Unit-V

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Functional elements of an instrument, Operating Principle, types - Moving Coil meters,

Measurement of three phase power, Energy Meter, DSO- Block diagram- Data acquisition.

MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the act or the result of a qualitative comparison between predefined standards and
unknown magnitude. There are two basic requirements for the measurements such as: (i) The standard
which is used for comparison must be accurately defined and commonly accepted. (ii) The procedure and
apparatus employed for obtaining comparison must be produce.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
"The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of measurement or standard quantity
is called a Measuring Instrument."

TRANSDUCER
A transducer is an electronic device that converts a physical force (such as temperature, pressure, flow,
and many others) into an electrical signal. so that it can be easily handled and transmitted for
measurement.

The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

 Primary sensing element.

 Variable conversion element.
 Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT

 The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is first
detected by primary sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form.
  This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer -(which converts energy
from one form to another). The first stage of a measurement system is known as a ‘detector
transducer stage'.

VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT

 The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form , it may be
voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter

 For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to
some other suitable form

DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT

 The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics ii) Dynamic characteristics

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
i)Accuracy ii) Precision iii) Sensitivity iv) Linearity v) Reproducibility vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution viii) Threshold ix) Drift x) Stability xi) Tolerance xii)Range or span

Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be
measured. The accuracy can be expressed in
following ways:
a) Point accuracy:
Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information
about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:
When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:
The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity
being measured.

Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the
degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:
a) Conformity:
Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the
reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the nonavailability of proper scale. The error created
due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
b) Number of significant figures:
The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the
reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the
measurement precision of the quantity.

Sensitivity:
 The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the
 output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
Linearity:
 The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically &
linearly.
Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is
specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.
Resolution:
 If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that output
does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.
Threshold:
 If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value
below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.

Drift:
Drift may be classified into three categories:
a) zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is called
span drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

Stability:
• It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating life.
Tolerance:
• The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is
called tolerance.
Range or span:
• The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure
is called its range or span.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured
quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the application
of the input.
Fidelity:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measurand
quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement
error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Error - The difference or deviation from the true value of the measurable quantity.
The types of errors are follows
i) Gross errors
ii) Systematic errors
iii) Random errors

Gross Errors:
 The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human begin
 These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically
 These errors are also called 'personal errors'.
Systematic errors:
 A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic error.
 The Systematic errors are mainlydue to the short comings of the instrument & the characteristics
of the material used in the instrument, such a s defective or worn parts, ageing effects,
environmental effects, etc.
Types of Systematic errors:

There are three types of Systematic errors as:

i) Instrumental errors
ii) Environmental errors
iii) Observational errors

Random errors:
Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or atleast accounted
for.The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random errors.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories, that are;
1. Absolute instruments, 2. Secondary instruments.
Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be measured in term of instrument constant & its
deflection.
In Secondary instruments the deflection gives the magnitude of electrical quantity to be
measured directly. These instruments are required to be calibrated by comparing with another
standard instrument before putting into use.

Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified according to the kind of quantity, kind of current,
principle of operation of moving system.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
Secondary instruments can be classified into three types;
i.Indicating instruments; ii. Recording instruments; iii. Integrating instruments.

Indicating Instruments: It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when it is being
measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.
Recording Instruments: The instruments which keep a continuous record of the variations of the
magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period of time.
Integrating Instruments: The instruments which measure the total amount of either quantity of
electricity or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. For example energy meters.

ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

A defined above, indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of quantity that is being
measured at the time at which it is measured. Such instruments consist essentially of a pointer which
moves over a calibrated scale & which is attached to a moving system pivoted in bearing. The moving
system is subjected to the following three torques:
1. A deflecting ( or operating) torque; 2. A controlling ( or restoring) torque; 3. A damping torque.

Deflecting torque:
The torque needed to move the pointer over a calibrated scale is known as deflecting torque and it can
overcome the inertia of the moving system, controlling torque and damping torque.
The deflecting torque in the analog measurement device is proportional to the current through the coil.
Controlling torque:
It is to control the pointer to a definite value which is proportional to the quantity being measured. In
absence of controlling torque, the pointer will swing beyond its final steady-state position and the
deflection will be indefinite.

