Introduction to Planning and Design Aspects of Transportation Engineering

Transportation modes, Highway engineering – historical development, highway planning,

classification of the highway, Railway Engineering – a cross-section of rail track, basic
terminology, geometric design parameter (brief discussion only).

 Modes of transportation

 In general, transportation is used for moving of people, animals, and other goods
from one place to another.
 The different modes of transport are air, water, and land transport ( rails or railways,
highways and off-road transport).
 Components of a mode of transport

A transport mode is a combination of the following:

1. Transportation infrastructure: Thoroughfares, networks, hubs (stations, bus terminals,

airport terminals), etc.
2. Vehicles and containers: motor vehicles, automobiles, motorcycles, trucks, wagons,
trains, ships, and aircraft
3. A stationary or mobile workforce
4. Propulsion system and power supply (traction)
5. Operations: driving, management, traffic signals, railway signalling, air traffic control,
etc.
  Highway Engineering
<Historical development, highway planning, classification of the highway>
 Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering
that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of
roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people
and goods.

 Historical Highways

The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time of the Romans. With the
advancement of technology from carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles with power
equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit. The construction of modern
highways did not begin until the late 19th to early 20th century.

I. Roman Roads
 Romans recognized that the fundamentals of good road construction were to provide
good drainage, good material and good workmanship. Their roads were very
durable, and some are still existing. Roman roads were always constructed on a
formed subgrade, strengthened where necessary with wooden piles. The roads were
bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains.
 The next step was the construction of the agger. This was a raised formation up to
a 1-meter-high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated during
the side drain construction. This was then topped with a sand levelling course. The
agger contributed greatly to moisture control in the pavement.
 The pavement structure on the top of the agger varied greatly. In the case of heavy
track, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were provided. The
main features of the Roman roads are that they were built straight regardless of
gradient and used heavy foundation stones at the bottom.
 II. French Roads
 The next major development in the road construction occurred during the regime of
Napoleon. The significant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764. He
developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and locally unsuccessful
revival of Roman practice.
 The pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried stone of a more compact form and
shaped such that they had at least one at side which was placed on a compact
formation. Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces
between larger stones to provide a level surface.
 Finally the running layer was made with a layer of 25 mm sized broken stone. All this
structure was placed in a trench in order to keep the running surface level with the
surrounding country side. This created major drainage problems which were
counteracted by making the surface as impervious as possible, cambering the surface
and providing deep side ditches.
 They gave much importance for drainage. He also enunciated the necessity for
continuous organized maintenance, instead of intermittent repairs if the roads were to
be kept usable all times. For this he divided the roads between villages into sections
of such length that an entire road could be covered by maintenance men living nearby.

III. British Roads

 The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British engineer
John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road
construction method. Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe.
 By empirical observation of many roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well
compacted broken angular stone would provide the same strength a better running
surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus he introduced
an economical method of road construction.
  Highway Planning and Development
 Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic
volumes on a road network.
 The Highway planning is also a basic need for the Highway development.
 Highway engineers strive to predict and analyse all possible civil impacts of
highway systems.
 The Objectives of Highway Planning:
i. Planning a highway network for safe, efficient and fast movement of people and
goods.
ii. The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network.
iii. Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design
period.
iv. Phasing road development programmes from considerations of utility and
importance as also of financial resources.
v. Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits.
 The Basic Principles Highway planning:
 The proposed road links should be a part of the planned road network for the
state/nation.
 The importance of the road shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type
should fall under the standard classification.
 The maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention by setting aside
funds for this purpose.
 Statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in place.
  Steps in Planning

1. Monitoring existing condition and forecasting future population and employment

growth, including assessing projected land uses in the region and identifying major
growth corridors.

2. Identifying current and projected future transportation problems and needs and
analysing through detailed planning studies.

3. Developing long range plans and short range programme of alternative capital
improved and operation strategic for moving people and goods

4. Estimating the impact recommended future improvements to the transportation system

on environment features, including air quality and

5. Developing a financial for security sufficient revenue to cover the costs of

implementing strategic.

 Classification of Highways

The Indian Road Congress or IRC is the prime body that looks over the road development in
the country. Established by the government in 1934, this apex body consists of qualified
highway engineers.

The IRC offers the following classification of roads in India.

 National highways

 State highways

 District roads

 Rural roads

1) National highways in India

 National highways are the roads that stretch between the cities in the country. These
are the main roads that connect the capitals of most states with each other. Some
national highways even connect India with other neighbouring countries and make
many famous tourist destinations easily accessible.
 A highway is typically a large-width, well-designed road with traffic signs, lights,
bridges, etc., at appropriate locations. These roads are indicated by “NH” with a
hyphen and a numeral code like “NH-1”, “NH-10”, etc.
 The following are the types of national highways in India.

 Single-lane highway

 Double-lane highway

 Four-lane highway

 Six-lane highway

 Eight-lane highway

 The following authorities take care of the development, management and

maintenance of national highways in India.

1. National Highways Authority of India or NHAI

2. National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited or NHIDCL

2) State highways in India

 State highways include roads that connect all major cities in a state. At the same
time, they offer connectivity with neighbouring state highways and national
highways. These highways are indicated by “SH” along with a designated state code.
 Some of the largest shares of state highways are in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. The development and maintenance of these highways fall
on the authorities of their respective states.

