GL101E

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org
BUDDHIST
COSMOLOGY
www.kalyanamitra.org
CONTENT
Page
Chapter 1 A Basic Knowledge of Cosmology 1
1.1 Important Terminologies To Be Studied 3
1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and the Next 6
1.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge 10
Chapter 2 The Building Blocks of Life & the World 17

2.1 The Elements 20
2.2 Purpose of Elemental Study 25
Chapter 3 Structure of the Universe 31

3.1 Scientific Cosmology 35
3.2 Buddhist Cosmology 36
3.3 Physical Layout of the Universe 37
3.4 Beings World 39
3.5 Constituents of Each Plane 42
3.6 Sensual Plane 42
3.7 Form Plane 58
3.8 Formless Plane 61
Chapter 4 The Origins of the Earth and Mankind 63

4.1 Timescale for the Rise and Fall of the Universe 66
4.2 The Measurement of Time Suitable for the Age of the Universe 66
4.3 Beliefs Concerning the Origins of the Earth 68
4.4 The Origins of the Earth and Mankind According to Buddhist Theory 68
Chapter 5 Universal Deterioration Caused by Lack of Morality 79

5.1 The World Has Been Deterioration since the Beginning 81
5.2 Chronology of Deterioration Events 82
5.3 Deterioration Started from the Governor 83
5.4 Appearance of Deterioration in Human Society 84
5.5 Deterioration to the Point of Crisis 85
5.6 The Root of Human Deterioration 86
5.7 Protecting the World and Allowing it to Prosper 89
5.8 Benefit of Understanding Human Prosperity and Deterioration 90
Chapter 6 Eschatology of the Universe 93
6.1 Cause the Ending of the Universe 95
6.2 Agent of World Destruction Depends on the Human Mind 96
6.3 Scope of Destruction by Fire, Water and Wind 97
6.4 Process Destruction of the Universe 98
6.5 Why the Buddha Taught Eschatology 101
Chapter 7 Case Studies of Rebirth in the Cycle of Existence 103

7.1 The Repeated Cycles of Rebirth of All Beings 105
7.2 Case Studies: True Stories about Life after Death 107
Chapter 8 Conclusions 125

8.1 The Problem of the Creation of the World 127
8.2 Historical Development on Explanations of the Origin of the Universe 128
8.3 Key Suttas in Buddhist Cosmology 129
8.4 Course Summary 132
8.5 Conclusion 134
8.6 The Lord Buddha as a Good Friend to the World 135
1
CHAPTER 1
A Basic Knowledge of Cosmology
2
Chapter 1
Units in this Chapter
1.1 Important Terminologies To Be Studied

1.1.1 Cosmology Defined
1.1.2 Defining the Term ‘This World’
1.1.3 Defining ‘This World and the World to Come’
1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and The Next

1.2.1 Evidence for the Existence of This World and the Next
1.2.2 Essential Things to Understand about This World
1.2.3 Benefits of Having a Correct Understanding of This World
1.2.4 Preparing Correctly for the World to Come
1.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge

1.3.1 Searching for Knowledge in Buddhism
1.3.2 Cosmology as Part of the Lord Buddha’ s Knowledge
1.3.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge
1.3.4 Buddhist Cosmology Is Unfathomable by Conceptual Thought
1.3.5 The Purpose of Studying Cosmology
Chapter at a Glance
1. Before studying the nature of existence, it is important that students first have
a grasp of key vocabulary such as ‘Scientific Cosmology’, ‘Buddhist
Cosmology’, ‘world’, ‘this world’ and ‘next world’ and their definitions.
2. Most people doubt whether things they cannot see or touch really exist – such
as this world or the next. Many people believe that life ends at death and that
there is no further rebirth. Such an attitude can be a severe handicap to one’ s
understanding of Buddhist Cosmology. Therefore, students of cosmology
need to have a proper understanding about this world and the next.
3. In the present day, knowledge about the world and the universe is obtained
chiefly from research and empirical testing. Knowledge obtained in such a way
tends to be incomplete and thus changes all the time. By contrast, the
knowledge the Lord Buddha discovered about the nature of the universe came
from meditational research. Unlike scientific knowledge, this kind of
knowledge [vijjaa] is unchanging.
3
Chapter Objectives
Students will have the knowledge, the understanding and will be able to:
1. Define important words in this chapter.
2. Explain the effects on our lives of disbelief concerning this world and the
next.
3. Explain the sources of Buddhist Cosmological knowledge.
Introduction
The great advances of materialism and technology in the present day have brought
comfort to humanity and ease to our lives. Science has had a very important role in
developing this technology. Some might even go so far as to say that science has
improved humanity. Science has unravelled the mysteries of Nature, the world and
the universe. These discoveries have been important to us because these
phenomena are our human living space and affect human lives. Thus, theories on
the world and the universe are always topical. In addition, more and more
organizations dedicated to cosmological research have been established – meaning
that the subject is widely taught at educational institutions around the world.
In fact, technological analysis of the nature of the world and the universe is only one
approach to this subject. Buddhism also has techniques of examining the nature of
the world and the universe. Some of the Buddhist conclusions concur with scientific
discoveries while others contrast. This course unit aims to cover the Buddhist
approach to cosmology. Before starting on the content of Buddhist Cosmology, this
first chapter will introduce some basic terms that will equip students to tackle
concepts in chapters to come. Although there may be other curricula available in the
world which deal with Buddhist Cosmology – it is usually a rare choice of study.
Dhammakaya Open University, California however considers this subject a
foundation to subsequent Buddhist study.
1.1 Important Terminologies to be Studied

The first task in this chapter is to present the translation and meaning of some
important but potentially confusing terminologies in Cosmology.

The word, cosmology, is made up of two parts which are ‘cosmo-‘ derived from the
word, ‘cosmos’ defined as the universe thought of as a systematically arranged,
harmonious whole 1 . The second part of the word cosmology, ‘-ology’ means the
study of. Therefore, the word ‘cosmology’ means: 2
1
Webster’s II New College Dictionary (Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company 1995) p.255
2
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Harlow and London: The Pitman Press, 1978), p.248
4
The science of the origin and structure of the universe, especially as studied in
Astronomy.
This definition helps us understand the oft-studied science-based meaning of the

word.
However, when we refer to the Buddhist-based meaning; no one has yet offered a
clear explanation. Thus, for the purposes of this text, Buddhist Cosmology is defined
as:
A study of the origins of the world, the universe and all life forms as found in its
origins, perpetuation and decay as represented scripturally in the Lord Buddha’s
teachings.
There is a difference between the definitions of cosmology in science and Buddhism,

because the issues under examination in both sorts of cosmology are similar (they
include the world and the universe where we live in), however the purpose of study in
the two forms of cosmology are different. The science-based explanation of the
universe aims merely to expand knowledge of new discoveries using the scientific
tools. Buddhist Cosmology, by contrast, is the study of eternal truths about the
universe based on the teachings of the Lord Buddha which aim to raise the
awareness of the student to an accurate understanding of the nature of life and the
world.

A certain word which crops up in virtually every chapter of this unit is the word ‘world’.
People tend to understand the meaning of this word only in its narrowest sense -- of
being a certain planet in our solar system. However the meaning of world as used in
Buddhism is much broader than that. Therefore, we need to understand it in its
broader sense.
The meaning of word ‘world’ as it comes from the Buddhist Scriptures – i.e. the Pali
word ‘loka’ -- has three levels of description 3 which are the World of Formations
[sa”nkhaara-loka], World of Location [okaasa-loka] and World of Beings [satta-loka].
In all three worlds, all living creatures have senses in either form or formless. Form
object and formless objects are called the World of Beings. World that can be
separated out into lakes and mountains is called the World of Location.
Psychophysical constituents or aggregates in both worlds are called the World of
Formations.
In the general meaning of the word ‘world’ in the Asian sense means:
1. The planet Earth (the fifth largest planet in our solar system, the third planet
from the sun, having a sidereal period of revolution about the sun of 265.26
days at a mean distance of 92.96 million miles or approx. 149 million
kilometres, an axial rotation period of 23 hours 25.07 minutes, an equatorial
3
Bahujanahita Sutta or Loka Sutta It.78
5
radius of 3,963 miles or approx. 6,378 kilometres and a mass of 5.974 x 1024
kilograms.) but also
2. A collective term for the human world, the heaven realms and the Brahma
realms as a dwelling place for living beings and other forms of life. These
realms together are spherical in shape.
In the meaning of the word ‘world’ in the Buddhist textbooks4 has broad meaning.
The narrow meaning even covers in three parts and each one has its own particular
meaning.
1. World of Formations [sa”nkhaara-loka] meaning the bodies of humans

and other life forms which are composed of the body and the mind/spirit.
2. World of Beings [satta-loka] meaning all living beings apart from

ourselves -- for example, human beings and animals/ beasts, etc.
3. World of Location [okaasa-loka] which means the location in which the

animal world lives. It is where people make a living and the place where
one performs acts of karma, both good and bad. Thus the world on this
level of description includes the Earth (on land), water, skies and the
universe.
The meanings of the world found so far helps us know that the world is not merely
the dwelling place for human beings and other life forms. But the world has a much
deeper meanings which can be explained in three parts: the world of formations,
world of location and world of beings. There is such broad meaning because the Lord
Buddha surveyed the reality of the world with complete accuracy through his precise
faculty of seeing and knowing. Nothing could be hidden from his knowledge.
From the world meaning as mentioned above, the reader will realize that the
cosmology under examination in this course unit is primarily the ‘world of location’
and this includes the human realm in a metaphysical sense, which like the planet
Earth in the astronomical sense is also a place of existence for human beings and a
part of the universe as a whole. The components of this universe will be the subject
matter of further chapters.
1.1.3 Defining ‘This World’ and the ‘World to Come’

Further definitions that need to be understood are the terms ‘this world’ and ‘the
next world’. These terms are derived from Buddhist Scriptures [tipi.taka]. Belief in
the existence of these two worlds are included amongst the ten items of Right View
[sammaa-di.t.thi], which in turn is the first path factor of the Noble Eightfold Path
[a.t.tha”ngika-magga] – where Right View refers to an accurate understanding about
life and the world.
The term ‘this world’ refers to all three levels of description of the word ‘world’
whether it be the world of beings, or location or of formations. It can be concluded
4
Such as Inside Understanding Phrabhavanaviriyakhun (2004) (mss. as yet unpublished in English)
p.45
6
that the world is simply a place where worldly beings dwell, including our mind and all
the other animals. It refers to our present existence from now until the time of our
death. This world is a world of differences. Everybody is differentiated by their
physical body, wealth, status, intelligence and predisposition. Studying the Lord
Buddha’s teachings help us realize that the differences between us came from
actions we have done ourselves in the past. The degree of our good and bad actions
in the past affect our quality of life in ‘this world’.
The term ‘the world to come’ has two meanings which are:
1. Life after Death

This implies that once humans and other animals die, it is not the end of the
story. Our physical existence comes to an end when our corpse is cremated
or buried – however, the mind goes on for as long as there are still mental
defilements remaining. The being will take a new birth and receive a new
physical form – the details of which can not yet be predicted.
2. The Realms of Existence of Beings in Their Life after Death

It is certain that once a being arises, it is necessary to have a substrate or a
location where that being can exist. From our experience in this world, it is
easy to imagine that if a person is born into a wealthy, famous family they will
take on a location which is comfortable. On the other hand, if a person is born
into a poor family, they would take on a location full of hardship.
Therefore, it can be concluded that it is hard to predict the exact form the world to
come will take for any particular being -- but it is certain that we have to prepare
ourselves for the world to come for as long as we still have defilements in our minds.
1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and the Next