Damping torque:
Deflecting torque is used for deflection, the controlling torque acts opposite to the deflecting torque. So
before coming to rest the pointer always oscillates due to inertia, so to bring the pointer rest within a short
time by reducing oscillations, we use damping torque without affecting controlling torque (or) inertia.

Moving Coil Instruments

There are two types of moving coil instruments namely:
 Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) type which can only be used for direct current, voltage
measurements
 Dynamometer type which can be used on either direct or alternating current, voltage
measurements.

Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)

 The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetic field
between which the coil moves is known as the permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC
instrument.
 It operates on the principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the
permanent magnet.
 • The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC measurement.

Principle of Operation: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it

experiences a force and tends to move in the direction as per Fleming’s left hand rule.

Permanent magnet moving coil Instrument

Construction of PMMC Instruments

 Construction
The main components used in PMMC instruments are,
 Moving coil
 Magnet system
 Control system
 Damping system
 Pointer and scale
A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminium frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of a
U shaped permanent magnet, made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.
The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing, and thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to
the coil through spiral springs, which are two in numbers.
The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured, moves in a strong magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle, which shows the
measured value.
Moving Coil
The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is freely moved between the
stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes through the coil deflects it due to
which the magnitude of the current or voltage is determined. The coil is mounted on the
rectangular former which is made up of aluminium. The former increases the radial and uniform
magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover copper wire
between the poles of a magnet.
Magnet System
The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnets. The
Alcomax and Alnico material are used for creating the permanent magnet because this / magnet
has the high coercive force (The coercive force changes the magnetisation property of the
magnet). Also, the magnet has high field intensities.
Control system
In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs. The springs are made up of
phosphorous bronze and placed between the two jewel bearings. The spring also provides the
path to the lead current to flow in and out of the moving coil. The controlling torque is mainly
because of the suspension of the ribbon.
Damping system
The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in rest. This damping torque is
induced because of the movement of the aluminium core which is moving between the poles of
the permanent magnet.
Pointer & Scale
The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflection of the coil, and the
magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale. The pointer is made of the lightweight
material, and hence it is easily deflected with the movement of the coil. Sometimes the parallax
error occurs in the instrument which is easily reduced by correctly aligning the blade of the
pointer.
Working
 When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field proportional to the current in
an ammeter.
 The deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the
magnetic field.
 When the torques are balanced, the moving coil will stop, and its angular deflection represents the
amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference, called a scale.
 If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, the pointer deflection is also
linear.
 The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical springs.
 These springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil conductors.
 Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminium coil, which prevents the
oscillation of the coil.
Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument
There are three types of torque acting on an instrument. In this section, you will derive and learn
the equation of deflection torque, control torque and damping torque in a PMMC instrument.
Let,
B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2 )
i = current in the coil (A)
l = effective axial length of the coil (m)
b = breadth of the coil (m)
n = number of turns of the coil.

Deflection Torque in PMMC instrument

Force on one side of the coil is
F = Biln (N)
Torque on each side of the coil,
T = Force x distance from the axis of rotation
T = F × b/2
T = Biln × b/2
Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
Td = 2 × T = 2 × Biln x b/2
T = Bilnb (N-m)
For a permanent magnet, B is constant.
Also, for a given coil l, b and n are constants and thus the product (Blnb) is also a constant, say k1.
Therefore, Td = k1 × i
Control Torque
The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally wound,
phosphor-bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S. The deflection torque
opposes the controlling torque.
Sometimes these springs also conduct the current into and out of the coil. The control torque of
the springs is proportional to the angle θ turned through by the coil.
Tc = ks × θ
where Tc is the control torque and ks is the spring constant.
At final steady-state position,
Control torque = Deflecting torque
Tc = Td
ks × θ = k1 × i
θ = k1 / ks × i = ki (where k = k1 / ks)
So, angular deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current.
Thus the scale of the instrument is linear or uniformly divided.
Damping Torque
When the aluminium former (F) moves with the coil in the field of the permanent magnet, a
voltage is induced, causing eddy current to flow in it. These current exerts a force on the former.
By Lenz’s law, this force opposes the motion producing it. Thus, a damping torque is obtained.
Such damping is called eddy-current damping.
 Applications
PMMC is used in Ammeter, Voltmeter, Galvanometer and Ohm Meter
Advantages of PMMC
The following are the advantages of a permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
 Very accurate and reliable
 The PMMC consumes less power.
 It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
 The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
 It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
 It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray magnetic field.
 It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

