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CS2032 - Computer Organization

and Assembly Language

Sheeza Zaheer
Lecturer
University of Management and Technology
Lahore Campus
 OUTLINE
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● Introduction
■ About this course
■ About Assembly Language
■ Syntax of Assembly Language
■ Basic Instructions
■ Variables
■ Translation
■ Program Structure

● References
■ Chapter 4, Ytha Yu and Charles Marut, “Assembly
Language Programming and Organization of IBM PC
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ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
 Computer Level Hierarchy
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Figure Reference:
4 http://users.dickinson.edu/~braught/courses/cs251f09/topics/slides/intro.pdf
 Programming Languages
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● High-Level Languages (HLL)

● Assembly Language
● Machine Language

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 High-Level Language
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● Allow programmers to write programs that look more like

natural language.
● Examples: C++, Java, C#.NET etc
● A program called Compiler is needed to translate a high-level
language program into low-level language program

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 Machine Language
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● The "native" language of the computer
● Numeric instructions and operands that can be stored in
memory and are directly executed by computer system.
● Each ML instruction contains an op code (operation
code) and zero or more operands.
● Examples:

Opcode Operand Meaning

-------------------------------------------------
40 increment the AX register
05 0005 add 0005 to AX

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 Assembly Language
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● Use instruction mnemonics that have one-to-one
correspondence with machine language.
 An instruction is a symbolic representation of a single
machine instruction
 Consists of:
 label always optional
 mnemonic always required
 operand(s) required by some instructions
 comment always optional

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 Sample Program

1. mov ax, 5 ax 05 Memory

011C
2. add ax, 10 ax 15 011E
35 0120
3. add ax, 20 ax 35 0122
0124
4. mov [0120], ax ax 35 0126

5. int 20

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 Essential Tools
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● Assembler is a program that converts source-code programs
into a machine language (object file).
● Linker joins two or more object files and produces a single
executable file.
● Debugger loads an executable program, displays the source
code, and lets the programmer step through the program one
instruction at a time, and display and modify memory.
● Emulator allows you to load and run assembly language
programs, examine and change contents of registers. Example:
EMU8086

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Why Learn Assembly Language?
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● Learn how a processor works
■ Explore the internal representation of data and instructions
■ How to structure a program so it runs more efficiently. (High Level
Language  Low Level Language)

● Compilers/Device Drivers/ OS codes

● Games

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BASIC ELEMENTS
 Statements
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● Syntax:

name operation operand(s) comments

■ name and comment are optional
■ Number of operands depend on the instruction

■ One statement per line

○ At least one blank or tab character must separate the field.

■ Each statement is either:

○ Instruction (translated into machine code)
○ Assembler Directive (instructs the assembler to perform
some specific task such as creating a procedure)
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 Statement Example
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operation Operands
Comment
Label
; Code
Here: mov ax,count ;store count into ax

MAIN PROC ;creates a procedure called MAIN

Assembler Directive
Name

Comment

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 Name/Label Field
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● The assembler translates names into memory addresses.
● Names can be 1 to 31 character long and may consist of letter, digit or
special characters ? . @ _ $ %. If period is used, it must be first character.
● Embedded blanks are not allowed.
● May not begin with a digit.
● Not case sensitive

Examples of legal names Examples of illegal names

COUNTER_1 TWO WORDS
@character 2abc
.TEST A45.28
DONE? YOU&ME

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 Operation Field: Symbolic operation (Op code)
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● Symbolic op code translated into Machine Language op code
● Examples: ADD, MOV, SUB

● In an assembler directive, the operation field represents Pseudo-op code

● Pseudo-op is not translated into Machine Language op code, it only tells
assembler to do something.
● Example: PROC psuedo-op is used to create a procedure

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 Operand Field
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■ An instruction may have zero, one or more operands.