3) District roads in India

 District roads or urban roads in India connect different parts of a city. Hence, locals
use these roads to travel to offices, markets, educational institutions, hospitals, etc.
These roads also allow connectivity with neighbouring state/national highways.
 Based on the location and function, district roads are divided into major and minor
roads. Major roads in a district offer connectivity with the main locations of
neighbouring districts. On the other hand, minor roads in a district connect all major
areas inside that district.
4) Other district roads in India
 Some of the roads connect major parts of a rural area to a district.
 These roads are highly important to enable the transportation of goods and raw
materials required for people living in rural towns.
 Similarly, it allows farmers from rural towns to transport their produce to the markets
situated in neighbouring districts.

5) Village/rural roads in India

 The rural roads in India are found in the villages and rural towns.
 These are not as sophisticated as national or state highways but offer connectivity for
the villagers to commute to markets, farms, fields, offices, residences, etc.
  Railway Engineering
<A cross-section of rail track, basic terminology, geometric design parameter
(brief discussion only)>

 Components of a Railway Track

 A railway track is a combination of rails, sleepers, ballast, and subgrades. The
systematic rails fit on a number of sleepers. This sleeper rests on ballast supports
by subgrades.

1. Rails

The rail provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for the passage of heavy moving loads.
Rails are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear. Flat footed rails are mostly
used in railway track.
  Function Of Rails

1. Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of the trains with
minimum friction with steel wheels of the rolling stock
2. Rails provide strength, durability and lateral guidance to the track
3. Rails transmit the axle load to sleepers, which transfer the same load to the underlying
ballast and formation
4. Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, breaking forces and
temperature variance.

2. Sleepers
The support which keeps the rails apart at required distance, supports the rail and distribute the
load to the ballast are called as sleepers. Sleepers are of different materials such as wood,
steel, cast iron, RCC and Prestressed concrete.

 Functions Of Sleepers

The important functions of sleepers are,

i. To hold the rails to proper gauge in all situations. That is, exact gauge along straights
and flat curves, slightly loose on sharp curves and slightly tight in diamond crossings.
ii. To support the rails firmly and evenly throughout
iii. To distribute the load transmitted through rails over large area of ballast underneath or
to the bridge girders.
 iv. To hold the rails to proper level in turnouts and crossovers, and at 1 in 20 in ward slope
along straight tracks
v. To provide an elastic medium between the rails and ballast and also to absorb the
vibrations caused due to moving axle loads
vi. To maintain proper alignment of the track. On curves proper cant is provided by
raising the outer rail and tamping the required quantity of ballast below the rails
vii. To provide the general stability of the permanent way throughout
viii. To provide the insulation of track for the electrified for signaling
ix. To provide easy replacement of the rail fastenings without any serious traffic
disturbances.

3. Ballast
Ballast is the broken stone placed or packed below the sleepers to transmit load from sleeper
to the formation and at the same time allowing drainage of the track.

 Functions of Ballast

i. To provide firm and level bed for the sleepers to rest on

ii. To allow for maintaining correct track level without disturbing the rail road bed
iii. To drain off the water quickly and to keep the sleepers in dry conditions
iv. To discourage the growth of vegetation
v. To protect the surface of formation and to form an elastic bed
vi. To hold the sleepers in position during the passage of trains
vii. To transmit and distribute the loads from the sleepers to the formation
viii. To provide lateral stability to the track as a whole
 4. Railway Fastenings

Fastening in railway is used to connect the rails and sleepers together in their proper positions.
The fixtures and fastening used in track fittings are:
 Fish plates
 Spike
 Bolts
 Chairs
 Blocks
 Keys
 Plates

 Functions of Fastening in Railway

i. Join the rails end to end to form full length of track
ii. To fix the rails to sleepers
iii. To maintain the correct alignment of the track
iv. To provide proper expansion gap between rails
v. To maintain the required tilt of rails
vi. To set the points and crossings in proper position.

5. Subgrade
 These are natural soils on the bottom of a track.
 These are the foundations of tracks.
 It holds rails, sleepers, ballast and the entire track together.
 It supports the railway track from the bottom layer.