Disadvantage of PMMC
 The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
 It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
 It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron instruments.
 It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.
Dynamometer type instruments
 These instruments are the modified form of permanent magnet moving coils type.
 Here operating field is produced by a permanent but by another fixed coil.
 The moving system and the control system are similar to those of permanent magnet type. Such
instruments can be used for both a.c and d.c circuits.
 They can be used as ammeters and voltmeters but are generally used as wattmeters.

Principle of Dynamometer type instruments:

 These instruments are based on that principle the mechanical force exists between the current
carrying conductors.

Construction of Dynamometer type instruments

  A dynamometer type instrument as shown in fig essentially consists of a fixed coil and a moving
coil.
 The fixed coil is split into two equal parts which are placed close together and parallel to each
other.
 The moving coil is pivoted in between the two fixed coils.
 The fixed and moving coils may be excited separately or they may be connected in series
depending upon the use to which the measurement is put.
 The moving coil is attached to the moving system so that under the action of deflecting torque,
the pointer moves over the scale.
 The controlling torque is provided by two springs which also serve the additional purpose of
leading the current into and out of the moving coil.
 Air friction damping is provided in such instruments.

Working of Dynamometer type instruments:

 When instrument is connected in the circuit, operating currents flow through the coils. Due to
this, mechanical force exists between the coils.
 The result is that the moving coil moves the pointer over the scale.
 The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque.
 By reversing the current, the field due to fixed coils is reversed as well as the current in the
moving coil, so that the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. Therefore, such
instruments can be used for both d.c and a.c measurements.

Torque equation of Dynamometer type instruments

Advantages of Dynamometer type instruments:
1.These instruments can be used for both a.c and d.c measurements.
2. Such instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
Disadvantages of Dynamometer type instruments:
1.Since torque / weight ratio is small, therefore, such instruments have frictional errors which
reduce sensitivity.
2. Scale is not uniform.
3. A good amount of screening of the instruments are required to avoid the effect of stray
fields.
4. These instruments are costlier than types and, therefore, they are rarely used as ammeters and
voltmeters.
Wattmeter:
A wattmeter, measures Electric Power of the given an Electric Apparatus or Circuit.
Types of wattmeter:
1. Electric-Dynamometer wattmeter - for both D.C and A.C power
2. Induction wattmeter - for A.C power only
3. Electrostatic type wattmeter - for small amount of A.C power and low power factor

Induction type wattmeter

Principle of Induction type wattmeter
The principle of operation of an induction wattmeter is same as that of induction ammeters and
voltmeters i.e. induction principle. However, it differs from induction ammeter or voltmeter in so
far that separate two coils are used to produced the rotating flux in place of one coil with phase
split arrangement.
 Deflecting torque of Induction type wattmeter
let V = Applied voltage
Ic = Load current carried by the series magnet
Iv = Current carries by the shunt magnet
cos a = Lagging power factor of the load
Mean deflecting torque, Td proportional V I cos a

Td proportional a.c power

Since control is by springs, therefore
Tc proportional deflection
For steady deflected position, Td = Tc
Deflection proportional power

Measurement of Three Phase Power

Various methods are used for measurement of three phase power in three phase circuits on the
basis of number of wattmeters used.
 Three wattmeters method
 Two wattmeters method
 Single wattmeter method