People of different cultures have different beliefs depending on where they live and
the religious teachings available to them. This causes different habits of thought,
speech and action especially those concerning their beliefs about this world and the
next. There are people who deny the existence of this world or the next. This kind of
belief influences the way they think, speak and act. Such beliefs were in existence
many thousands of years before the arising of the Lord Buddha. Even after the Lord
Buddha arose in the world, doubts about the existence of this world and the next
have been propagated by religious teachers down to the present day.
As a result of his enlightenment the Lord Buddha was able to see the nature of
existence according to its reality. He could see how living beings were reborn
according to their karma allowing him to know that denial of the existence of this
world and the next world is erroneous – being one amongst the negative attitudes to
the world known in Buddhism as False View [micchaa-di.t.thi].
It is therefore important to understand about the true nature of this world and the next,
whether they exist or not and the disadvantages of denying their existence – and
ultimately whether it is of any benefit to study cosmology at all, since it is intimately
connected with the existence of this world and the next.
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Denial of the existence of this world is nothing new. It is a belief that has been
around for a long time and continues to exist for as long as people have no access to
the Buddha’s teaching. The Lord Buddha taught us to believe in the existence of this
world and the next – or, put another way, that death is not the end of the story. This
also attests to the fact that good deeds and bad deeds do not end in this world, but
are carried over to affect the perpetrator in the afterlife.
It is a guarantee that when we die, we must be reborn elsewhere for as long as our
defilements are not completely extinguished. What form we take in the afterlife is
another story. Evidence for the existence of this world and the next exist is as follows:
1. The Logical Argument

If when we die, death is the end of the story, this implies that our present
lifetime is our first because past lives cannot exist. All differences between
people would have to come about either by ‘nature’ or by ‘nurture’. If we really
were born in this world for the first time, then those with the same ‘nature’
such as identical twins should be exactly the same in every way, whether it be
their appearance or their personality, because they are genetically identical.
However, even after birth, they are still not alike. If it were ‘nurture’ that
accounted for the differences between people, brothers and sisters brought up
by the same parents would behave the same – however this is obviously not
the case. If one is to deny the existence of past lives it is difficult to explain
such differences. However, if karma accumulated during past lives is taken
into account the differences can easily be accounted for by the unequal
amount of merit and demerit accumulated in the past by each individual. As
mentioned in the Lord Buddha in conversation with Subha Todeyyaputta5 that
an individual’s quality of life depends on their past karma:
“All beings own their own karma, are heir to their karma,
have karma as their origin, karma as their family,
as their clan and abide in their karma.
Karma dictates the coarse or refined quality of life of each being.”
In summary, each individual is born different because of the karmic retribution

of their own actions, speech and thought in the past. Therefore, when the
identical twins are born in this world, their past karma is not the same even
though they have the same mother and father. This logically supports the
existence of this world and the next.
2. Practical Argument: if a person believes that death is the end of the story
they will have no motivation to do good deeds because any good karma
accrued thereby would disappear when one died. So thinking, if they fail to do
any good deeds throughout their lives they will certainly live a life of hardship
reaping the retribution of the bad deeds they have done in the place of good
ones. If a person denies the existence of this world and the next, thinking that
death is the end of the story, they will have no scruples about doing bad
5
Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta (M.iii.202ff)
8
deeds. Their life will be one of hardship. If it turned out that death was the end
of the story one would merely ‘break even’ but if it turned out that there was an
afterlife where retribution could return to us, the next world would be even
more difficult than the present one. On the contrary, a person who believes in
the existence of the afterlife will be motivated to do good deeds throughout
their life. They will lead a happy life. If they die and find there is no afterlife,
there is no harm done. However, if it does happen that there is an afterlife,
then their next life will be filled with even more happiness.
Examination of this world and the next is presented here to provide a foundation to
the following chapters. This is not to detract from beliefs the reader may already
possess – but to encourage students to remain open-minded and give the
description of the world and cosmology which follows, the benefit of the doubt.

It is essential to understand the following things about this world as follows:
1. This world has an origin’ means that beings in this world and the state they
find themselves in, whether it be their appearance, financial status,
intelligence or disposition all happen because of reasons – which means the
karma they have done in the past.
2. ‘The uncertainty of this world’ means the world changes all the time and
nothing is permanent. For example, we are born strong and healthy but may
become sick at a later date if we are not careful about our health in the
present.
3. ‘This world is of benefit to us’ refers especially to the world at the level of
meaning of our bodies -- because the human body is particularly suitable for
the cultivation of merits and many different kinds of good karma. Bodies of
other animals, whether they have many feet or few or no feet at all, are not
able to do good deeds easily like human beings can. If referring to the world
at the level of meaning of our environment we see that the human realm is the
only location that is appropriate for doing good deeds. It is here we can meet
with good friends [kalyaa.namitta] including parents, teachers, friends and
monks who can help to advise us how to do good deeds.
4. ‘This world has only limited time available’ means that our time in this world is
limited by our inevitable death. However, we cannot know the time of our
death in advance. It depends on the good deeds or bad deeds that each
person has done in their past and present lives.
9
Keeping these four features of this world in mind will help us gain the wisdom to
teach ourselves to selectively cultivate only good karma in the present as best we
can, inspiring us to:
1. Do only good karma from this day forth because when our good fortune in this
world, is dependent on the fruits of good karma cultivated in our past lives.
The effects of the good karma in our past will one day run out, which is why
we need to be quick to do more good deeds.
2. Strictly avoid doing bad karma at all out of awe for the countless harmful forms
of retribution coming from bad karma which can affect us, our friends around
the world and our natural surroundings.
3. Avoid just sit around and doing nothing or neglecting to cultivate any good
karma at all. The act of doing nothing not only brings us no benefit but lets the
merits that we have accumulated in the past run out, while the remaining time
we have available to cultivate merit shortens every day.
4. Realize that we ought to use our physical body to the maximum benefit in
cultivating good deeds. Whether our body be healthy or disabled, we should
study the Law of Karma to the point of understanding and choose to do only
good deeds. Even if our body is handicapped, we can still use it to do good
deeds.
1.2 .4 Preparing Correctly for the World to Come
Having recognized the benefits of this world, it is essential to prepare for the world to
come. Preparing for life after death includes four practices as follows:
1. Having faith in the working of the law of karma. We must study the law of
Karma and truly understand it because we must quit evil doing and do more
good deeds.
2. Keeping one’s precepts strictly. One should keep at least the Five Precepts.
Better still one should try to keep the Eight Precepts from time to time or better
still, for the rest of ones life. Besides increasing ones merit, keeping the
precepts will purify one in body, speech and mind.
3. Practising generosity to the full. After we die, we cannot take our bodies or
possessions with us, but we can take the merit with us which has resulted
from doing generous deeds.
4. Improve upon your wisdom more and more. This can be done by meditating
and stilling our minds to the point it is radiant and can see things according to
their reality.
10
In summary, this is the knowledge of this world and the next exist as indicated in the
Lord Buddha’s teachings. We study cosmology here to better understand this world
and the next and to gain Right View on these issues. Such understanding will allow
us to choose a way of life that is beneficial during our short time as a human instead
of having to waste time learning by trial and error.

All human beings are ignorant when they come into the world – with more questions
in their minds than answers. If we try to remember back to our experiences when we
were first born, there is probably very little we can remember about how we thought
or felt at that time. If we were to remember, we would find that we were filled with
wonder for everything we saw, touched or heard from the first moments after our
birth. Once we became able to speak, we’d start to ask our parents questions about
everything new to us. Even as young adults, our curiosity about our surroundings
hardly diminished. But this curiosity would perhaps be different in nature from our
curiosity as a child and perhaps even now as adults do we keep some of our
curiosity.
Of all the mysteries of existence, the issue of the world’s creation is what people
have paid the most attention to, both in philosophy and science. We treat the origin
of our planet with such interest because we are reliant on our planet for our survival.
We need to know as much as possible about our planet so that we can continue to
live in this world in safety and happiness.
The remainder of this chapter shows how Buddhist methodology can be useful in
answering questions about the world and universe -- a method different to that of
science. The conclusions drawn by Buddhist methodology may have similarities as
well as differences from the conclusions drawn by scientific methodology.
Buddhism has a name for being a religion that is based on reason. The Lord Buddha
did not claim to have a monopoly on all the different knowledge that makes up
Buddhism. If anyone spoke the truth, the Lord Buddha acknowledged it as such. The
truth that we speak of here is referred to in Buddhism as ‘Dhamma’. The Lord
Buddha is not the inventor or owner of the Dhamma. The Dhamma is merely the
nature of things in the life and the world. If anyone is able to reach Enlightenment,
that person becomes able to discern the real nature of the things they see in the
world around them. These observations, or Dhamma, were something the Lord
Buddha chose to share with the people of the world so that they too could benefit
from true knowledge about the nature of things. In just the same way, scientific laws
existed in the world long before scientists discovered them. The dictionary of
Buddhism6 indicates that:
6
Paticcasamuppapaadakathaa of the Kathaavatthu 81/18 verse 1086
11
“Whether the Lord Buddha exists or not, the Dhamma that still exists as universal
law [dhammaniyaama]. Once the Buddha had seen those laws, he related them
to others, set models, described principles and explained them in a way easy to
understand saying ‘Look for yourselves!’”
In this context, Dhamma means the laws of nature -- the Dhamma that the Lord
Buddha researched as being innumerable. It is because of the Lord Buddha’s special
faculty for ‘seeing and knowing’ [ñaa.nadassana] which is so broad it penetrates the
nature of all things that we refer to his knowledge as ‘all knowing’
[sabbaññutañaa.na]. However, the Lord Buddha did not teach the whole of Dhamma
to the people of the world because some content does nothing to facilitate progress
on the pathway to Enlightenment. The Lord Buddha shared only the items of
Dhamma which would allow others to attain enlightenment (attaining which they
would be able to see the nature of the remaining Dhammas for themselves).
However, the Dhammas which the Lord Buddha taught mankind can be compared to
a handful of leaves. The Dhammas that the Lord Buddha knew but chose not to
teach can be compared with all the leaves in the forest as mentioned in Si.msapaa
Sutta7 that:
At one time, the Lord Buddha travelled to a Si.msapa forest. He picked up some
Si.msapa leaves and then asked all the monks around him “Which is the more –
the Si.msapa leaves that I hold in my hands or the leaves on all the Si.msapa
trees in the forest?” The monks replied, “There are more Si.msapa leaves in the
whole forest than in your hands.” The Lord Buddha explained “Similarly, the
knowledge which I have not shared with you is more than that which I have taught.
The knowledge that I have shared with you is a small proportion just like the
leaves in my hands because the other types of knowledge do not serve their
purpose. They do not help to reduce preoccupation with sensuality or to relieve
suffering.”
1.3.2 Cosmology as Part of the Lord Buddha’s Knowledge
Cosmology is a part of the knowledge which the Lord Buddha discovered. And the
Lord Buddha knew that all phenomena came about as a result of natural laws, which
are called Universal Laws [dhammaniyaama]. The Lord Buddha gave more of a
summary of the content of Universal laws, rather than a specific description.
Afterwards, commentarians expanded the content further and more thoroughly. In
these written texts, there were written five categories of natural laws:
1. Physical Laws [utuniyaama] are natural laws which cover the manifestation
of all non-living things, for example, the occurrence of thunder and lightening.
The arising and falling away of this world even follow these natural laws.
Western Buddhist textbooks tend to say that the Ancient Indians had no idea
what caused the patterns in Nature but Buddhism attributed these patterns to
physical laws.
7
S.v.437
12
2. Biological Laws [biijaniyaama] are natural laws which are particular to

animate objects like plants or animals. These natural laws dictate that when
we plant a rice seed it grows into a rice plant. The offspring an elephant gives
birth to must be a baby elephant. Buddhism attributes this predictability to
biological laws.
3. Psychological Laws [cittaniyaama] are natural laws which deal with the
mechanisms of how the mind works. Buddhism believes that people are made
up of two main parts: namely body and mind. The mind is composed of the
system which allows us to work, change and act in a way which is individual to
each person. Buddhism attributes such dynamics to psychological laws.
4. Karmic Laws [kammaniyaama]: are laws concerning how karma gives its
effects. Karma refers to intentional actions. The virtue of the intention behind
the act divides karma into two types: good karma and bad karma. Good karma
is reciprocated with positive fruits. Bad karma is reciprocated with negative
retribution. This type of law is also referred to as the Law of Karma.
5. Universal Laws [dhammaniyaama]: are natural laws that deal with cause and
effect where they concern the mental and physical phenomena. This law has
the broadest definition and is an umbrella for all the four types of laws already
mentioned.
The Lord Buddha discovered all five of these natural laws but did not teach all of
them. He taught only Universal laws with a focus on Psychological and Karmic Laws.
The Lord Buddha taught very little of Physical and Biological Law. On the contrary,
science emphasizes the Physical and Biological Laws within Universal Law. Science
has little or no interest in Karmic or Psychological Law. This is one point that
distinguishes Buddhism from Science. Buddhism takes a broader overall perspective
of life and the world than Science.
An important point to realize is that Universal laws encompass all the other four types
of law. Even though it is true that Buddhism focuses on Karmic and Psychological
Laws, it does not reject Physical or Biological Laws which are the focus of scientific
endeavour. Therefore, Buddhism tends not to conflict with Science.
Once equipped with the dhammas allowing us to become enlightened, we will be