 Basic Terminologies

1) Gauge:- Clear distance between two parallel rails, is termed as Gauge. Depending
on terrain condition the gauge may be classified as:
a) Standard gauge - 1435 mm.
b) Broad Gauge - 1676 mm or 1524 mm.
c) Cape Gauge - 1067 mm
d) Meter gauge - 1000 mm
e) Narrow gauge - 762 mm or 610 mm
2) Rails :- Rails are steel girders which provide the hard and smooth surface for
movement of wheels of a locomotive and railway vehicle.
3) Fish plates or fish bolts:- These are used to connect the rails from end to end.
4) Sleepers :- These are the transverse members over which the rails are firmly placed.
5) Ballast :- The sleepers are bedded and packed in a grannular material such as
broken stone, gravel etc. which is known as ballast.
6) Formation of subgrade :- Which may be constructed in embankment, cutting or at
ground level, according to the topography of the area.
7) Bearing plate :- The plates which are placed in between the flat footed rails and
wooden sleepers on a railway track are known as bearing plate.
8) Chairs :- The devices which are used for holding the double headed and bull
headed rails in the required positions are called chairs.
9) Bolts :- These are used to connect the fish plates to the rails at each joint, bearing
plates and chairs to wooden sleepers etc.
10) Broad Gauge :- The gauge of a track in which the distance between the running
faces of two track rails is 1.676 metres.
11) Metre Gauge :- The gauge of a track in which the distance between the running
faces of two track rails is 1 metre.
12) Coaches :- The passenger compartments are called coaches.
13) Wagons :- For transportation of goods, wagons are provided in a goods train.
14) Goods Yard – A yard in which goods wagons are shunted and sorted for loading
and unloading.
 15) Level Crossing – A place where the road and railway line cross each other at the
same level.
16) Points & Crossing – These are provided to help transfer railway vehicles from one
track to another.
17) Adhesion of Wheels – It is the resistance offered by the friction between the metal
surface of the rail and the wheel.
18) Bearing Plates – To reduce the intensity of pressure, particularly on soft variety of
sleepers, a rectangular plate of mild steel or cast iron is introduced between the rails
and the sleepers.
19) Creep of Rail – Creep is the longitudinal Movement of rails in a track.
20) Cant or Super-elevation - is the amount by which one rail is raised above the
other rail. It is positive when the outer rail on a curved track is raised above inner
rail and is negative when the inner rail on a curved track is raised above the outer
rail.

PARAMETERS FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAYS

Geometric design of a railway track discusses all those parameters which affect the
geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows:
1. Gradients in the track including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling
gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves,
sharpness of the curvein terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or super elevation
on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.

NECESSITY FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN

It is very important for tracks to have proper geometric design in order to ensure the safe
and smooth running of trains at maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest axle
loads. The speed and axle load of the train are very important and sometimes are also
included as parameters to be considered while arriving at the geometric design of the track.
The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the following
considerations:
• To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
• To achieve maximum speeds
 • To carry heavy axle loads
• To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way.
• To ensure that the track requires least maintenance
• For good aesthetic
The geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which determine or affect
the geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows.

1. GRADIENTS IN THE TRACK

Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track. A
rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of movement of traffic
and in a down or falling gradient the track loses elevation the direction of movement
of traffic.
A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise
of 1 m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25 per cent.
Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient.

Objectives of providing Gradients:

• To reach various stations at different elevations
• To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
• To reduce the cost of earthwork
The following types of gradients are used on the railways:
• Ruling gradient
• Pusher or helper gradient
• Momentum gradient
• Gradients in station yards
 1. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition
curves, sharpness of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or
superelevation on curves, etc.
2. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.
3. The speed and axle load of the train are very important and sometimes are also
included as parameters to be considered while arriving at the geometric design of the
track.
RULING GRADIENT

The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the
maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section. While deciding the ruling
gradient of a section, it is not only the severity of the gradient, but also its length as well as
its position with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into
consideration. The power of the locomotive to be put into service on the track also plays an
important role in taking this decision, as the locomotive should have adequate power to haul
the entire load over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed.
In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250
In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
Once a ruling gradient has been specified for a section, all other gradients provided in that
section should be flatter than the ruling gradient after making due compensation for
curvature.
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of weight W on a radiant
with an angle of inclination q is
P =W Sin q = W tan q (approximately, as q is very small)
= W x gradient
MOMENTUM GRADIENT

The momentum gradient is also steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a
train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section. In valleys, a falling
gradient is sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down
a falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which gives additional kinetic energy
to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than the ruling gradient.
 In sections with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in the form of
signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.
 Steeper than ruling gradient, but do not determine the maximum load of train
  Train need to acquire sufficient momentum to negotiate this gradient before reaching it
 Signals should not be provided at momentum gradients
PUSHER OR HELPER GRADIENT
In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce
the length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes, gradients steeper than the ruling
gradient are provided to reduce the overall cost. In such situations, one locomotive is not
adequate to pull the entire load, and an extra locomotive is required.
When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra
engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.

Gradient steeper than ruling gradient requiring extra locomotive.

• It reduces the length of a railway section.
• It also reduces the overall cost.

GRADIENTS IN STATION YARDS

The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons:
• It prevents standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the
combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
• It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent
possible. It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not levelled completely and
certain flat gradients are provided in order to ensure good drainage. The maximum gradient
prescribed in station yards on Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient
is 1 in 1000.
GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES
• If a curve is provided on a track with with ruling gradient, the resistance of the
track will be increased on this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the
allowable limits, the gradients are reduced on curves and this reduction in
gradient is known as grade compensation for curves.
In India, Compensation for curvature is given by.

• BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

• MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
• NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve
 2. CURVATURE OF THE TRACK
The measurement of curvature of curved track is expressed in radius. The shorter the radius,
the sharper the curve is. For sharper curves, the speed limits are lower to prevent an outward
horizontal centrifugal force to overturn the trains by directing its weight toward the outside
rail.
Therefore, curvatures are provided inevitably on a railway track to bypass obstacles, to
provide longer and easily traversed gradients and to pass a railway line through desirable
location.
 Horizontal curves are provided when a change in the direction of the track
is required
 Vertical curves are provided at points where two gradients meet or where a gradient
meet level ground

DISADVANTAGE IN PROVIDING CURVATURE

 Restriction in speed, limiting the length of trains and prevent the use of
heavy type of locomotive
 Maintenance cost of track increases due to increase in the wear and tear
of parts of track
 Danger of collision, derailment or other form of accident is increased
 Running of train is not smooth
RESTRICTION OF PROVIDING CURVATURE
 Bridge and tunnel
 Approaches to bridges
 Steep gradient
 Stations and yards
 Level crossing
DEGREE OR RADIUOS OF CURVATURE
 A simple curve is designated either by its degree or by its radius

 The degree of a curve (θ) is the angle subtended at its centre by a chord of 30
m length
SUPER-ELEVATION OR CANT

 When a train is moving on a curved path, it has a constant radial

acceleration which produces centrifugal force.
 In order to counteract this force, the outer rail of the track is raised slightly higher
than the inner rail. This is known as Super-elevation or Cant.

PURPOSE OF PROVIDING SUPERELEVATION

 To ensure safe and smooth movements of passengers and goods on the track
 It counteracts the effect of the centrifugal force by producing centripetal
force on the train
 It prevents derailment and reduces the creep and as well as side wear of rails
 It provides equal distribution of wheel loads on two rails
 It results in the decrease of maintenance cost of the track

3. ALIGNMENT OF THE TRACK

The direction and position given to the centre line of the railway track on the ground is called
track alignment.

 Horizontal alignment refers to the direction of the railway track in the plan including
the straight path and the curves it follows.
Includes- Straight path, width, deviation in width, and horizontal curves.
 Vertical alignment refers to the direction it follows in a vertical plane including the
level track, gradients, and vertical curves.
Includes- Change in gradient and vertical curves

##########################

The direction and position given to the centre line of the railway track on the ground is
called the track alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, its width,
deviations in width and horizontal curves. The vertical alignment of a railway track includes
changes in gradients and
vertical curves. The direction and position given to the centre line of the railway track on

the ground is called the track alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight
path, its width, deviations in
 AIRPORT ENGINEERING

<Development, types, definition, characteristics of aircraft, basic terminology>

 Airport engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the planning,
designing, construction, operation, and maintenance of facilities such as landing and
take-off, loading and unloading, servicing, maintenance, and storage of aircraft.
 The major phases of airport engineering are airport planning, design, construction,
and aircraft operation and maintenance.
 Airport Engineers must consider the impact and demands of aircrafts in their design of
airport facilities.

 Airport: Itis the location where an aircraft takes off and lands, it connects both
passengers and cargo with other airports. Generally, airport has runways, hangars,
and terminal buildings.
 An airport must handle many different types ofaircrafts including light and heavy
aircrafts of both military and civilian segments.
 The technology, design and load carrying capacity of aircraft keeps improving rapidly
and the airport must improve its technological capability so as to stay side by side with
the current demand.

 DEVELOPMENT OF AIRPORTS IN INDIA

 The development of airports in India has been a significant undertaking over the past
few decades. India has one of the fastest-growing aviation markets in the world, and
the government has been investing heavily in modernizing and expanding its airport
infrastructure to keep up with the demand.
 The first airport in India was built in 1912 in Allahabad, and since then, the country
has come a long way. The Indian aviation industry has grown at a rapid pace in recent
years, with both domestic and international air traffic increasing substantially.
 In the early years of aviation in India, most airports were under the control of the Indian
Air Force and used for military purposes. However, with the growth of commercial
aviation, the government recognized the need for dedicated civil airports.
 The Airports Authority of India (AAI) was established in 1995 to manage and
develop civil airports in the country. Since then, the AAI has been responsible for the
development of airports across India, both in metropolitan cities and smaller towns.
 Over the years, the government has invested heavily in the modernization and
expansion of airports across the country. This has included the construction of new
terminals, runway extensions, and the installation of state-of-the-art technology and
equipment. Several airports have also undergone significant upgrades to meet
international standards.
 The Indian government has also launched the Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS),
also known as UDAN (Ude Desh Ka Aam Naagrik), to improve air connectivity to
smaller towns and cities. Under this scheme, the government provides financial
incentives to airlines to operate flights to remote and underserved airports. This has led
to the development of several new airports in the country.
 In conclusion, the development of airports in India has been a significant undertaking,
and the country has come a long way in building world-class airport infrastructure. With
the growing demand for air travel in the country, the government's continued focus on
modernizing and expanding airports is crucial to ensure that India remains a major
player in the global aviation industry.
 Civil engineering has played a significant role in the development of airport
infrastructure, from the design of runways and terminals to the construction of
parking areas and the incorporation of sustainable technologies. The continued
advancement of civil engineering in airport development will be crucial in meeting the
growing demands of air travel and ensuring the safety and efficiency of airport
operations.

 HISTORY OF AIR TRANSPORT IN INDIA

1. 1911 – First Air flight in India was used to carry mail from Allahabad to
Nainital.
2. 1912 – Flight between Delhi and Karachi
3. 1927 – Civil Aviation department was established
 4. 1932 – Tata Airways Ltd was set up.
5. 1946 – Air Transport Liaising board was established
6. 1947 – Tata changed its name to Air India Ltd.
7. 1972 – International Airport Authority of India (IAAI) was set up
8. 1994 – Airport Authority of India (AAI) was formed.