Measurement of Three Phase Power by Three Wattmeters Method

Measurement of three phase power by two wattmeter method

• The best method of measuring power of three phase circuit, Whether the circuit is star connected
or delta connected by using two single phase wattmeter which is called two wattmeter method of
measurement of three phase power.
• The current coil of the two wattmeter are connected in any two lines while the voltage coil of
each wattmeter is connected between its own wattmeter coil terminal and a line without a current
coil.
• It can be shown that when two wattmeter's are connected in this way, the algebraic sum of the
two wattmeter readings gives the total power dissipated in the three phase circuit.
 Measurement of Three Phase Power by One Wattmeter Method

Energy meter
• An instrument used to measure the energy consumed in a given circuit is called an Energy
meter.
• An electrical energy can also be expressed in the unit watt-hour(wh) or Kilo watt-hour(Kwh).
• Thus one Kilo watt-hour energy means the expenditure of 1 Kw power over a time interval of 1
hour.
1 Kwh = 1 unit of energy.
Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter
 Single phase energy meter are used for measurement for electrical energy in AC circuit.
 Energy meter is an integrating instrument which measures the total quantity of electrical energy
supplied to the circuit in given period.
 The working principle of energy meter is same as that of induction wattmeter.
 An induction type single phase energy meter has following main parts of the operating
mechanism.

Principle : The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current flow though two suitably located coils produces rotating magnetic field
which is cut by the metallic disc suspended near to the coils thus EMF induce in the disc which is
circulates eddy current in it. By interaction of rotating magnetic field and eddy currents, torque is
developed and cause the disc rotate.
 Construction of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter
An induction type single phase energy meter has following main parts of the operating
mechanism.
 Driving system
 Moving system
 Braking system
 Recording mechanism

Driving system. It consists of two electromagnets, called "shunt" magnet and "series" magnet,
Series magnet: it consists of a number of U-shaped laminations of silicon steel together to
form a core. A coil of thick wire having a few turns is wounded in both legs of U-shaped magnet.
the coil is known is current coil which is connected series with load. Produce the magnetic field
proportional and in phase with line current I.
Shunt magnet: it consists of number of M-shaped laminations of silicon steel assembled
together to form a core. A coil of thin wire having large number of turn in wound on central limb
of the magnet. this coil is connected across the load. thus it is excited by current proportional to
the supply voltage and known is potential coil.

Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium disk
mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminium disk is connected by
a gear arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that
consumed energy by the load. The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc. The interaction between these two magnetic
fields and eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc. The number of rotations of the disk is
therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the load in a certain time interval and is
commonly measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Breaking system: Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located
diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The
movement of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in
the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque. By changing the position
of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux there form, the speed of the rotating disc can be
controlled.
Recording mechanism: The function of recording or registering mechanism is to record
continuously a number on the dial which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving
system. the no of revolution on the disc is a measured the electrical energy passing though the
meter.
Operation :
When the energy meter is connected in circuit, the current coil carries the load current and
pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. the magnetic field produced
by series magnetic in phase with the line current and magnetic field produced by shunt magnet is
in quadrature with the applied voltage. thus, a phase difference exists between the fluxes produce
by the two coils. this setup rotating magnetic field which interacts with disc and produce a driving
torque and thus, disc starts rotating. the number of revolutions made by the disc depend upon
energy passing though the meter. the spindle geared to the recording mechanism so that energy
consumed in the circuit is directly registered in kWh.
The speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of braking magnet. example, if the
energy meter registers less energy than the energy actual consumed in the circuit. then the speed
of disc has to be increased which is obtained by sifting the braking magnet nearer to the centre of
the disc vice -versa.
When induction watt-hour meter is connected in the circuit to measure energy, the shunt carries
current proportional to the supply voltage & the series magnet carries the load current. Therefore,