able to know that there is even more material that the Lord Buddha discovered but
did not share with us. The material that he did teach was only the part to relieve the
immediate suffering which is a huge concern in all our lives.
Empirical testing, using equipment external to the body, which is the source of most
scientific knowledge is correct only from certain perspectives. In cases where
empirical studies give correct results, it is usually because the subject matter of the
research is not so complicated and usually the research results are not altogether
thorough. The efficacy of the research is limited because of the limitations of the
research tools.
13
Another way to obtain knowledge and see things correctly is the study by mind,
which does not have to rely on any tools. It needs only a mind sufficiently clear to
gain internal vision. Having a still and stable mind gained by meditating in a proper
way consistently is a starting point to discover the truth about life. Once successful,
knowledge is gained from images appearing in mind or in Buddhist terminology, the
faculty of ‘seeing and knowing’ [ñanadassana] or seeing through the power of mind.
Those of us belonging to the scientific age may have our reservations about the
potential of the mind for discovering universal laws – thus we need first to explore
how the mind functions. The original state of the mind is crystal clear. However, once
the mind becomes engrained with defilements, the mind takes on an abnormal
condition becoming clouded, distorted and scattered reducing the quality of the mind
poorer and undermining its power. However, if the mind is cultivated to the point of
stillness (bringing the faculties of perception, memory, thought and knowledge to a
single point at the middle of the body our mind will regain its power. It is similar to the
way scattered sunlight if focused by a lens creates a spot with enough heat to burn a
hole. Our mind is very similar. Once the mind is concentrated in stillness on a single
spot, our thought will go deeper instead of scattering; hence, the mind gains the
power to do many amazing things.
To give another example – normally we consider the speed of light as the fastest
possible speed in the universe. However, the speed of light is still slower than that of
the mind. Supposing we have recently visited a country ten thousand miles away and
we reminisce, our mind takes only a fraction of a second to be back in that country
again. Our mind can travel not only in the present but can even leap to the past and
the future. This is the miracle of mind.
Knowledge coming from the trained mind is not exclusive to Buddhism but in fact
predates it. The hermits, ascetics and the spiritual leaders of ancient times focused
their minds to access knowledge by visions seen in the mind, but the images they
saw may have been fragmented or incomplete. They taught others of their
knowledge revealing such things as the knowledge of heaven or the Brahma-world.
They assumed the highest realms of existence they saw were the ultimate.
The Buddha arose in the world as a result of training himself over the course of
innumerable lifetimes and consequently had a complete knowledge about the nature
of things animate and inanimate in the world, the arising and decay of the world,
cosmology and the origin of all things. He passed on this knowledge to others – a
body of knowledge [vijjaa] which is the highest level of knowledge in Buddhism. This
supreme knowledge is known as the Threefold Knowledge [tevijja] and consists of:
1. Knowledge of one’s own previous lifetimes [pubbenivaasanussatiñaa.na]. This

is the ability to recollect the ones own past lives from one, two, ten, a hundred
or a thousand lifetimes ago.
2. Knowledge of the previous lifetimes of others [cutuupapaatañaa.na]. This is

the ability to know how beings’ karma affects their birth and death in the cycle
of existence – giving them better or worse quality of life, whether it be refined
or coarse complexions, wealth or poverty. Another name for this ability is the
celestial eye [dibbhacakkhu].
14
3. Knowledge of an end of all defilements [asavakkhayañaa.na].
This Threefold Knowledge, especially the recollection of his own previous lifetimes,
allowed the Buddha to know about the evolution of the Earth because he could recall
his former existences from times during the arising and decay of the Earth. The fact
that there were such eras for the Buddha to learn about proves that the Earth has not
always been as it is now – and the same goes for the universe and everything else.
By practicing the Buddhist doctrine, one day we too can reach the point of
illumination where we can prove the nature of the earth and universe for ourselves.
As previously mentioned, Buddhism is a religion based on reasoning. However, there

are some issues that the Lord Buddha did not advocate people to speculate about
rationally. Buddha designated such things unfathomable by conceptual thought.
Although at first sight this might seem to be contradictory, it fact the Buddha realized
the limitations of mundane understanding. It needs enough meditation to have insight
into these matters as already mentioned in the account of the origin of Buddhist
cosmological knowledge. The Buddha’s explanation of issues unfathomable by
conceptual thought appeared in Acintita Sutta8 as follows:
1. The powers of the Buddha [buddhavisaaya] -- i.e., the range of powers a

Buddha develops as a result of becoming a Buddha.
2. The powers developed through the absorptions [~naa.navisaaya] -- i.e., the

range of powers that one may obtain while they reach absorptions in
meditation.
3. The outcome or the retribution of our actions -- i.e. the precise outcomes of
karmic action.
4. Philosophical analysis of the nature of the world -- i.e. conjecture about (the
origin, etc., of) the world.
From this Sutta, we will see that speculating about (for example) who created the
Earth, how it happened, or how the Earth will come to its end are unfathomable by
conceptual thought so we should not become preoccupied with them or else one
may be driven insane. It is a very long time span over which our Earth comes into
existence, perpetuates and decays that it can only be calculated in terms of
incalculable eons [asa”nkheyya kappa]. It is impossible to prove empirically. The
more one conceptualizes about it the more confusing it becomes – until one can
finally become insane.
What we should really become preoccupied with is how to break free from this world.
We ought to use the arising and decay to arouse a sense of urgency in cultivating
good deeds to escape the cycle of existence such as training our mind in meditation
8
A.ii.80
15
to prove the real nature of these questions after we have come to an end of all
defilements.
The initial stages of Buddhist teachings focuses on encouraging people to cultivate

good deeds and adjusting themselves to break free from suffering. As a result of
following such teachings they fulfil the true goal of their lives to become free from
defilements, attain nirvana and break free from the cycle of existence. As our lifetime
on this the world is short, we do not have the time to spare to remain ignorant about
such things as cosmology.
Thus on subjects such as cosmology, the Buddha did not teach in detail but merely
explained the parts necessary to be able to comprehend the arising, perpetuation
and decay of worldly phenomena. Equipped with his teachings, people become wary
of sensuality and inspired to meditate in accordance with an example given in the
Buddhist scriptures:9
At the time, Malu"nkya became a monk in Buddhism. He wanted clear answers

about whether the Earth be permanent or impermanent, about this world and the
next. The monk Malu"nkya suspected that the Buddha could not answer ten
certain questions including that of the permanence of the Earth and whether there
will be an end to the world. He requested the Buddha to answer those questions
saying that if the Lord Buddha knew the answer, he should leave no shadow of a
doubt in Malu”nkya’s mind. However, if the Lord Buddha did not know the answer,
he should admit it. If the Lord Buddha did not answer anything, he would retire
from monkhood.
The Lord Buddha asked him, “Did I ever persuade you to ordain to have these
questions answered?” The monk Malu"nkya agreed he never had.
The Lord Buddha continued by saying that even if someone were to threaten to
disrobe if not receiving answers to those questions that person would die before
the Buddha agreed to answer them. It is like a man who got shot by a poison
arrow. Even his relatives tried to take him to the doctor to heal him, he refused to
allow the doctor to take the arrow out, until somebody told him who shot him,
what was his name, whether the answer was tall or short, black or white, where
he lived, what was the arrow made from and so forth. This man would die
unnecessarily if he kept asking those useless questions. The urgent need for him
was to cure his suffering, not to have his questions answered.
Finally, the Buddha concluded that he would only give the answer concerning
issues that help bring people to the end of suffering, extract themselves from
sensuality, be peaceful, happy, gain wisdom and knowledge and attain Nirvana.
This Sutta demonstrates that Buddha would not respond with useless knowledge.
Some of the questions that the monk Malu"nkya asked, like those about this world
9
Cuu.lamalu"nkayovaada Sutta M.i.426ff.
16
and the next are unfathomable by conceptual thought. Such issues are further
knowledge. Conceptual answers to such questions are no use in helping us to free
ourselves from suffering. Instead we should focus ourselves on practice until we
succeed – only in this way can we really learn more. Just as the man who got shot by
the arrow would perish if he insisted on finding out who the archer was and so forth,
as a practitioner our progress will be compromised if we waste time searching for
useless answers.
Cosmology is amongst the issues unfathomable by conceptual thought. The Buddha

taught the Cuu.lamalu"nkya-ovaada Sutta to warn people not to be reckless and to
gain a sense of urgency by the impermance of the world. He taught us to use the
short space of our lives to perform the maximum of good deeds to reach the truths of
life accessible only by meditation.
_________________________
17
CHAPTER 2
The Building Blocks of Life
& the World
1
CHAPTER 1
2
Chapter 1
1.1 Important Terminologies To Be Studied

1.1.3 Defining ‘This World and the World to Come’

1.2.4 Preparing Correctly for the World to Come

1.3.2 Cosmology as Part of the Lord Buddha’ s Knowledge
Chapter at a Glance
1. Before studying the nature of existence, it is important that students first have
a grasp of key vocabulary such as ‘Scientific Cosmology’, ‘Buddhist
Cosmology’, ‘world’, ‘this world’ and ‘next world’ and their definitions.
2. Most people doubt whether things they cannot see or touch really exist – such
as this world or the next. Many people believe that life ends at death and that
there is no further rebirth. Such an attitude can be a severe handicap to one’ s
understanding of Buddhist Cosmology. Therefore, students of cosmology
need to have a proper understanding about this world and the next.
3. In the present day, knowledge about the world and the universe is obtained
chiefly from research and empirical testing. Knowledge obtained in such a way
tends to be incomplete and thus changes all the time. By contrast, the
knowledge the Lord Buddha discovered about the nature of the universe came
from meditational research. Unlike scientific knowledge, this kind of
knowledge [vijjaa] is unchanging.
3
Chapter Objectives
Students will have the knowledge, the understanding and will be able to:
1. Define important words in this chapter.
2. Explain the effects on our lives of disbelief concerning this world and the
next.
3. Explain the sources of Buddhist Cosmological knowledge.
Introduction
The great advances of materialism and technology in the present day have brought
comfort to humanity and ease to our lives. Science has had a very important role in
developing this technology. Some might even go so far as to say that science has
improved humanity. Science has unravelled the mysteries of Nature, the world and
the universe. These discoveries have been important to us because these
phenomena are our human living space and affect human lives. Thus, theories on
the world and the universe are always topical. In addition, more and more
organizations dedicated to cosmological research have been established – meaning
that the subject is widely taught at educational institutions around the world.
In fact, technological analysis of the nature of the world and the universe is only one
approach to this subject. Buddhism also has techniques of examining the nature of
the world and the universe. Some of the Buddhist conclusions concur with scientific
discoveries while others contrast. This course unit aims to cover the Buddhist
approach to cosmology. Before starting on the content of Buddhist Cosmology, this
first chapter will introduce some basic terms that will equip students to tackle
concepts in chapters to come. Although there may be other curricula available in the
world which deal with Buddhist Cosmology – it is usually a rare choice of study.
Dhammakaya Open University, California however considers this subject a
foundation to subsequent Buddhist study.
1.1 Important Terminologies to be Studied

The first task in this chapter is to present the translation and meaning of some
important but potentially confusing terminologies in Cosmology.