 TYPES OF AIRPORTS IN INDIA

i. International Airport

It has a connection with many other airports around the world and furnished with facilities like
customs and immigration. These airports are usually massive with longer runways and
larger aircraft.

ii. Domestic Airport

It is an airport which connects flights within the country, these airports have shorter runways
when compared with international airports with no facilities like customs and immigration.

iii. Regional Airports

A regional airport is an airport serving traffic within a relatively smallor lightly populated
geographical area. These airports tend to have smaller businessjets or private aircraft.

iv. Military Airports

An airport used by the military for training, transport, and other military-related activities.

v. Relief Airport

An airport built to relieve congestion at larger airports or to provide emergency landing

facilities in case of a disaster.

vi. Cargo Airport

An airport that specializes in handling cargo and freight operations.

 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN AIRPORT ENGINEERING

1. Runway: A paved strip of land on an airport used for aircraft take-off and landing.
2. Taxiway: A paved area used by aircraft to move between the runway and the
airport terminal or parking area.

3. Apron: A paved area on an airport used for parking, loading, and unloading of
aircraft.

4. Terminal Building: A building at the airport where passengers can check-in, wait
for their flights, and board the aircraft.
5. Air Traffic Control Tower (ATC): A tower on an airport from where air traffic
controllers monitor and manage air traffic movements.

6. Hangar: It is a large shed built at the airport to store and repair aircraft.

7. Airfield Lighting: Lighting installed on the airport's runways, taxiways, and aprons
to facilitate safe aircraft operations during the night and low visibility conditions.
8. Aircraft Parking Guidance System: A system that guides aircraft to the correct
parking area on the apron.
 9. Jet Blast Deflector: A structure that helps to deflect the high-pressure air from
aircraft engines during take-off to protect ground personnel and other aircraft.
10. Instrument Landing System (ILS): A system that provides guidance to pilots during
the approach and landing phase of flight.
11. Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting (ARFF): A specialized emergency service at
airports that provides rapid response to aircraft accidents and fires.
12. Aerodromes are basic spaces where flight operations can function. Aerodromes include small
general aviation airfields, military airbases.
13. Airports include small local airports, heliports, large commercial airports, seaplane base

 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AIRCRAFT FOR AIRPORT DESIGN

The following characteristics of aircraft can influence airport design, size, and type:

1. Size: Size of an aircraft is an important factor in airport designs. It includes:

 Span of Wings: It decides the width of the Taxiway, size of aprons and hangars.
 Height: It decides the height of the hangar gate andinstallations inside the hangar.
 Wheelbase: It decides the minimum taxiway radius.
 Tail width: Required for the size of the parking and apron.

2. Minimum turning radius: To determine the radii at the ends of the taxiways and to
ascertain the position on the loading apron.
3. Take-off and landing distances: These include several factors which influence the
take-off and landing distances such as:
 Altitude of the airport
 Gradient of the runway
 Direction and intensity of the wind, temperature
 The manner of landing and take-off.

4. Tyre Pressure and Contact Area: It governs the thickness of the pavement.

 KEY COMPONENTS OF AN AIRCRAFT

Aircraft are complex machines composed of many different parts, each with a specific function.
Here are some of the main parts of an aircraft:
1. Fuselage: The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft that houses the cockpit, passenger
cabin, cargo area, and other critical components. It is typically cylindrical in shape and
contains the wings, tail, and engines.

2. Wings: Wings are the primary lifting surfaces of an aircraft and are responsible for
generating lift that keeps the aircraft in the air. They are typically attached to the fuselage and
are shaped to produce the necessary lift.

3. Empennage: The empennage, also known as the tail section, includes the horizontal
stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, and rudder. These components provide stability and control for
the aircraft during flight.

4. Engines: The engines provide the power to propel the aircraft through the air. Depending
on the type of aircraft, it can have one or more engines mounted on the wings or fuselage.

5. Landing Gear: The landing gear is the system that supports the weight of the aircraft
during take-off, landing, and taxiing on the ground. It includes wheels, struts, and other
components that absorb the impact of landing and provide stability during ground operations.

6. Cockpit: The cockpit is the area of the aircraft where the pilots sit and control the aircraft's
flight. It contains the controls, instruments, and displays necessary to operate the aircraft safely.
7. Avionics: Avionics are the electronic systems used to operate an aircraft, including
communication, navigation, and surveillance systems. These systems are essential for the safe
and efficient operation of an aircraft.

8. Fuel System: The fuel system stores, distributes, and manages the fuel used to power the
aircraft's engines. It includes fuel tanks, pumps, filters, and other components.

9. Environmental Control System: The environmental control system maintains a

comfortable cabin environment by controlling temperature, pressure, humidity, and
ventilation. It includes air conditioning, heating, and pressurization systems.

10. Emergency Equipment: Emergency equipment, such as oxygen masks, life vests, and
emergency slides, are essential for the safety of passengers and crew in case of an emergency.
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

<Traffic characteristics, traffic studies, traffic operations (signals, signs, markings)>

 Traffic engineering is that branch of civil engineering which deals with the application
of scientific principles tools techniques and findings for a safe rapid convenient
economic movement of people and goods.
 It focuses mainly on research for safe and efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry,
sidewalks and crosswalks cycling infrastructures traffic sign road surface parking and
traffic lights. Traffic engineering deals with the functional part of transportation system,
except the infrastructure provided.
 The basic object of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of
traffic with least no of accidents.