The breaking torque is due to the eddy currents induced in the aluminium disc. Since the
magnitude of eddy current is proportional to the disc speed, the braking torque will also be
proportional to the disc speed 'n' i.e.,
 Advantages of Induction Type Energy Meter
 Cheap in cost.
 Simple construction.
 Low maintenance.
 More accurate on a wide range of loads.
 Good damping.
 The moving element has no electrical contact with the circuit.
Disadvantages of Induction Type Energy Meter
 It can be used for AC circuits only.
 They have non linear scales.
 They consume a considerable amount of power.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a digital
waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the
waveform in the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the
digital signal processing techniques over that signal. The maximum frequency measured
on the digital signal oscilloscope depends upon two things they are: sampling rate of the
scope and the nature of the converter. The traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and
displayed within seconds.
Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope
The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier, digitizer,
memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates,
cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock. The
block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the below figure.
 As seen in the above figure, at first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input
signal, then the analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal.
After amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal stores
in memory. The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form) and then that
signal is applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input. The
vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis. The
time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going to
generate the time base signal which is a ramp signal. Then the ramp signal is amplified
by the horizontal amplifier, and this horizontal amplifier will provide input to the
horizontal plate. On the CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the input signal versus
time.
The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals. At
the periodic time interval means, when half of the time cycle is completed then we are
taking the samples of the signal. The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the
sampling theorem. The sampling theorem says that the rate at which the samples are
taken should be greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input signal.
When the analog signal is not properly converted into digital then there occurs an aliasing
effect.
When the analog signal is properly converted into digital then the resolution of the A/D
converter will be decreased. When the input signals stored in analog store registers can be
read out at a much slower rate by the A/D converter, then the digital output of the A/D
converter stored in the digital store, and it allows operation up to 100 mega samples per
second. This is the working principle of a digital storage oscilloscope.

Analog storage oscilloscope Digital storage oscilloscope

The digital storage oscilloscope has
The analog storage oscilloscope has higher lower bandwidth and writing speed
bandwidth and writing speed. than analog storage oscilloscope.

In analog storage oscilloscope, CRT is In digital storage oscilloscope, CRT

expansive than digital storage oscilloscope. is much cheaper.
Because of digital memory, digital
storage oscilloscope capable of an
There is no such digital memory is present. infinite storage time.

It cannot operate with a constant CRT refresh It can operate with a constant CRT
time. refresh time.

It gives lower resolution than digital storage It gives higher resolution because of
oscilloscope. analog to digital converter used in it.
Applications
 It checks faulty components in circuits
 Used in the medical field
 Used to measure capacitor, inductance, time interval between signals, frequency and time
period
 Used to observe transistors and diodes V-I characteristics
  Used to analyse TV waveforms
 Used in video and audio recording equipment’s
 Used in designing
 Used in the research field
 For comparison purpose, it displays 3D figure or multiple waveforms
 It is widely used an oscilloscope
Advantages
The advantages of the DSO are
• Portable
• Have the highest bandwidth
• The user interface is simple
• Speed is high
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the DSO are
• Complex
• High cost

Data Acquisition Systems

The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data acquisition systems. These
data acquisition systems will perform the tasks such as conversion of data, storage of
data, transmission of data and processing of data.
Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.
• Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct measurement of electrical quantities
such as DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
• Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as LVDT, Thermocouple &
etc.

Types of Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two types
• Analog Data Acquisition Systems
• Digital Data Acquisition Systems
Analog Data Acquisition Systems
• The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals are known
as analog data acquisition systems.
Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition systems.
 • Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection of desired
portion of the signal.
• Display device − It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
• Graphic recording instruments − These can be used to make the record of input data
permanently.
• Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for acquiring, storing & reproducing of
input data.
Digital Data Acquisition Systems
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals are known
as digital data acquisition systems. So, they use digital components for storing or
displaying the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquisition.
• Acquisition of analog signals
• Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
• Processing of digital signals or digital data
Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.

• Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.

• Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection of desired
portion of the signal.
• Multiplexer − connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts as parallel to
serial converter.
• Analog to Digital Converter − It converts the analog input into its equivalent digital
output.
• Display device − It displays the data in digital format.
• Digital Recorder − It is used to record the data in digital format.

Data acquisition systems are being used in various applications such as biomedical and
aerospace. So, we can choose either analog data acquisition systems or digital data
acquisition systems based on the requirement.