The word, cosmology, is made up of two parts which are ‘cosmo-‘ derived from the
word, ‘cosmos’ defined as the universe thought of as a systematically arranged,
harmonious whole 1 . The second part of the word cosmology, ‘-ology’ means the
study of. Therefore, the word ‘cosmology’ means: 2
1
Webster’s II New College Dictionary (Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company 1995) p.255
2
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Harlow and London: The Pitman Press, 1978), p.248
4
The science of the origin and structure of the universe, especially as studied in
Astronomy.
This definition helps us understand the oft-studied science-based meaning of the

word.
However, when we refer to the Buddhist-based meaning; no one has yet offered a
clear explanation. Thus, for the purposes of this text, Buddhist Cosmology is defined
as:
A study of the origins of the world, the universe and all life forms as found in its
origins, perpetuation and decay as represented scripturally in the Lord Buddha’s
teachings.
There is a difference between the definitions of cosmology in science and Buddhism,

because the issues under examination in both sorts of cosmology are similar (they
include the world and the universe where we live in), however the purpose of study in
the two forms of cosmology are different. The science-based explanation of the
universe aims merely to expand knowledge of new discoveries using the scientific
tools. Buddhist Cosmology, by contrast, is the study of eternal truths about the
universe based on the teachings of the Lord Buddha which aim to raise the
awareness of the student to an accurate understanding of the nature of life and the
world.

A certain word which crops up in virtually every chapter of this unit is the word ‘world’.
People tend to understand the meaning of this word only in its narrowest sense -- of
being a certain planet in our solar system. However the meaning of world as used in
Buddhism is much broader than that. Therefore, we need to understand it in its
broader sense.
The meaning of word ‘world’ as it comes from the Buddhist Scriptures – i.e. the Pali
word ‘loka’ -- has three levels of description 3 which are the World of Formations
[sa”nkhaara-loka], World of Location [okaasa-loka] and World of Beings [satta-loka].
In all three worlds, all living creatures have senses in either form or formless. Form
object and formless objects are called the World of Beings. World that can be
separated out into lakes and mountains is called the World of Location.
Psychophysical constituents or aggregates in both worlds are called the World of
Formations.
In the general meaning of the word ‘world’ in the Asian sense means:
1. The planet Earth (the fifth largest planet in our solar system, the third planet
from the sun, having a sidereal period of revolution about the sun of 265.26
days at a mean distance of 92.96 million miles or approx. 149 million
kilometres, an axial rotation period of 23 hours 25.07 minutes, an equatorial
3
Bahujanahita Sutta or Loka Sutta It.78
5
radius of 3,963 miles or approx. 6,378 kilometres and a mass of 5.974 x 1024
kilograms.) but also
2. A collective term for the human world, the heaven realms and the Brahma
realms as a dwelling place for living beings and other forms of life. These
realms together are spherical in shape.
In the meaning of the word ‘world’ in the Buddhist textbooks4 has broad meaning.
The narrow meaning even covers in three parts and each one has its own particular
meaning.
1. World of Formations [sa”nkhaara-loka] meaning the bodies of humans

and other life forms which are composed of the body and the mind/spirit.
2. World of Beings [satta-loka] meaning all living beings apart from

ourselves -- for example, human beings and animals/ beasts, etc.
3. World of Location [okaasa-loka] which means the location in which the

animal world lives. It is where people make a living and the place where
one performs acts of karma, both good and bad. Thus the world on this
level of description includes the Earth (on land), water, skies and the
universe.
The meanings of the world found so far helps us know that the world is not merely
the dwelling place for human beings and other life forms. But the world has a much
deeper meanings which can be explained in three parts: the world of formations,
world of location and world of beings. There is such broad meaning because the Lord
Buddha surveyed the reality of the world with complete accuracy through his precise
faculty of seeing and knowing. Nothing could be hidden from his knowledge.
From the world meaning as mentioned above, the reader will realize that the
cosmology under examination in this course unit is primarily the ‘world of location’
and this includes the human realm in a metaphysical sense, which like the planet
Earth in the astronomical sense is also a place of existence for human beings and a
part of the universe as a whole. The components of this universe will be the subject
matter of further chapters.
1.1.3 Defining ‘This World’ and the ‘World to Come’

Further definitions that need to be understood are the terms ‘this world’ and ‘the
next world’. These terms are derived from Buddhist Scriptures [tipi.taka]. Belief in
the existence of these two worlds are included amongst the ten items of Right View
[sammaa-di.t.thi], which in turn is the first path factor of the Noble Eightfold Path
[a.t.tha”ngika-magga] – where Right View refers to an accurate understanding about
life and the world.
The term ‘this world’ refers to all three levels of description of the word ‘world’
whether it be the world of beings, or location or of formations. It can be concluded
4
Such as Inside Understanding Phrabhavanaviriyakhun (2004) (mss. as yet unpublished in English)
p.45
6
that the world is simply a place where worldly beings dwell, including our mind and all
the other animals. It refers to our present existence from now until the time of our
death. This world is a world of differences. Everybody is differentiated by their
physical body, wealth, status, intelligence and predisposition. Studying the Lord
Buddha’s teachings help us realize that the differences between us came from
actions we have done ourselves in the past. The degree of our good and bad actions
in the past affect our quality of life in ‘this world’.
The term ‘the world to come’ has two meanings which are:
1. Life after Death

This implies that once humans and other animals die, it is not the end of the
story. Our physical existence comes to an end when our corpse is cremated
or buried – however, the mind goes on for as long as there are still mental
defilements remaining. The being will take a new birth and receive a new
physical form – the details of which can not yet be predicted.
2. The Realms of Existence of Beings in Their Life after Death

It is certain that once a being arises, it is necessary to have a substrate or a
location where that being can exist. From our experience in this world, it is
easy to imagine that if a person is born into a wealthy, famous family they will
take on a location which is comfortable. On the other hand, if a person is born
into a poor family, they would take on a location full of hardship.
Therefore, it can be concluded that it is hard to predict the exact form the world to
come will take for any particular being -- but it is certain that we have to prepare
ourselves for the world to come for as long as we still have defilements in our minds.

People of different cultures have different beliefs depending on where they live and
the religious teachings available to them. This causes different habits of thought,
speech and action especially those concerning their beliefs about this world and the
next. There are people who deny the existence of this world or the next. This kind of
belief influences the way they think, speak and act. Such beliefs were in existence
many thousands of years before the arising of the Lord Buddha. Even after the Lord
Buddha arose in the world, doubts about the existence of this world and the next
have been propagated by religious teachers down to the present day.
As a result of his enlightenment the Lord Buddha was able to see the nature of
existence according to its reality. He could see how living beings were reborn
according to their karma allowing him to know that denial of the existence of this
world and the next world is erroneous – being one amongst the negative attitudes to
the world known in Buddhism as False View [micchaa-di.t.thi].
It is therefore important to understand about the true nature of this world and the next,
whether they exist or not and the disadvantages of denying their existence – and
ultimately whether it is of any benefit to study cosmology at all, since it is intimately
connected with the existence of this world and the next.
7
Denial of the existence of this world is nothing new. It is a belief that has been
around for a long time and continues to exist for as long as people have no access to
the Buddha’s teaching. The Lord Buddha taught us to believe in the existence of this
world and the next – or, put another way, that death is not the end of the story. This
also attests to the fact that good deeds and bad deeds do not end in this world, but
are carried over to affect the perpetrator in the afterlife.
It is a guarantee that when we die, we must be reborn elsewhere for as long as our
defilements are not completely extinguished. What form we take in the afterlife is
another story. Evidence for the existence of this world and the next exist is as follows:
1. The Logical Argument

If when we die, death is the end of the story, this implies that our present
lifetime is our first because past lives cannot exist. All differences between
people would have to come about either by ‘nature’ or by ‘nurture’. If we really
were born in this world for the first time, then those with the same ‘nature’
such as identical twins should be exactly the same in every way, whether it be
their appearance or their personality, because they are genetically identical.
However, even after birth, they are still not alike. If it were ‘nurture’ that
accounted for the differences between people, brothers and sisters brought up
by the same parents would behave the same – however this is obviously not
the case. If one is to deny the existence of past lives it is difficult to explain
such differences. However, if karma accumulated during past lives is taken
into account the differences can easily be accounted for by the unequal
amount of merit and demerit accumulated in the past by each individual. As
mentioned in the Lord Buddha in conversation with Subha Todeyyaputta5 that
an individual’s quality of life depends on their past karma:
“All beings own their own karma, are heir to their karma,
have karma as their origin, karma as their family,
as their clan and abide in their karma.
Karma dictates the coarse or refined quality of life of each being.”
In summary, each individual is born different because of the karmic retribution

of their own actions, speech and thought in the past. Therefore, when the
identical twins are born in this world, their past karma is not the same even
though they have the same mother and father. This logically supports the
existence of this world and the next.
2. Practical Argument: if a person believes that death is the end of the story
they will have no motivation to do good deeds because any good karma
accrued thereby would disappear when one died. So thinking, if they fail to do
any good deeds throughout their lives they will certainly live a life of hardship
reaping the retribution of the bad deeds they have done in the place of good
ones. If a person denies the existence of this world and the next, thinking that
death is the end of the story, they will have no scruples about doing bad
5
Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta (M.iii.202ff)
8
deeds. Their life will be one of hardship. If it turned out that death was the end
of the story one would merely ‘break even’ but if it turned out that there was an
afterlife where retribution could return to us, the next world would be even
more difficult than the present one. On the contrary, a person who believes in
the existence of the afterlife will be motivated to do good deeds throughout
their life. They will lead a happy life. If they die and find there is no afterlife,
there is no harm done. However, if it does happen that there is an afterlife,
then their next life will be filled with even more happiness.
Examination of this world and the next is presented here to provide a foundation to
the following chapters. This is not to detract from beliefs the reader may already
possess – but to encourage students to remain open-minded and give the
description of the world and cosmology which follows, the benefit of the doubt.

It is essential to understand the following things about this world as follows:
1. This world has an origin’ means that beings in this world and the state they
find themselves in, whether it be their appearance, financial status,
intelligence or disposition all happen because of reasons – which means the
karma they have done in the past.
2. ‘The uncertainty of this world’ means the world changes all the time and
nothing is permanent. For example, we are born strong and healthy but may
become sick at a later date if we are not careful about our health in the
present.
3. ‘This world is of benefit to us’ refers especially to the world at the level of
meaning of our bodies -- because the human body is particularly suitable for
the cultivation of merits and many different kinds of good karma. Bodies of
other animals, whether they have many feet or few or no feet at all, are not
able to do good deeds easily like human beings can. If referring to the world
at the level of meaning of our environment we see that the human realm is the
only location that is appropriate for doing good deeds. It is here we can meet
with good friends [kalyaa.namitta] including parents, teachers, friends and
monks who can help to advise us how to do good deeds.
4. ‘This world has only limited time available’ means that our time in this world is
limited by our inevitable death. However, we cannot know the time of our
death in advance. It depends on the good deeds or bad deeds that each
person has done in their past and present lives.
9
Keeping these four features of this world in mind will help us gain the wisdom to
teach ourselves to selectively cultivate only good karma in the present as best we
can, inspiring us to:
1. Do only good karma from this day forth because when our good fortune in this
world, is dependent on the fruits of good karma cultivated in our past lives.
The effects of the good karma in our past will one day run out, which is why
we need to be quick to do more good deeds.
2. Strictly avoid doing bad karma at all out of awe for the countless harmful forms
of retribution coming from bad karma which can affect us, our friends around
the world and our natural surroundings.
3. Avoid just sit around and doing nothing or neglecting to cultivate any good
karma at all. The act of doing nothing not only brings us no benefit but lets the
merits that we have accumulated in the past run out, while the remaining time
we have available to cultivate merit shortens every day.
4. Realize that we ought to use our physical body to the maximum benefit in
cultivating good deeds. Whether our body be healthy or disabled, we should
study the Law of Karma to the point of understanding and choose to do only
good deeds. Even if our body is handicapped, we can still use it to do good
deeds.
1.2 .4 Preparing Correctly for the World to Come
Having recognized the benefits of this world, it is essential to prepare for the world to
come. Preparing for life after death includes four practices as follows:
1. Having faith in the working of the law of karma. We must study the law of
Karma and truly understand it because we must quit evil doing and do more
good deeds.
2. Keeping one’s precepts strictly. One should keep at least the Five Precepts.
Better still one should try to keep the Eight Precepts from time to time or better
still, for the rest of ones life. Besides increasing ones merit, keeping the
precepts will purify one in body, speech and mind.
3. Practising generosity to the full. After we die, we cannot take our bodies or
possessions with us, but we can take the merit with us which has resulted
from doing generous deeds.
4. Improve upon your wisdom more and more. This can be done by meditating
and stilling our minds to the point it is radiant and can see things according to
their reality.
10
In summary, this is the knowledge of this world and the next exist as indicated in the
Lord Buddha’s teachings. We study cosmology here to better understand this world
and the next and to gain Right View on these issues. Such understanding will allow
us to choose a way of life that is beneficial during our short time as a human instead
of having to waste time learning by trial and error.