 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS AND STUDIES

 Characteristics and studies focus on data collection and analysis that is used
to characterize traffic, including (but not limited to) traffic volumes and
demands, speed and travel time, delay, accidents, origins and destinations,
modal use, and other variables.

 Traffic Characteristics:
 The traffic characteristics includes road user’s characteristics and vehicular
characteristics.
 Road user’s characteristics: The physical, mental and emotional
characteristics of human being are to be given particular attention.
 The vehicular characteristics include study of various parameters of vehicle like
dimensions, weight, maximum turning radius, speed barking system,
lighting system, tyres, etc.
 Generally, traffic characteristics are classified into 2 types such as:
i. Road user characteristics
ii. Vehicular Characteristics
1. Road User Characteristic:
Road user characteristics further classified into four types:
 i. Physical characteristic – Vision, Hearing, Strength, Reaction to traffic
situation.
ii. Mental characteristics – knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience literacy.
iii. Physiological characteristics - emotional factors such as fear, anger, anxiety
iv. Environmental factors - traffic stream conditions, atmospheric condition,
facilities to the traffic locality etc.
2. Vehicular Characteristics:
Traffic which affects the design and traffic performance. For economic feasibility the
standards of vehicles should be kept uniform. The regular characteristics are classified
as:
i. Static characteristics - It involves dimensions of vehicles (length width and
height wheel base, departure and ramp angles the front rear and centre
clearance) weight and maximum turning angle.
ii. Dynamic characteristics–These are speed, acceleration, power and breaking
characteristics.

 Traffic Studies:
 Traffic studies or surveys are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristic. These
studies help in deciding the geometric design feature and traffic control for safe and
efficient traffic movements. The traffic surveys for collecting traffic data are also
called traffic census.
 Traffic studies also called as Traffic census or surveys.
 These studies help in deciding the geometric design features traffic control for safe and
efficient traffic movement.
 The following traffic studies are carried out in civil engineering:
1. Traffic volume study
 Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at
any selected period. The unit for traffic count is generally taken as vehicles per day or
vehicles per hour.
 Traffic volume study are used for various purposes. They are used for road
improvement and expansion, traffic operation and control structural design of
payments, in geometric design planning and designing new facilities etc.
 Counting of traffic volume can be done in two ways-
 i.) Mechanical counters
ii.) Manual Counts

2. Speed Studies:
 Speed studies are necessary because the actual speed of vehicles over a particular
may vary depending on various factors such as geometric features, traffic condition,
time, place, environment, and driver. Speed studies can be studied under the following
heads-
i. Travel time- is the reciprocal of speed and it simple measure of how well road
network is operating.
ii. Spot speed- is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at specified section or
location.
iii. Average speed- is the average of spot speed of all the passing vehicles at a
given point on the highway.
iv. Running speed- is the average speed maintained by the vehicle over a particular
stretch of road, while the vehicle is in fast motion.
v. Overall speed and travel speed- is the effective speed with which a vehicle
transverse is a particular route between two terminals.

3. Origin and Destination Studies:

The origin and destination studies (OD) carried out mainly to:
 Plan the road network and other facility for vehicular traffic
 Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demands of
commuters.
 The origin and destination give information like the actual direction of travel, section
of roads and length of the trips.
 It also provides the basic data for the determining the desired direction of the flow or
the desire lines.

4. Traffic Flow Characteristics:

 Traffic system generally has flow and counter flow along the common root unless the
stream is separated by one way flow by the proper design and regulation.
 The basic traffic manoeuvres are diverging merging and crossing.
  Study of traffic flow characteristics include both transverse and longitudinal
distribution of vehicles in the traffic stream and is useful in geometric design features
such as traffic capacity volume number of lanes and width of carriageways.
 The study is also very much needed to decide traffic regulatory measure for the design
of traffic control methods.

5. Traffic Capacity Studies:

 Traffic capacity is the ability of a road to accommodate traffic volume it is expressed
as the maximum number of vehicles in a lane or a road that can pass at a unit time.
capacity and volume are measures of traffic flow and half same units.
 Traffic volume is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on the given
lane or roadway that pass a given point or a cross section during says specified unit of
unit of time.
 Basic capacity is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given point
on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic
condition which can possibly be attend. Basic capacity is the theoretical capacity.

6. Parking Studies:
Parking studies are useful to evaluate the facilities available. Various aspects to be
investigated during parking studies
 Parking demand- this can be evaluated by the different methods.Parking studies is by
counting the number of vehicles in the park the area under study during different
periods of the day.
 Parking characteristics- the study is directed to note the present parking practices
prevalent in the area under consideration and general problem in parking.

 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
 Traffic operation involves measures that influence overall operation of traffic
facilities, such as one-way street systems, transit operations, curb management,
and surveillance and network control systems.
 Traffic signs in India can be classified into three categories, mandatory signs,
cautionary signs, and informatory signs.
i. Mandatory signs are those that convey an obligatory instruction or a prohibition.

ii. Cautionary signs, indicate potential hazards or dangers that road users may
encounter.
iii. Informatory signs, as the name suggests, provide information about the
location, distance, and directions to specific destinations. Understanding the
different types of traffic signs is critical to ensuring the safety of all road users.
 URBAN ENGINEERING

<Classification of urban road>

 Urban engineering can more properly be described as the branch of engineering that
covers all the civil and environmental engineering services related to the range of
complex problems associated with infrastructure, services, buildings,
environmental and land-use issues generally encountered in urban areas.