■ In two-operand instruction, first operand is
destination, second operand is source.
■ Examples
PUSHF ;no operand
INC AX ;one operand, adds 1 to the contents of AX
ADD AX, 2 ;two operands, adds value 2 to the contents of AX

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 Comments
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■ Optional
■ Marked by semicolon in the beginning
■ Ignored by assembler
■ Good practice
;
;initialize registers
;
MOV AX, 0
MOV BX, 0
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 Program Data
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● Processor operates only on binary data.
● In assembly language, you can express data in:
■ Binary
■ Decimal
■ Octal
■ Hexadecimal
■ Characters
● Numbers
■ For Hexadecimal, the number must begin with a decimal digit. E.g.:
write 0ABCh not only ABCH.
■ Cannot contain any non-digit character. E.g.: 1,234 not allowed
● Characters enclosed in single or double quotes.
■ ASCII codes can be used
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■ No difference in “A” and 41h
 Contd..
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● Use a radix symbol (suffix) to select binary, octal, decimal, or
hexadecimal

6A15h ; hexadecimal
0BAF1h ; leading zero required
32o ; octal
1011b ; binary
35d ; decimal (default)

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 Variables
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● Each variable has a data type and is assigned a memory
address by the program.
● Possible Values:
■ 8 Bit Number Range: Signed (-128 to 127), Unsigned (0-255)
■ 16 Bit Number Range: Signed (-32,678 to 32767), Unsigned (0-
65,535)
■ ? To leave variable uninitialized

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 Contd..
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● Syntax
variable_name type initial_value
variable_name type value1, value2, value3
● Data Definition Directives Or Data Defining Pseudo-ops
■ DB, DW, DD, DQ, DT

Data Definition Directives Values

myArray dw 1000h,2000h
dw 3000h,4000h
Variable name

Remember: you can skip variable name!

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 Contd..
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Pseudo-ops Description Bytes Examples

DB Define Byte 1 var1 DB ‘A’

Var2 DB ?
array1 DB 10, 20,30,40

DW Define Word 2 var2 DW ‘AB’

array2 DW 1000, 2000

DD Define Double Word 4 Var3 DD -214743648

Note:
Consider
var2 DW 10h
Still in memory the value saved will be 0010h

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 Arrays
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● Sequence of memory bytes or words
● Example 1:
B_ARRAY DB 10h, 20h, 30h

Symbol Address Contents

B_ARRAY 0200h 10h

B_ARRAY+1 0201h 20h
B_ARRAY+2 0202h 30h

*If B_ARRAY is assigned offset address 0200h by assembler

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 Example 2
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● W_ARRAY DW 1000, 40, 29887, 329
*If W_ARRAY is assigned offset address 0300h by assembler

Symbol Address Contents

W_ARRAY 0300h 1000d

W_ARRAY+ 2 0302h 40d
W_ARRAY+ 4 0304h 29887d
W_ARRAY+ 6 0306h 329d

 High & Low Bytes of a Word

WORD1 DW 1234h
 Low Byte = 34h, symbolic address is WORD1
 High Byte = 12h, symbolic address is WORD1+1
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 Character String
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LETTERS DB ‘ABC’
Is equivalent to
LETTERS DB 41h, 42h, 43h
● Assembler differentiates between upper case and lower case.
● Possible to combine characters and numbers.
MSG DB ‘HELLO’, 0Ah, 0Dh, ‘$’
Is equivalent to
MSG DB 48h, 45h, 4Ch, 4Ch, 4Fh, 0Ah, 0Dh, 24h

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 Example 3
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● Show how character string “RG 2z” is stored

in memory starting at address 0.
● Solution:
Address Character ASCII Code (HEX) ASCII Code (Binary)
[Memory Contents]
0 R 52 0101 0010
1 G 47 0100 0111
2 Space 20 0010 0000
3 2 32 0011 0010
4 z 7A 0111 1010

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 Named Constants
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● Use symbolic name for a constant quantity

● Syntax:
name EQU constant
● Example:
LF EQU 0Ah

● No memory allocated

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A FEW BASIC INSTRUCTIONS

 MOV
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● Transfer data
■ Between registers (mov ax, bx)
■ Between register and a memory location (mov ax, var1)
■ Move a no. directly to a register or a memory location (mov ax,
1234h)
● Syntax
Before After
MOV destination, source
● Example AX 0006 0008

MOV AX, WORD1 WORD1 0008 0008

● Difference?
■ MOV AH, ‘A’
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■ MOV AX, ‘A’
 Legal Combinations of Operands for MOV
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Destination Operand Source Operand Legal