All human beings are ignorant when they come into the world – with more questions
in their minds than answers. If we try to remember back to our experiences when we
were first born, there is probably very little we can remember about how we thought
or felt at that time. If we were to remember, we would find that we were filled with
wonder for everything we saw, touched or heard from the first moments after our
birth. Once we became able to speak, we’d start to ask our parents questions about
everything new to us. Even as young adults, our curiosity about our surroundings
hardly diminished. But this curiosity would perhaps be different in nature from our
curiosity as a child and perhaps even now as adults do we keep some of our
curiosity.
Of all the mysteries of existence, the issue of the world’s creation is what people
have paid the most attention to, both in philosophy and science. We treat the origin
of our planet with such interest because we are reliant on our planet for our survival.
We need to know as much as possible about our planet so that we can continue to
live in this world in safety and happiness.
The remainder of this chapter shows how Buddhist methodology can be useful in
answering questions about the world and universe -- a method different to that of
science. The conclusions drawn by Buddhist methodology may have similarities as
well as differences from the conclusions drawn by scientific methodology.
Buddhism has a name for being a religion that is based on reason. The Lord Buddha
did not claim to have a monopoly on all the different knowledge that makes up
Buddhism. If anyone spoke the truth, the Lord Buddha acknowledged it as such. The
truth that we speak of here is referred to in Buddhism as ‘Dhamma’. The Lord
Buddha is not the inventor or owner of the Dhamma. The Dhamma is merely the
nature of things in the life and the world. If anyone is able to reach Enlightenment,
that person becomes able to discern the real nature of the things they see in the
world around them. These observations, or Dhamma, were something the Lord
Buddha chose to share with the people of the world so that they too could benefit
from true knowledge about the nature of things. In just the same way, scientific laws
existed in the world long before scientists discovered them. The dictionary of
Buddhism6 indicates that:
6
Paticcasamuppapaadakathaa of the Kathaavatthu 81/18 verse 1086
11
“Whether the Lord Buddha exists or not, the Dhamma that still exists as universal
law [dhammaniyaama]. Once the Buddha had seen those laws, he related them
to others, set models, described principles and explained them in a way easy to
understand saying ‘Look for yourselves!’”
In this context, Dhamma means the laws of nature -- the Dhamma that the Lord
Buddha researched as being innumerable. It is because of the Lord Buddha’s special
faculty for ‘seeing and knowing’ [ñaa.nadassana] which is so broad it penetrates the
nature of all things that we refer to his knowledge as ‘all knowing’
[sabbaññutañaa.na]. However, the Lord Buddha did not teach the whole of Dhamma
to the people of the world because some content does nothing to facilitate progress
on the pathway to Enlightenment. The Lord Buddha shared only the items of
Dhamma which would allow others to attain enlightenment (attaining which they
would be able to see the nature of the remaining Dhammas for themselves).
However, the Dhammas which the Lord Buddha taught mankind can be compared to
a handful of leaves. The Dhammas that the Lord Buddha knew but chose not to
teach can be compared with all the leaves in the forest as mentioned in Si.msapaa
Sutta7 that:
At one time, the Lord Buddha travelled to a Si.msapa forest. He picked up some
Si.msapa leaves and then asked all the monks around him “Which is the more –
the Si.msapa leaves that I hold in my hands or the leaves on all the Si.msapa
trees in the forest?” The monks replied, “There are more Si.msapa leaves in the
whole forest than in your hands.” The Lord Buddha explained “Similarly, the
knowledge which I have not shared with you is more than that which I have taught.
The knowledge that I have shared with you is a small proportion just like the
leaves in my hands because the other types of knowledge do not serve their
purpose. They do not help to reduce preoccupation with sensuality or to relieve
suffering.”
1.3.2 Cosmology as Part of the Lord Buddha’s Knowledge
Cosmology is a part of the knowledge which the Lord Buddha discovered. And the
Lord Buddha knew that all phenomena came about as a result of natural laws, which
are called Universal Laws [dhammaniyaama]. The Lord Buddha gave more of a
summary of the content of Universal laws, rather than a specific description.
Afterwards, commentarians expanded the content further and more thoroughly. In
these written texts, there were written five categories of natural laws:
1. Physical Laws [utuniyaama] are natural laws which cover the manifestation
of all non-living things, for example, the occurrence of thunder and lightening.
The arising and falling away of this world even follow these natural laws.
Western Buddhist textbooks tend to say that the Ancient Indians had no idea
what caused the patterns in Nature but Buddhism attributed these patterns to
physical laws.
7
S.v.437
12
2. Biological Laws [biijaniyaama] are natural laws which are particular to

animate objects like plants or animals. These natural laws dictate that when
we plant a rice seed it grows into a rice plant. The offspring an elephant gives
birth to must be a baby elephant. Buddhism attributes this predictability to
biological laws.
3. Psychological Laws [cittaniyaama] are natural laws which deal with the
mechanisms of how the mind works. Buddhism believes that people are made
up of two main parts: namely body and mind. The mind is composed of the
system which allows us to work, change and act in a way which is individual to
each person. Buddhism attributes such dynamics to psychological laws.
4. Karmic Laws [kammaniyaama]: are laws concerning how karma gives its
effects. Karma refers to intentional actions. The virtue of the intention behind
the act divides karma into two types: good karma and bad karma. Good karma
is reciprocated with positive fruits. Bad karma is reciprocated with negative
retribution. This type of law is also referred to as the Law of Karma.
5. Universal Laws [dhammaniyaama]: are natural laws that deal with cause and
effect where they concern the mental and physical phenomena. This law has
the broadest definition and is an umbrella for all the four types of laws already
mentioned.
The Lord Buddha discovered all five of these natural laws but did not teach all of
them. He taught only Universal laws with a focus on Psychological and Karmic Laws.
The Lord Buddha taught very little of Physical and Biological Law. On the contrary,
science emphasizes the Physical and Biological Laws within Universal Law. Science
has little or no interest in Karmic or Psychological Law. This is one point that
distinguishes Buddhism from Science. Buddhism takes a broader overall perspective
of life and the world than Science.
An important point to realize is that Universal laws encompass all the other four types
of law. Even though it is true that Buddhism focuses on Karmic and Psychological
Laws, it does not reject Physical or Biological Laws which are the focus of scientific
endeavour. Therefore, Buddhism tends not to conflict with Science.
Once equipped with the dhammas allowing us to become enlightened, we will be

able to know that there is even more material that the Lord Buddha discovered but
did not share with us. The material that he did teach was only the part to relieve the
immediate suffering which is a huge concern in all our lives.
Empirical testing, using equipment external to the body, which is the source of most
scientific knowledge is correct only from certain perspectives. In cases where
empirical studies give correct results, it is usually because the subject matter of the
research is not so complicated and usually the research results are not altogether
thorough. The efficacy of the research is limited because of the limitations of the
research tools.
13
Another way to obtain knowledge and see things correctly is the study by mind,
which does not have to rely on any tools. It needs only a mind sufficiently clear to
gain internal vision. Having a still and stable mind gained by meditating in a proper
way consistently is a starting point to discover the truth about life. Once successful,
knowledge is gained from images appearing in mind or in Buddhist terminology, the
faculty of ‘seeing and knowing’ [ñanadassana] or seeing through the power of mind.
Those of us belonging to the scientific age may have our reservations about the
potential of the mind for discovering universal laws – thus we need first to explore
how the mind functions. The original state of the mind is crystal clear. However, once
the mind becomes engrained with defilements, the mind takes on an abnormal
condition becoming clouded, distorted and scattered reducing the quality of the mind
poorer and undermining its power. However, if the mind is cultivated to the point of
stillness (bringing the faculties of perception, memory, thought and knowledge to a
single point at the middle of the body our mind will regain its power. It is similar to the
way scattered sunlight if focused by a lens creates a spot with enough heat to burn a
hole. Our mind is very similar. Once the mind is concentrated in stillness on a single
spot, our thought will go deeper instead of scattering; hence, the mind gains the
power to do many amazing things.
To give another example – normally we consider the speed of light as the fastest
possible speed in the universe. However, the speed of light is still slower than that of
the mind. Supposing we have recently visited a country ten thousand miles away and
we reminisce, our mind takes only a fraction of a second to be back in that country
again. Our mind can travel not only in the present but can even leap to the past and
the future. This is the miracle of mind.
Knowledge coming from the trained mind is not exclusive to Buddhism but in fact
predates it. The hermits, ascetics and the spiritual leaders of ancient times focused
their minds to access knowledge by visions seen in the mind, but the images they
saw may have been fragmented or incomplete. They taught others of their
knowledge revealing such things as the knowledge of heaven or the Brahma-world.
They assumed the highest realms of existence they saw were the ultimate.
The Buddha arose in the world as a result of training himself over the course of
innumerable lifetimes and consequently had a complete knowledge about the nature
of things animate and inanimate in the world, the arising and decay of the world,
cosmology and the origin of all things. He passed on this knowledge to others – a
body of knowledge [vijjaa] which is the highest level of knowledge in Buddhism. This
supreme knowledge is known as the Threefold Knowledge [tevijja] and consists of:
1. Knowledge of one’s own previous lifetimes [pubbenivaasanussatiñaa.na]. This

is the ability to recollect the ones own past lives from one, two, ten, a hundred
or a thousand lifetimes ago.
2. Knowledge of the previous lifetimes of others [cutuupapaatañaa.na]. This is

the ability to know how beings’ karma affects their birth and death in the cycle
of existence – giving them better or worse quality of life, whether it be refined
or coarse complexions, wealth or poverty. Another name for this ability is the
celestial eye [dibbhacakkhu].
14
3. Knowledge of an end of all defilements [asavakkhayañaa.na].
This Threefold Knowledge, especially the recollection of his own previous lifetimes,
allowed the Buddha to know about the evolution of the Earth because he could recall
his former existences from times during the arising and decay of the Earth. The fact
that there were such eras for the Buddha to learn about proves that the Earth has not
always been as it is now – and the same goes for the universe and everything else.
By practicing the Buddhist doctrine, one day we too can reach the point of
illumination where we can prove the nature of the earth and universe for ourselves.
As previously mentioned, Buddhism is a religion based on reasoning. However, there

are some issues that the Lord Buddha did not advocate people to speculate about
rationally. Buddha designated such things unfathomable by conceptual thought.
Although at first sight this might seem to be contradictory, it fact the Buddha realized
the limitations of mundane understanding. It needs enough meditation to have insight
into these matters as already mentioned in the account of the origin of Buddhist
cosmological knowledge. The Buddha’s explanation of issues unfathomable by
conceptual thought appeared in Acintita Sutta8 as follows:
1. The powers of the Buddha [buddhavisaaya] -- i.e., the range of powers a