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS:

 Urban roads can be classified based on their function, location, and design
characteristics. Here are some common classifications:

1. FREEWAYS:
These are high-speed roads with limited access points, designed to handle large
volumes of through-traffic. Freeways usually have multiple lanes in each direction
and are separated from other roads by barriers or medians.

2. EXPRESSWAYS:
Expressways are high-speed roads, for heavy traffic with limited access points, but
they may have fewer lanes or be designed for lower traffic volumes.
• For Speedy and heavy traffic.
• Pedestrians are not allowed.
• Connect main markets, important places
• Complete separation of opposite moving traffic by a divider or median.
• Level crossings, sharp curves, and steep gradients avoided
• Telephone facility, Highway Police, Servicing Stations, and Refreshment Facility
available at regular intervals

3. ARTERIAL STREETS:
 These are major roads designed to handle high volumes of traffic and connect major
centres such as downtowns, commercial districts, and industrial areas. Arterial roads
usually have multiple lanes and traffic signals at intersections.
• For the heavy/important traffic inside the city.
• Usually along the expressways serving as principal network of traffic flow.
• Join the central business district with outside residential areas.
• Parking, loading, and unloading prohibited.
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections.

4. SUB-ARTERIAL STREETS:
• Less traffic than arterial streets
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections.
• Spacing varies from 0.5 km in central business areas to 3 to 5 km in residential
areas.
• Parking, loading, and unloading are usually restricted and controlled.

5. COLLECTOR STREETS:
These roads are designed to collect traffic from local streets and feed them into arterial
roads. Collector roads usually have one or two lanes and are typically found in
residential neighbourhoods.
• Meant for collecting the traffic from local streets to arterial streets.
• Full access allowed from properties alongside.
• Situated in residential, commercial, and industrial areas.
• Few parking restrictions except for peak hours.

6. LOCAL STREETS:
These are low-speed streets that provide access to individual properties and are
primarily used by local residents. Local streets usually have a single lane in each
direction and may have speed bumps or traffic calming measures to discourage
speeding.
• Open access from residents, businesses, or other properties.
• Does not carry a large volume of traffic.
• Unrestricted parking and pedestrians allowed.
7. BUS-ONLY LANES:
These are dedicated lanes for public transit vehicles, such as buses or streetcars.
They are typically located in the center of the roadway or along the side.
8. BICYCLE LANES: These are designated lanes for cyclists, typically separated from
motor vehicle traffic by a painted buffer or physical barrier.
9. PEDESTRIAN-ONLY STREETS: These are streets that are closed to motor vehicle
traffic and reserved for pedestrians. They are typically found in shopping districts or
tourist areas
 Recommended land width for different urban roads is shown below:

Category of street Recommend land width(m)

Expressways 50-60
Arterial streets 50-60
Sub-arterial streets 30-40
Collector streets 20-30
Local streets 10-20
 Basic Infrastructure Services

<Air conditioning and purpose>

< Fire protection and materials>
<Ventilation, necessity and functional requirements>
<Lifts, and Escalators>

(A) Air Conditioning and Purpose

 Air-conditioning is the process of treating air to maintain its temperature, humidity,

purity, and distribution simultaneously in order to fulfil the requirements of the
conditioned area, such as human comfort and health, industrial process needs, and
the efficient operation of commercial premises.
 An air conditioner provides cold air inside your home or enclosed space by actually
removing heat and humidity from the indoor air. It returns the cooled air to the indoor
space, and transfers the unwanted heat and humidity outside.

 Purpose of Air Conditioning

Below are the major functions of an air conditioning system in modern houses:

1. The primary purpose of air conditioning is to create a room climate comfortable for
humans.
2. Some special type of conditioning system is used to cool the temperature of electric
devices.

3. It controls the humidity of a room as 30 to 65% is permitted while the temperature

should be between 20 and 26 degrees Celsius.

4. Air conditioning system affects the room air to comfort people and their productivity
is not impeded.
5. The condition of the air is characterized by temperature, pressure and humidity.
The air pressure is not changed.
6. Air conditioning system can be for heating, dehumidifying, cooling, and humidifying.
 Types Of Air Conditioning

1. Ducted Air Conditioning.

2. Split System Air Conditioning.
3. Multi Split Air Conditioning.
4. Controls.

 Major Components of Air Conditioners

1. Compressor
2. Condenser coil
3. Thermostat
4. Evaporator
5. Air Handling and Machine unit
6. Valves
 (B) Fire Protection and Materials

 Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of
potentially destructive fires.
 It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and
investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and
development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems.
 Fire protection within a structure is a system that relies on all of its components. The
building is designed in compliance with the local building code and fire code by the
architect and other consultants.

 Modes of Fire Protection

Fire protection in land-based buildings, offshore construction or on board ships is typically

achieved via all of the following:

1. Passive fire protection - The installation of firewalls and fire rated floor assemblies
to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire, high temperatures,
and smoke.
2. Active fire protection - Manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires,
such as fire sprinkler systems and (fire alarm) systems.
3. Education - The provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection
systems to building owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that they
have a working understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in
the fire safety plan.

