduring glory, standing before the Great
the Persian Wars, is not just a chronicle; it Pyramid, reflects the continued fascination with
provides a vast array of information on daily and respect for the achievements of Ancient
life, different peoples, lands, cities, and their Egypt.
motivations.

Herodotus's Approach to History

- Herodotus conceived his work as a

comprehensive guidebook, containing The Rosetta Stone: Deciphering Ancient
sociological and anthropological data, not Scripts
merely as a historical account.
- Unearthed by Napoleon's army near the
- His principle was to report what people said, Rosetta branch of the Nile in 1799 during the
not necessarily to accept it all as fact, allowing construction of a fort.
for the presentation of multiple perspectives and
- Three panels on black basalt: Greek (bottom
interpretations.
third), demotic script (middle), and ancient
Herodotus's Contribution to History hieroglyphic (broken upper third).

- Herodotus interpreted the state of the world at - Napoleon ordered ink rubbings of the stone,
his time as a result of past changes, earning him realizing its importance in deciphering
the title "Father of History." hieroglyphics.

- Described Egypt extensively, emphasizing the - Surrendered to the British in 1801 as part of
significance of the Nile, often quoted as "Egypt the treaty, eventually housed in the British
is the gift of the Nile." Museum.

Emergence of Egyptian Civilization

- Herodotus highlighted the geographical and Role in Decipherment

climatic uniqueness of Egypt, attributing its
- Greek was understood, but hieroglyphics and
fertility and prosperity to the annual flooding of
demotic were indecipherable.
the Nile.
- The trilingual text of the Rosetta Stone
provided a key to deciphering hieroglyphics by
comparing the known Greek script with the The Geometrical Discoveries of Thales
unknown Egyptian scripts. and the Greek Intellectual Advancement

Champollion's Contribution

- Jean Francois Champollion (1790–1832), a Greek Mathematics as a Distinct Discipline

French scholar, played a crucial role in
deciphering hieroglyphics. - Greeks transformed mathematics into an
orderly and systematic unity, distinguished by
- Introduced to hieroglyphics at age 11, he abstract thought.
vowed to decipher them, and his life's work
became dedicated to Egyptology. - Unlike earlier civilizations, Greek mathematics
was detached, abstract, and focused on
- In 1822, Champollion compiled a hieroglyphic intellectual exploration rather than immediate
vocabulary and deciphered the upper panel of practical application.
the Rosetta Stone.
- Greeks, through their own efforts, developed a
- Oval frames called "cartouches" were crucial; more profound, abstract, and rational
they represented the name of the ruler Ptolemy, mathematics.
mentioned in the Greek text.
Abstract Concepts and Greek Attitude
- Champollion correlated hieroglyphics within
the cartouches with Greek letters, establishing a - Greeks preferred abstract concepts, such as
breakthrough in decipherment. triangles, over practical applications like
triangular fields of grain.
Champollion's Method
- Contrast in approach: Babylonians
- Champollion obtained an obelisk from Philae approximated p² accurately, Greeks proved its
with Greek dedications to Ptolemy and irrationality.
Cleopatra.
- The Greeks sought knowledge for its own
- The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the obelisk's sake, a concept alien to older Eastern
base helped cross-check the decipherment. civilizations.

- Champollion connected individual Early Greek History and Colonization

hieroglyphics with their Greek counterparts,
allowing a preliminary decipherment. - Limited primary sources for early Greek
mathematics; documentation was scarce
compared to Egypt and Babylon.

Triumph and Legacy - Greek colonization, especially in Asia Minor,

southern Italy, and Africa, paved the way for a
- Champollion's persistent efforts led to the breakthrough in reason and cultural
successful decipherment of hieroglyphics. advancement.
- In a climactic moment, he exclaimed, "I’ve got - "Greek miracle": Unrivaled speed, variety, and
it!" and fainted. quality of achievements, spreading Greek
culture to alien civilizations.
- Posthumously, Champollion's work, the
"Grammaire Egyptienne en Encriture Greek Impact on Writing and Education
Hieroglyphique," published in 1843, laid the
foundation for subsequent Egyptologists. - Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet,
adding vowel symbols. Ionian alphabet gained
- The Rosetta Stone served as the key to ascendancy.
unlocking the mysteries of one of the great
civilizations of the past.
- The ease of alphabetic writing allowed a wider - The Hellenistic Age (from Alexander's death in
distribution of learning compared to older 323 B.C. to the 1st century B.C.) marked a
cultures. brilliant period in history.