Buddha develops as a result of becoming a Buddha.
2. The powers developed through the absorptions [~naa.navisaaya] -- i.e., the

range of powers that one may obtain while they reach absorptions in
meditation.
3. The outcome or the retribution of our actions -- i.e. the precise outcomes of
karmic action.
4. Philosophical analysis of the nature of the world -- i.e. conjecture about (the
origin, etc., of) the world.
From this Sutta, we will see that speculating about (for example) who created the
Earth, how it happened, or how the Earth will come to its end are unfathomable by
conceptual thought so we should not become preoccupied with them or else one
may be driven insane. It is a very long time span over which our Earth comes into
existence, perpetuates and decays that it can only be calculated in terms of
incalculable eons [asa”nkheyya kappa]. It is impossible to prove empirically. The
more one conceptualizes about it the more confusing it becomes – until one can
finally become insane.
What we should really become preoccupied with is how to break free from this world.
We ought to use the arising and decay to arouse a sense of urgency in cultivating
good deeds to escape the cycle of existence such as training our mind in meditation
8
A.ii.80
15
to prove the real nature of these questions after we have come to an end of all
defilements.
The initial stages of Buddhist teachings focuses on encouraging people to cultivate

good deeds and adjusting themselves to break free from suffering. As a result of
following such teachings they fulfil the true goal of their lives to become free from
defilements, attain nirvana and break free from the cycle of existence. As our lifetime
on this the world is short, we do not have the time to spare to remain ignorant about
such things as cosmology.
Thus on subjects such as cosmology, the Buddha did not teach in detail but merely
explained the parts necessary to be able to comprehend the arising, perpetuation
and decay of worldly phenomena. Equipped with his teachings, people become wary
of sensuality and inspired to meditate in accordance with an example given in the
Buddhist scriptures:9
At the time, Malu"nkya became a monk in Buddhism. He wanted clear answers

about whether the Earth be permanent or impermanent, about this world and the
next. The monk Malu"nkya suspected that the Buddha could not answer ten
certain questions including that of the permanence of the Earth and whether there
will be an end to the world. He requested the Buddha to answer those questions
saying that if the Lord Buddha knew the answer, he should leave no shadow of a
doubt in Malu”nkya’s mind. However, if the Lord Buddha did not know the answer,
he should admit it. If the Lord Buddha did not answer anything, he would retire
from monkhood.
The Lord Buddha asked him, “Did I ever persuade you to ordain to have these
questions answered?” The monk Malu"nkya agreed he never had.
The Lord Buddha continued by saying that even if someone were to threaten to
disrobe if not receiving answers to those questions that person would die before
the Buddha agreed to answer them. It is like a man who got shot by a poison
arrow. Even his relatives tried to take him to the doctor to heal him, he refused to
allow the doctor to take the arrow out, until somebody told him who shot him,
what was his name, whether the answer was tall or short, black or white, where
he lived, what was the arrow made from and so forth. This man would die
unnecessarily if he kept asking those useless questions. The urgent need for him
was to cure his suffering, not to have his questions answered.
Finally, the Buddha concluded that he would only give the answer concerning
issues that help bring people to the end of suffering, extract themselves from
sensuality, be peaceful, happy, gain wisdom and knowledge and attain Nirvana.
This Sutta demonstrates that Buddha would not respond with useless knowledge.
Some of the questions that the monk Malu"nkya asked, like those about this world
9
Cuu.lamalu"nkayovaada Sutta M.i.426ff.
16
and the next are unfathomable by conceptual thought. Such issues are further
knowledge. Conceptual answers to such questions are no use in helping us to free
ourselves from suffering. Instead we should focus ourselves on practice until we
succeed – only in this way can we really learn more. Just as the man who got shot by
the arrow would perish if he insisted on finding out who the archer was and so forth,
as a practitioner our progress will be compromised if we waste time searching for
useless answers.
Cosmology is amongst the issues unfathomable by conceptual thought. The Buddha

taught the Cuu.lamalu"nkya-ovaada Sutta to warn people not to be reckless and to
gain a sense of urgency by the impermance of the world. He taught us to use the
short space of our lives to perform the maximum of good deeds to reach the truths of
life accessible only by meditation.
_________________________
17
CHAPTER 2
The Building Blocks of Life
& the World
18
Chapter 2
The Building Blocks of Life & the World
2.1 The Elements

2.1.1 Some Definitions
2.1.2 Categorization of the Elements
2.1.3 Characteristics and Qualities of the Elements
2.2 Purpose of Elemental Study

2.2.1 Proportions of Elements Brings about Diversity
2.2.2 Elements Are Alterable
2.2.3 Beings Are Associated According to Elements
2.2.4 All Elements Are Subject to the Three Universal Characteristics
Chapter at a Glance
1. Animate and inanimate entities are at base made up of fine, primary

constituents, called “elements” -- fundamental building blocks which cannot be
further subdivided.
2. Elements are self-sustaining entities which exist naturally and nurture the
continued existence of a whole.
3. The four elements earth, water, fire and wind -- are present in all animate and
inanimate entities, while the six elements -- earth, water, fire, wind, space and
consciousness -- are present only in living humans and animals. Plants don’t
have these additional elements although they are living beings, because plants
lack consciousness.
4. Each element has its own attributes. Earth or the solid element has a special
attribute that can solidify or soften material objects. Without this element, no
objects can form into physical shapes. Water or the liquid element enables
cohesion and fluidity of material objects. Fire or the heat element gives warmth
or coolness to material objects. The wind or motion element enables movement
of objects or makes them stationary. The space element is emptiness or
vacuum -- the empty space where no earth, water, fire or wind are found -- the
empty space which resides between other elements. The consciousness
19
element, when combined with the other five elements, creates life. Normally,
this element is present in humans and animals -- and only when they are alive.
5. The study of elements enables us to learn that wholes -- whether animate or

inanimate – are made-up of a combination or elemental parts. The diversity of
things is thus the result of different combinations of elements. Nonetheless, all
elements can change and become purified -- as for example in human beings
whose elements can be purified by keeping the precepts and practicing
meditation. In addition, we come to understand that all beings are associated
with one another according to their elements. Animals tend to associate with
those of similar kind – as do human beings. As elements are alterable and able
to influence one another, we have to be aware that when we are spending a lot
of time with a particular sort of person – we will be influenced by them. Thus,
Buddhism teaches people to avoid fools and associate with the wise.
Nevertheless, all elements are subject to the three Universal Conditions [ti-
lakkha.na]. Entities arise, perpetuate and finally decay. Eventually, when time
comes, elements making up an entity separate and return to their original
forms. We should therefore not have any worldly attachment, but we should
view things according to their reality and follow the teaching of Lord Buddha,
which is the noble path leading to Nirvana obtaining release us from the cycle
of existence.
Chapter Objectives
This unit should give students the knowledge and understanding to able to:
1. Explain the basic constituents of a whole correctly.

2. Define the elements correctly.
3. Explain the difference in categorization of the four and the six elements
correctly.
4. Explain the characteristics and qualities of each element.
5. Explain the purpose of elemental study.
Introduction
In the previous chapter, defining cosmology, we learned that the Lord Buddha
discovered facts about life and the world, as well as the nature of matter. Such
discoveries allow us a better comprehension of phenomena, in terms of cause and
effect, rather than blind faith or forced belief. Each person can prove Buddhist
knowledge for themselves – and the Buddha passed down to us the methodology by
which this can be achieved. Equipped with a basic grasp of cosmology, we continue
with an introduction to the basic constituents of all entities, called ‘elements’ [dhaatu].
20
2.1 The Elements
The elements we are about to study in this chapter are unlike elements encountered in
our high-school chemistry lessons as Mendeleev’s Periodic Table – whether it be
helium, argon or nitrogen. Here we refer to elements in a more ‘alchemical’ -- as the
very primary constituents of all entities, meaning that every animate and inanimate
entity is composed of these primary elements — fundamental qualitative units that
cannot be further subdivided.
2.1.1 Some Definitions
The following are some definitions of elements as given by scholars:
 Elements are entities that which nurtures, exists, perpetuates.1

 Elements are entities that exist in nature, cannot be subdivided, are
fundamental and root form.2
 Elements are matter that is the base composition of everything.3
From the definitions presented above, we may conclude:
Elements are the ultimate qualitative constituents of a whole, including both living and
non-living entities, which can not be subdivided. They function to maintain the
continuance of an entity’s existence.
2.1.2 Categorization of the Elements
Elements can be categorized in two ways: into ‘the Four Elements’ and into ‘the Six
Elements.’ The reason for dividing into two was explained as follows:4
‘Where the elements . . . are categorized by four it is for the benefit of the
practitioners. In this manner, they are intended to use as an aid to stilling the
mind in meditation on the elements [dhaatu kamma.t.thaana]. Where the
elements are categorized by six it is for the purpose of insightful analysis.’
1
P. Longsombun Pali-Thai Dictionary (Bangkok: Athorn Karn Pim) p.336
2
ibid.p.366
3
Pin Mutukant, Explanations for Buddhist Studies Vol. III, 3rd ed. (Bangkok: Kamol Karn Pim 1965)
p.101
4
ibid. p.102
21
The Four Elements5
The four elements are also referred to as the Primary Elements [bhuutaruupa] or the
Great Essentials [mahaa bhuutaruupa]. They comprise earth, water, fire and wind. The
earth or solid element [pa.thavii-dhaatu] is a foundation for other elements, for every
material object needs the earth element in order to form into various physical shapes.
The water or liquid element [aapo-dhaatu] causes cohesion and fluidity. The fire or
heat element [tejo-dhaatu] has the quality to heat things up, cool them down and
facilitate digestion. The final element of wind or motion element [vaayo-dhaatu] gives
objects its strengthening or supporting characteristics, making them stationary or
movable.
The four elements are the constituents of a whole -- be they humans, animals, plants,
all physical objects both inside and outside this world -- in other words, everything that
is present in the universe. All four elements are present in material objects. Objects
which exhibit strong solidity are dominated by the earth element. Similarly, liquidity is
due to a strong presence of the water element.
The Six Elements6
The six elements comprise earth, water, fire, wind, space and consciousness. The first
four are exactly the same as for the four elements. The space element [aakasa-
dhaatu], means the space between the earth element and the water element that
enables the wind element to reside and flow through. The wind element represents
motion -- it is the element that can move from one place to another, while the space
element represents emptiness. Indeed, the space element already exists within the
four elements. However, it is not included in the four elements in order to avoid
confusion with the wind element, since the space element may be too complicated to
understand for the mundane mind. For this reason, the space element is included
instead, in the six elements which are normally taught to practitioners of meditation.
The consciousness element [vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu] is an element seen only in living
beings – something to be discussed in detail later.
Having learned the similarities and differences between the two ways of categorizing
elements, we can conclude that the four elements can be applied to all entities –
animate and inanimate alike, but the six elements can be applied only to living beings.
The term ‘living beings’ here refers only to human beings and animals, but does not
include plants. In spite of plants being alive with the ability to grow and change, they
have no consciousness element. Consequently, plants do not have feelings or
awareness. They are biological matter with no resident mind -- unlike humans and
animals. What follows is now an examination of each element in detail.
5
as found at Catassa Sutta S.ii.169
6
as found at Dhaatuvibha”nga, Suttantabhaajaniiya 77/200
22
2.1.3 Characteristics and Qualities of Elements
Since the first four of the Six Elements are the same as the four elements, the
characteristics of each element are applicable to both forms of categorization.
1. The Earth Element:
By earth we do not mean soil, sand or clay as found in the fields or your
backyard. Earth element here means the quality of solidity which may be
characteristic to any material. Objects that are composed predominantly of the
earth element or have proportionately more of the earth element than other
elements, will exhibit solidity -- for example, metal, stone and wood are hard
and rigid because earth is their main constituent. On the contrary, any objects
that are composed of comparatively little earth element will be soft and yielding.
Therefore, the rigidity of any object is dependent on the proportion of earth
element in that object and it’s the earth element alone that determines the
rigidity or pliability of objects. The earth element is existent both inside and
outside our body. In our body, the earth element is present in all external and
internal organs that are solid or form a recognizable entity -- including hair of
the head, bodily hair, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, the
spleen, the heart, the liver, connective tissue, kidneys, lungs, the large
intestine, the small intestine, food and excrement. Outside our body, the earth
element is contained in everything which exhibits solidity -- that is all physical
objects whether it be houses, cars, ships or household appliances. Without the
earth element, compounds of the element would not be able to remain intact --
just as terrestrial beings need dry land in order survive. The earth element can
be compared to a glass and other elements to water. Water by its nature cannot
maintain its shape unless it is poured into a receptacle – where it will take on
the shape of that container. Water that can take various shapes and maintain
them therefore depends on glass to do so. Similarly, we can only distinguish
things as entities in the world around us, because the earth element binds them
into discernable shapes.
2. The Water Element:
The water element doesn’t specifically mean H20 -- as in fresh water, sea water,
brackish water or well water. The water element refers to the quality of being
fluid or cohesive and has the potential to add fluidity or cohesion to physical
objects. If the water element is predominant in anything, it makes that thing fluid
-- enabling it to flow. However, if the water element is comparatively scarce it
will cause cohesion among objects just like sticky oil or adhesive that joins
things together. In any object that has more water element than earth element,
the strength of water element will weaken the qualities of earth element,
causing the object to liquefy and become fluid. Water can flow because it is
composed primarily of water element but has little of the earth element. Solid
substances can liquefy and flow by the power of water element whenever the
23
earth element becomes less. However, if the water element is less than the
earth element, the qualities of water element will enable the particles of earth
element to adhere to one another, assembling them into a single unit just the
same as moisture allows powder to cling together. The water element is also
existent both inside and outside living beings. The water element inside refers
to parts of the body that pervade, ooze, permeate, percolate and flow – whether
it be bile, phlegm, lymph fluid, blood, sweat, fat, tears, shreds of fatty tissue,
saliva, snot, marrow or urine. The water element outside is anything outside our
body that pervades, sticks and holds -- including flavors in fruit and vegetables,
milk, yogurt, butter, butter oil and moisture in the soil or the atmosphere.
3. The Fire Element:
The fire element is characterized by the qualities of heat [u.nha-tejo] or

coldness [siita-tejo]. The nature of the fire element is to emanate heat or
coldness. The fire element exists both inside and outside our body. The fire
element inside is the element that gives warmth to our body, makes our body
degenerate, causes irritation and helps digest food. The fire element outside is
heat and warmth that come from, for instance, fire, combustion, thunderbolts,
solar heat and warmth inside materials like bonfires or glowing embers. There
are five types of fire element in the body:
1. body warmth [usmaa-tejo]