General Register General Register YES

General Register Memory Location YES

General Register Segment Register YES

General Register Constant YES

Memory Location General Register YES

Memory Location Memory Location NO

Memory Location Segment Register YES

Memory Location Constant YES

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 XCHG
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● Exchange the contents of
■ Two registers (xchg ax, bx)
■ Register and a memory location (xchg ax, var1)
● Syntax
XCHG destination, source
● Example
XCHG AH, BL
Before After

1A 00 05 00
AH AL AH AL

00 05 00 1A
BH BL BH BL
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Legal Combinations of Operands for XCHG
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Destination Operand Source Operand Legal

General Register General Register YES

General Register Memory Location YES

Memory Location General Register YES

Memory Location Memory Location NO
 ADD Instruction
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● To add contents of:
■ Two registers (Add ax, bx)
■ A register and a memory location (Add ax, var1)
■ A number to a register (Add ax, 1234h)
■ A number to a memory location (Add var1, 1234h)
● Syntax: ADD destination, source
● Example
ADD WORD1, AX
Before After

AX 01BC 01BC

WORD1 0523 06DF

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 SUB Instruction
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● To subtract the contents of:
■ Two registers (Sub ax, bx)
■ A register and a memory location (sub ax, var1)
■ A number from a register (sub ax, 1234h)
■ A number from a memory location (sub var1, 1234h)
● Syntax: SUB destination, source
● Example
SUB AX, DX
Before After

AX 0000 FFFF

DX 0001 0001

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 Legal Combinations of Operands for
ADD & SUB instructions
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Destination Operand Source Operand Legal

General Register General Register YES

General Register Memory Location YES

General Register Constant YES

Memory Location General Register YES

Memory Location Memory Location NO

Memory Location Constant YES

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 Contd..
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ADD BYTE1, BYTE2 ILLEGAL instruction

● Solution?
MOV AL, BYTE2
ADD BYTE1, AL

● How can you add two word variables?

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 INC & DEC
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● INC (increment) instruction is used to add 1 to the contents of
a register or memory location.
■ Syntax: INC destination
■ Example: INC WORD1

● DEC (decrement) instruction is used to subtract 1 from the

contents of a register or memory location.
■ Syntax: DEC destination
■ Example: DEC BYTE1

● Destination can be 8-bit or 16-bits wide.

● Destination can be a register or a memory location.
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 Contd..
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INC WORD1

Before After
WORD1 0002 0003

DEC BYTE1

Before After

BYTE1 FFFE FFFD

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 NEG
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● Used to negate the contents of destination.
● Replace the contents by its 2’s complement.
● Syntax
NEG destination
● Example
NEG BX
Before After

BX 0002 FFFE

How?
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TRANSLATION
 Examples
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● Consider instructions: MOV, ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, NEG
● A and B are two-word variables
● Translate statements into assembly language:

Statement Translation

B =A MOV AX, A
MOV B, AX

A=5-A MOV AX, 5

SUB AX, A
MOV AX, A
OR
NEG A
ADD A, 5
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 Contd..
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Statement Translation

A=B– 2xA MOV AX, B

SUB AX, A
SUB AX, A
MOV A, AX

 Remember: Solution not unique!

 Be careful! Word variable or byte variable?

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 44

PROGRAM STRUCTURE
 Program Segments
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● Machine Programs consists of
■ Code
■ Data
■ Stack
● Each part occupies a memory segment.
● Same organization is reflected in an assembly language
program as Program Segments.

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 Memory Models
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● Determines the size of data and code a program can have.
● Syntax:
.MODEL memory_model
Model Description

SMALL code in one segment, data in one segment

MEDIUM code in more than one segment, data in one segment

COMPACT code in one segment, data in more than one segment

LARGE Both code and data in more than one segments

No array larger than 64KB

HUGE Both code and data in more than one segments

46 array may be larger than 64KB
 Data Segment
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● All variable definitions

● Use .DATA directive
● For Example:

.DATA
WORD1 DW 2
BYTE1 DB 10h

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 Stack Segment
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● A block of memory to store stack

● Syntax
.STACK size
■ Where size is optional and specifies the stack area size in bytes
■ If size is omitted, 1 KB set aside for stack area

● For example:
.STACK 100h

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 Code Segment
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● Contains a program’s instructions

● Syntax

.CODE name

■ Where name is optional

■ Do not write name when using SMALL as a memory model

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 Putting it Together!
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ORG 0100h

.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100h

.DATA
;data definition go here
.CODE
;instructions go here

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