- The Greek miracle facilitated the emergence of

an intellectual aristocracy and leisure class.

Greek Mathematics and Cultural Exchange

- Initial Greek mathematics came from outposts

in Asia Minor, southern Italy, and Africa, not
mainland Greece.
The Rhind Papyrus and the Origins of
- Greek colonies acted as conduits for the Mathematics
exchange of knowledge between Greeks and the
older civilizations.

Greek Colonization and Material Mathematics in Antiquity

Foundations - Mathematics is considered the oldest and most
- Greek colonization led to a money economy continuously pursued of the exact sciences.
based on movable goods, stimulating trade and - Aristotle attributed the origins of mathematical
allowing the accumulation of wealth. sciences to Egypt, where the priestly class
- Formation of a leisure class enabled the enjoyed leisure for intellectual pursuits.
emergence of an intellectual aristocracy. Practical Origins of Mathematics
Greek Intellectuals and Priesthood - Contrary to Aristotle's view, a more practical
- Greek education produced gentleman perspective suggests mathematics arose from
amateurs, contrasting with the specialized utilitarian needs.
priesthood of older cultures. - Egyptians used arithmetic for commerce, state
- Eastern learning was often restricted to transactions, taxation, interest calculation, wage
specialists, but Greek education was broadly computation, and calendar construction.
based and designed for a wider audience. - Simple geometric rules were applied for field
Greek Political Structure and Geography boundaries and granary contents.

- Greek political life shaped by geography, Geometry in Egypt

preventing central control by an absolute - Proclus, a Greek commentator, noted that
monarch. geometry was first discovered in Egypt,
- Lack of political unity: Patriotism directed originating from the measuring of lands.
towards native city-states, not Greece as a - Land measurement became crucial due to the
whole. annual flooding of the Nile Valley, affecting
- Greeks acted collectively in emergencies but property boundaries.
often fell into local wars, preventing a lasting - Initial emphasis on utilitarian mathematics
union. eventually transformed into the study of
Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age mathematics for its own sake.

- Philip II of Macedonia and his son, Alexander Napoleon's Expedition and Scientific
the Great, overpowered Greek forces, Triumph
establishing dominion over the city-states. - Napoleon's 1798 invasion of Egypt led to a
- Alexander's conquests extended Greek French scientific expedition on the sciences and
civilization to the limits of the known world. arts, consisting of 167 scholars.
- Despite military setbacks, the expedition
produced the monumental work "Description de
l'Egypte," providing extensive insights into
ancient and modern Egypt.

- The work, published over 25 years, showcased

the richness of ancient Egyptian civilization,
sparking immense interest in European scholarly
circles.

The Rhind Papyrus and Edwin Smith's

Discovery

- Most knowledge of early Egyptian

mathematics comes from two papyri: the Rhind
Papyrus and the Golenischev (Moscow
Papyrus).

- The Rhind Papyrus, written around 1650 B.C.,

was discovered by A. Henry Rhind in Thebes
and subsequently willed to the British Museum.

- The papyrus was written in hieratic script by a

scribe named Ahmes, depicting an earlier work
from the Twelfth Dynasty (1849–1801 B.C.).

- The papyrus, originally a single scroll, arrived

at the British Museum in two pieces, with a
central portion missing.

- Edwin Smith purchased what he believed to be

a medical papyrus, later identified as fragments
belonging to the missing section of the Rhind
Papyrus.

Decipherment and Completing the Papyrus

- The decipherment of the papyrus was

completed when the missing fragments were
brought to the British Museum and assembled.

- The Rhind Papyrus provides insights into

ancient Egyptian mathematical knowledge and
techniques.

- Rhind also acquired the Egyptian

Mathematical Leather Scroll, which remained
unexamined for over 60 years due to its brittle
condition.