2. feverish heat [santappana-tejo]
3. extreme body heat [dahana-tejo]
4. the heat of aging [jira.na-tejo]
5. digestive heat [paacaka-tejo]
Among five fire elements, it is only body warmth and digestive heat that always
function in living beings. Extreme body heat, feverish heat and the heat of aging
are generally absent. Only when body heat becomes abnormal -- for example
when feverish -- does it transform into feverish heat, the stronger fire element. If
the fever worsens making the patient delirious, it means the feverish heat has
turned into extreme heat. For those who regularly experience illness or enter
their old age, it signifies that the heat of aging has ousted the normal body heat.
The heat of aging by its nature causes physical deterioration to our body
including gray hair, loose teeth, cataracts and wrinkles.
4. The Wind Element:
The wind element is characterized by the qualities of movement and

compression. The compressing attribute of wind [vitthambhana vaayo] causes
objects to become stable and motionless. If present in the body it causes strain,
stiffness and aches in our body -- for example, when our muscles contract from
an extensive exercise or when we get eye strain from extended staring. These
actions trigger compression to occur. Outside our body, it’s because of these
24
characteristics as well which allows the stability of all material objects or causes
them compression -- for example, a balloon can become taut after it’s inflated
because of the wind element. Another aspect of the wind element is its motion
[samiira.na vaayo]. This quality enables living beings to move around. The
living beings’ abilities to, for instance, move around, blink and roll their eyes,
move their body parts, defecate and deliver babies are all attributable to this
elemental quality. Outside the body this quality allows the movement of material
objects. The wind element resides both inside and outside our body. Wind
element in our body appears in the form of substances that flow inside the body
-- such as burping, breaking wind, wind in the stomach, wind in the intestines or
other organs, exhalation, inhalation and any other movement or flow inside the
body. Wind element outside the body refer to all motion and stillness of material
objects -- for example, the wind blowing, polluted air, clear air, hot or cool
breezes.
5. The Space Element:
The space element is the empty space or vacuum where earth, water, fire or
wind elements are not present. It is the empty spaces between elements. The
space element exists both inside and outside our body. The internal space
element is the empty spaces and canals in and around our bodily organs -- for
example, nostrils, nasal cavity, buccal cavity and throat. The space element
outside the body is found wherever the preceding four elements are absent.
6. The Element of Consciousness:
The consciousness element, when it appears in conjunction with the other five
elements, animates them. Normally, only humans and animals have the
consciousness element and it stays with them only as long as they are alive.
Corpses and carcasses are inanimate because the consciousness element has
already vacated them, leaving only the other five elements. The consciousness
element makes us a sentient being – allowing us to be aware and realize what
is happening, whether it is happiness, suffering or neither. In addition, emotions
and thoughts are also the result of the consciousness element. The
consciousness element can be divided into six kinds:
1. Eye-consciousness element [cakkhu-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]

2. Ear-consciousness element [sota-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]
3. Nose-consciousness element [ghaana-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]
4. Tongue-consciousness element [jivhaa-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]
5. Body-consciousness [kaaya-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]
6. Mind-consciousness-element [mano-vi~n~naa.na-dhaatu]
The perception of things around us is done by the consciousness element

through our eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body – a process more easily
understood by practicing meditation.
25
2.2 Purpose of Elemental Study
Elemental study permits better understanding of the material world — animate and
inanimate, inside and outside our bodies — understanding that in fact every entity can
be broken down into elements. Various compounds of elements create a variety of
objects and life forms which will last as long as these elements are still able to hold
together. After a certain time, compounds of the elements will break down, putting an
end to the entity the elements have made up.
Thus we should not have any worldly attachment -- no matter what an object is or how
remarkable -- because nothing is everlasting. Even the most delightful possessions
have a limited lifespan, at the end of which they will decay and break down into the
basic four elements. Worldly attachment brings about suffering and sorrow. It is the
cause of conflict, struggle, persecution and exploitation among people, creating an
endless cycle of suffering and pain.
Much of the turmoil we see in the world today comes from peoples’ ignorance of the
elemental nature of material things – that nothing is permanent — everything arises,
lasts for a while and finally decays. Being unaware of this impermanent nature of
material objects makes people possessive. Their ignorance leads to selfishness, to
exploitation in society and, sadly, to violence and wars which ironically destroy the
very things they are so attached to.
If people were to learn the elemental nature of material things and the impermanence
of nature, they would come to realize that attachment to the things of the world is
futile. All of us are mortals. No one can escape death. Even the greatest emperors or
wealthiest billionaires have to breathe their last, leaving the world and all of their
possessions behind. Understanding such things, people will not look down on others
or take advantage of one another. There will be no rat-race and no abuse of the
system. People will share what they have and extend a helping hand to others,
because they know everyone is having to deal with the same suffering as themselves.
Above all, the knowledge allows us to see that this world is full of suffering. Suffering
of many types is inevitable as long as we are still subject to the cycle of existence. In
this world full of suffering, there is nothing permanent we can depend on. Therefore,
we should forego the worldly attachment and seek a path to escape from the cycle of
existence by cultivating merit and wholesomeness, purifying ourselves until all
defilements are uprooted from our mind and finally escaping rebirth completely.
Because the elements are unstable, especially in living beings. It makes the
characteristics and qualities of elements changeable. A living being with impure
elements will have poor attributes. But if the elements in a living being are very pure,
that being will have excellent attributes. Therefore altering the elements inside us is
equal to bringing about changes to ourselves – a topic to be discussed later.
26
2.2.1 Proportions of Elements Brings About Diversity
Although humans and animals are made up of only six elements including the
consciousness element (lower forms of life have only five elements), the degree of
diversity among humans and animals is remarkable.
The differences are accounted for both by the different proportions of the six elements
and the purity of the elements too – to give an example, diamonds and rock are
obviously different in terms of quality and appearance because their constituent
elements do not have the same proportions and purity.
Even the differences between people – despite being born in the same country or
family can be accounted for by differences in the purity of elements from person to
person – just as a statue made of cement may be resilient or weak depending on
whether or not the constituents of the cement are sifted before mixing.
The purity of elements of a person is determined by each individual’s moral integrity.

The higher the morality, the purer the elements one will have. Normally, the elements
constituting humans and animals are contaminated by greed [lobha], hatred [dosa]
and delusion [moha]. A person with high morality will have pure elements because
their integrity helps eradicate greed, anger and delusion.
The purity of elements exhibits in various ways -- for instance, by wit and intelligence,
good health, beautiful appearance and good complexion. Pure elements also influence
the way a person to think, speak and act in a morally correct way. On the contrary,
impure elements are the cause of lack of intelligence, bad health and physical
ugliness. It influences a person to think, speak and act immorally, bringing himself and
other people into hardship.
In other words, each human or each animal is individualized by levels of greed, hatred
and delusion in their elements. Nevertheless, the elements inside us can be improved
by developing moral integrity -- such as, keeping the precepts and practicing
meditation habitually to purify them. In addition, formerly pure elements can become
tainted if one compromises moral integrity.
2.2.2 Elements are Alterable
Diversity in beings can be accounted for by their different degrees of purity. To give an
example, supposing an ordinary man like us has a secure job and is able to earn his
living with no hardship. If he is smart and a fast-learner, this is because the elements
inside him are relatively pure. However, if he becomes preoccupied with greed, hatred
and delusion, his intelligence and competence would undoubtedly be degraded.
We can even see how elemental purity affects our own performance. When we are
angry, we cannot think clearly. Even though we are normally smart, as soon as we
lose our temper, we can’t find efficient solutions to our problems. Negative impulses
27
such as getting aggressive, dominate our mind. When we drink alcohol, we become a
staggering idiot spouting incoherent nonsense and lacking control.
On the contrary, if our elements become purer, our performance will improve
accordingly. An easy example is that with adequate rest, we will become healthy. Our
mind will become refreshed and cheerful. We will notice that everything seems to go
smoothly for us. If the elements inside us become purer still, so will our performance.
The crystalline form of the relics found amongst the cremated ashes of monks
renowned for purity attained in meditation or arahants only serve to confirm that the
elements -- especially the ones inside human beings -- can be altered and purified.
When those arahants or meditation masters were alive, physically they looked like
everyone else. However after they passed away and their bodies were cremated, their
remains were transformed into gem-like relics which were transparent and shining. By
contrast the ashes of unenlightened people are grey and sooty. This is because those
of attainment had purified the elements inside them from greed, hatred and delusion.
The elements can be purified through keeping the Precepts and practicing meditation.
Precepts can be observed on several levels of strictness – whether it be Precepts for
the household life or precepts for the monastic life. Also, the effect of precepts varies
according to the number kept and the strictness with which they are kept. Meditation
practice also yields varying results according to the degree of the practitioner’s
attainment. The effect of precepts and meditation on one’s elements is, thus,
dependent on how well one keeps the Precepts and one’s attainment in meditation
practice.
Buddhist monks and novices who devote themselves to meditation and keeping the
Precepts may attain supernormal powers. In the Buddhist scriptures [tipi.taka] there
are countless accounts of monks and novices during the time of the Buddha who had
become endowed with such powers as the divine eye or the divine ear. Some could
fly. Some could remember their former existences. These abilities were the result of
the purification of their elements. If the elements are purified to the point that all
defilements are eradicated, a person then becomes an arahant being released from
the cycle of existence. However, even the arahants’ powers differed from one to the
next because of the differences in the purity of their elements.
Thus, to purify our own elements, we need to the keep Precepts and practice
meditation to the full. If we strive to the point that our elements become pure, we will
be able to break free of the cycle of existence — with no more rebirth for us -- no more
suffering or pain.
2.2.3 Beings are Associated According to Elements
Not only do individuals differ according to their elements – it even affects the way they
associate. Things tend to combine if they have the same attributes, but separate if
their attributes differ -- for example, if we pour a glass of water into another glass of
28
water, the water then combines inseparably -- just as the streams running into a river,
the sea and the ocean cannot be separated.
By contrast, entities that have different attributes do not combine -- water and oil,
being a good example. They never combine no matter how hard we try. This is
because water and oil are different in their attributes.
This is true not only of material objects, but also living beings. Animals tend to
associate with their own kind, as in the words of the proverb, “Birds of a feather flock
together.” People tend to associate with people who have the same or similar
elements allowing them to get along or share attitudes. In this respect, the Lord
Buddha taught:7
“O! Monks! Beings with similar elements tend to flock together. Those with
False View tend to associate with those of False View. Those with False
Intention tend to associate with those of False Intention. Those with False
Speech tend to associate with those of False Speech. Those with False Action
tend to associate with those of False Action. Those with False Livelihood tend
to associate with those of False Livelihood. Those with False Effort tend to
associate with those of False Effort. Those with False Mindfulness tend to
associate with those of False Mindfulness. Those with False Concentration tend
to associate with those of False Concentration.”
“Those with Right View tend to associate with those of Right View. Those with
Right Intention tend to associate with those of Right Intention. Those with Right
Speech tend to associate with those of Right Speech. Those with Right Action
tend to associate with those of Right Action. Those with Right Livelihood tend to
associate with those of Right Livelihood. Those with Right Effort tend to
associate with those of Right Effort. Those with Right Mindfulness tend to
associate with those of Right Mindfulness. Those with Right Concentration tend
to associate with those of Right Concentration.”
The Buddha’s observation shows the trends of society where people tend to gravitate
towards those who are like-minded. Government officials tend to associate with other
government officials. Drug addicts or a gamblers will also tend to associate with the
same type of people, because their similar internal elements draw them together.
Thus, it can be said that so far as elements are concerned, like attracts like – and has
the same dynamics as those already mentioned for purifying or altering elements.
2.2.4 All Elements are Subject to the Three Universal Conditions
Because the nature of elements is to change, the Buddha taught us to use our wisdom
to see the elements as they really are. Even though things that are in our possession
or even our body may seem to belong to us, in fact they do not -- they are not ours,
not us and not ‘of ourselves’. With this Right view, we will come to abandon passion
7
A.t.tha”ngkika Sutta S.ii.168
29
for elements (which constitute material objects) and finally abandon worldly
attachments.
Being ignorant of the nature of elements, causes attachments for the elements and
with them the ups and downs of elation or disappointment. Because of such
attachment, beings cannot release themselves from the cycle of existence:8
“O! Monks! For as long as these beings are ignorant of the truth — the pleasure
and the peril of the four elements, and the path unbounded by the four
elements — those beings are still bounded, attached, imprisoned in this world --
as well as the world of angels [deva], the world of demons [maara], and the
world of Brahma -- will not able to break free from the animal realm, as well as
the realms of the Brahmas, angels and human beings. Their mind is unable to
overcome defilements and the cycle of existence.
If these beings are enlightened as to the truth — the pleasure and the peril of
the four elements, and the path unbounded by the four elements — those
beings will break free, become detached, be released from this world -- as well
as the world of the angels, the world of demons, the world of Brahma and even
that of the animals — as well as Brahmas, angels and human beings. Their
mind becomes free of defilements and breaks free of the cycle of existence.”
The Lord Buddha also taught that elements are the source of illness and cause aging
to become manifest:9
“O! Monks! the arising, birth, perpetuation and manifestation of the earth
element… are the arising, birth, perpetuation and manifestation of aging and
death. The arising, birth, perpetuation and manifestation of the water element…
of the fire element… of the wind element are the origin of suffering, the origin of
illness, the manifesting of aging and death.
O! Monks! the extinguishing, stillness and ending of the earth element… are the
demise of suffering, cessation of illness and extinction of aging and death. The
extinguishing, stillness and ending of the water element… of the fire element…
of the wind element… are the demise of suffering, cessation of illness and
extinction of aging and death.”
In addition, he indicated that, to be released from suffering, one must abandon