 Basic Requirements of Buildings for Fire safety:

Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements laid down in the codes are:

 The structure should not ignite easily.

 Building orientation should be such that spread of fire is slow.
 In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to vacate building quick.
The following points should be given due consideration for protecting the openings:

 (i) Solid timber doors having a minimum thickness of 4 cm should be used where

some degree of fire resistance is desired.

 (ii) All those openings which are used for communication, should have double fire-

proof doors and other openings may have single fire-proof doors. (Fire-proof doors

are considered to be of superior type when made of steel plate with a minimum

thickness of 6 mm and of inferior type when made of composite material, i.e., 4 cm

thick timber panel sandwiched by iron sheets of 3 mm on either side.

 (iii) Any window exposed to the roof of the structure should be protected by fire-proof

shutters.

 (iv) If any structure has a separation less than 6 metres from the adjoining structure,

then all doors, windows or exposed sides should be made of fire-proof construction.

 (v) All escape doors should be such as to provide free circulation to the persons in

passages, lobbies, corridors, stairs, entrances, etc. and be made of fire-proof materials.

 (vi) Windows, if carried down the floor, should have suitable barrier, like projecting

slab beyond the outer face of the building.

Materials for fire protection

 Wall and columns;

 2. Floor and roofs;
 3. Wall openings; and
 4. Building fire escape elements, e.g., stair, stair cases, corridors, entrances, etc.
Brick and Mortar
Stone
Timber
Steel
Concrete
Glass
Cast iron
 (C) Ventilation
<Ventilation, necessity and functional requirements>

Ventilation is defined as a process of removing or supplying air by natural or mechanical

means to and from an air source or any space.

 Building ventilation has three basic elements/ Functional requirements:

1. Ventilation rate — The amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the
quality of the outdoor air.

2. Airflow direction — The overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from
clean zones to dirty zones; and

3. Air distribution or airflow pattern — The external air should be delivered to each part
of the space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of
the space should also be removed in an efficient manner.

 Necessity of Ventilation
1. To prevent an undue concentration of body odours, fumes, dust, and other industrial
products
2. To prevent an undue concentration of bacteria carrying particles
3. To remove products of combustion, and to remove body heat and the heat liberated
by the operation of electrical and mechanical equipment.
4. To create air movement, to remove the circulated air and its replacement by the
fresh air.
5. To create healthy living conditions by preventing the undue accumulation of carbon
dioxide and moisture, and depletion of the oxygen content of the air. For comfortable
working conditions, the content of carbon dioxide should be limited to about 0.6%
volume (in air).
 (D) Lifts, and Escalators

LIFTS

 An elevator or lift is a machine that vertically transports people or freight

between levels.
 They are typically powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and
counterweight systems such as a hoist, although some pump hydraulic fluid to
raise a cylindrical piston like a jack.
 Elevators are used in buildings having more than three storeys. They are
either electric traction elevators or hydraulic elevators.
 Electrical traction elevators are used exclusively in tall buildings.
 Hydraulic elevators are generally used for low-rise freight service till six
storeys.

 Various Design Parameters for Manufacturing of Lifts/Elevators

1. Population (The total building population & its future projections are required)
2. Quantity of service (Handling capacity- It is the measure passenger handling capacity)
3. Quality of service (or interval – time interval a passenger has to wait).
 Types of Lifts
1. Passenger lift
2. Hospital lift
3. Goods lift
4. Service lift
5. Fireman’s lift.

 Working Principle of an Elevator/Lift

 Basically, an elevator is a metal box in different shapes which is connected to
a very tough metal rope.
 The tough metal rope passes through a sheave on the elevator in the engine
room.
 The working principle of an elevator or lift is similar to the pulley system.
 Here a sheave is like a wheel in pulley system for clutching the metal rope
strongly. This system can be operated by a motor.
  When the switch is turned ON, the motor can be activated when the elevator
goes up and down or stops.

 ESCALATORS
 An escalator is a moving staircase which carries people between floors of a
building or structure. It consists of a motor-driven chain of individually
linked steps on a track which cycle on a pair of tracks which keep the step tread
horizontal.

 Escalators are often used around the world in places where lifts would be
impractical, or they can be used in conjunction with them.
 Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls, airports,
transit systems (railway/railroad stations), convention centers, hotels, arenas,
stadiums and public buildings.

 Types of Escalator
1. Parallel
2. Crisscross
3. Multiple Parallel
4. Curved

 Working Principle of Escalators

 An escalator is made up of a set of interlocking steps, powered by an electric
motor.
 A pair of chains looped around two pairs of gears rotate to move the steps
along while a larger metal structure called a truss encases the entire mechanism
to connect the floors.
 The steps then move about like a conveyer belt, entering into a special guide
system at the top and bottom of the truss to create a level platform for passengers
to board or exit.
 They are generally operated at a speed of 0.5 to 0.75 m/s. Slope of stairs is
standardized at 300.
 For a given speed, the width of steps decides the capacity of the powered stairs.
Normally a design capacity of 3200 to 6400 person per hour is adopted
depending upon the width of the escalator.