passion for the elements (which constitute material objects) thus bring about
enjoyment:10
“O! Monks! one who has a passion for the earth element… is verily one who
has passion for suffering. For one who has passion for suffering, I say he is not
8
Noceda Sutta S.ii.172
9
Uppada Sutta S.iii.31
10
Abhinandana Sutta S.iii.31
30
released from suffering. One who has passion for the water element… one who
has passion for the fire element… one who has passion for the wind element…
he is verily one who has passion for suffering. For one who has passion for
suffering, I say he is not released from suffering.
O! Monks! one who abandons a passion for the earth element… he is verily one
who abandons passion for suffering. For one who abandons passion for
suffering, I say he is released from suffering. One who abandons passion for
the water element… one who abandons passion for the fire element… one who
abandons passion for the wind element… he is verily one who abandons
passion for suffering. For one who abandons passion for suffering, I say he is
released from suffering.”
Conclusion
All beings are made up of elements, having elements as their fundamental building
blocks. Humans and animals are composed of six elements, while plants are
composed of five. Thus, no living thing is everlasting. They deteriorate as time goes by
-- and finally as their time comes, their elements break up. We should not therefore
have any worldly attachment, for the attachment brings forth suffering, disappointment,
sorrow and sometimes trouble. We should view things according to their true nature.
Such a view enables us to continue our life happily and paves the way for pursuing the
noble path which leads to Nirvana and ultimately release from the cycle of existence.
______________________________
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CHAPTER 3
Structure of the Universe
32
Chapter 3
Structure of the Universe
Units in This Chapter
3.1 Scientific Cosmology

3.1.1 Infinite Universes
3.2 Buddhist Cosmology
3.3 Physical Layout of the Universe

3.3.1 Around Mount Sumeru
1. The Four Continent:
1.1 The Eastern Continent [Pubbevidehadiipa]
1.2 The Western Continent [Aparagoyaanadiipa]
1.3 The Northern Continent [Uttarakurudiipa]
1.4 The Rose Apple Continent [Jambuudiipa]
3.3.2 Above Mount Sumeru
1. The Heaven of the Four Great Kings [Caatummahaaraajika]
2. The Heaven of the Thirty-Three [Taavat.imsa]
3. The Heaven of the Yaamaa Gods [Yaamaa]
4. The Heaven of the Satisfied Gods [Tusita]
5. The Heaven of the Gods Who Rejoice in Their Own Creations
[Nimmaanaratii]
6. The Heaven of the Gods Who Lord over the Creation of Others
[Paranimmitavasavattii]
3.3.3 Below Mount Sumeru
3.4 Beings World

3.4.1 Distinction Between Planes and Realms
3.5 Constituents of Each Plane

3.5.1 The Different Planes Defined
3.6 Sensual Plane
3.6.1 Human Realm
3.6.2 The Four Unfortunate Realms
1. The Hell Realms [Niraya]
1.1 The Major Hells
1.1.1 Sañjiiva Hell
1.1.2 Kaa.lasutta Hell
1.1.3 Sa”ngha.ta Hell
1.1.4 Roruva Hell
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1.1.5 Mahaaroruva Hell

1.1.6 Taapana Hell
1.1.7 Mahaataapana Hell
1.1.8 Aveci Hell
1.2 Satellite [Ussada] Hells
1.2.1 Worm [guutha] Satellite Hell
1.2.2 Glowing Coals [kukku.la] Satellite Hell
1.2.3 Sword-leaf [asipatta] Satellite Hell
1.2.4 Caustic River [vetara.nii] Satellite Hell
1.3 Purgatory [Yamaloka]
1.3. 1 Lohakumbhii Purgatory
1.3. 2 Simbalii Purgatory
1.3. 3 Asinakha Purgatory
1.3. 4 Taambodaka Purgatory
1.3. 5 Ayogul.a Purgatory
1.3. 6 Pissakapabbata Purgatory
1.3. 7 Dhusa Purgatory
1.3. 8 Siitalosita Purgatory
1.3. 9 Sunakha Purgatory
1.3.10 Yantapaasaa.na Purgatory
1.4 Lokanta Hell
2. Hungry Ghost [Pittivisaya] Realm
3. Monster [Asuurakaaya] Realm
4. The Animal [Tiracchaana] Realm
3.6.3 The Six Heaven Realms
3.7 Form Plane
3.8 Formless Plane
Chapter at a Glance
1. According to the Lord Buddha, there are incalculable numbers of cosmoses

which can be divided into three groups; small (containing one thousand
universes), medium (containing one million universes), large (containing a billion
universes). The structure of each universe is identical consisting of a sun, a
moon, Mount Sumeru, four continents in the compass directions, four cosmic
oceans, six realms of heaven, the Form Brahma realms, the Formless Brahma
realms and the unfortunate realms. Vertically above Mount Sumeru the six
realms of heaven are located starting from the heaven of the Four Great Kings,
The Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the Heaven of the Yaamaa Gods, the Heaven of
the Satisfied Gods, the Heaven of the Gods who rejoice in their own creations
and the Heaven of the Gods who Lord over the creation of others, above which
are Form- and Formless-Brahma Realms.
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2. Planes [bhava] means world of beings. The Triple World includes the Sensual
Plane, Form Plane and Formless Plane. Realms [bhuumi] means land or ground
with a total of thirty-one different levels in one universe.
 The word ‘bhuumi’ can also means ‘spheres’ or ‘states’ of mind –

subdivided into four levels, namely: the sense-sphere [kaamavacara-
bhuumi], the form-sphere [ruupavacara-bhuumi], the formless-sphere
[aruupavacara-bhuumi] and the transcendental sphere.
 There are eleven realms in the Sensual Plane including the human realm,
four hell realms and six heaven realms as follows:
 The world of human beings [manussa loka] is shared with those of
all three planes of the same universe
 The unfortunate realms [apayabhuumi] including the Hell Realms,
the Realm of the Hungry Ghosts, the Realm of Monsters and the
Realm of Animals.
o The hell realms [niraya bhuumi] are divided into three major
areas; Major Hells, Satellite [ussada] Hells and Purgatory.
o The monster realm is divided into three types; angelic
monsters, hungry ghost monsters and hell-bound monsters.
o The realm of animals [tiraacchanayoni] includes such
creatures as dogs, cats, rats, chickens, ducks, snakes and
fish.
 The Heaven Realms have six different levels.
 The Form Plane or Brahma world is inhabited by Brahmas and comprises

sixteen levels. The Formless Plane or Formless Brahma world is divided
into four levels.
Chapter Objectives
This unit should give students the knowledge and understanding to able to:
1. Explain the physical structure and components of the universe.
2. Explain various types of plane and realm inhabited by various kinds of beings in
the universe.
In the previous chapter, we learned that everything in the world and the universe on the
microscopic level is composed of elements. Inanimate matter in this world consists of
the four elements, whereas for living beings, an additional consciousness-element
[viññaa.na-dhaatu] allows them to think and feel.
In this chapter, we will discuss the macroscopic structure of the universe as it has
existed over an innumerable period of time down to the present day.
35
We will first compare and contrast the modern scientific view of the cosmos with that of
Buddhism. However, no matter how far science advances, its discoveries will always fall
within the scope of the Buddhist descriptions of nature, especially the nature of the
world as impermanent. Things in the world arise, perpetuate and eventually decay. We
should thus accrue goodness to the full in order to escape from the cycle of existence
for our ultimate liberation.
3.1 Scientific Cosmology

Scientific discovery explains the origin of earth differently from many religions which this
world was created by a creator god. Scientists, however, point out that the world is not
the center of the universe. Rather, it is just a planet revolving around the sun. Even the
sun that is the center of the solar system is still one of hundreds of stars belonging to
the galaxy of the Milky Way. There are approximately one hundred of thousand million
galaxies in our universe.
Astronomers divide the scientifically detectable stars into constellations. They conclude
that the universe has a spiral shape consisting of many stars with a luminous hub
illuminating vast stretches of space. Our world is only a small part of it.
3.1.1 Countless Numbers of Universes
Before moving into the structure of the universe in Buddhist cosmology, we need to
understand that this world, though seeming to be boundless and consisting of
innumerable things, is indeed only a small point in even this immense universe. If we
combine all the universes together, we will see find that even cosmoses vary in size:
large and small, depending on how many universes exist in each.
The Lord Buddha discovered the existence of not one, but countless universes more
than 2,500 years ago. In the Buddhist scriptures the word used to refer to the universe is
‘lokadhaatu’. The Buddha’s discovery of 2,500 years ago conforms to scientific
discoveries made only in the last few decades. It is therefore amazing how the Lord
Buddha could discover such facts so accurately 2,500 years ago scientific knowledge
had not yet been discovered. The Lord Buddha’s observation about the universe are
recorded as follows: 1
Once Aananda Thera asked the Lord Buddha about the venerable Abhibhuu
Thera, a disciple of Sikhii Buddha, who possessed the kind of voice that could be
heard across 1,000 universes, if emanating from the Brahma realm. Aananda
asked how far the Lord Buddha’s voice could be heard. The Lord Buddha said it
1
Cu.lanii Sutta A.i.226
36
could be heard as far as he wanted. Then the Lord Buddha told him about
different sizes of the cosmoses: a small cosmos comprised 1,000 universes
[sahassiicuu.lanika-lokadhaata]; a medium-sized one with 1 million universes
[dvisahassiimajjhimikaa-lokadhaata]; and a large cosmos comprising of a billion
universes [tisahassiimahassii-lokadhaata]. The voice of the Lord Buddha could
be heard across the whole of a large cosmos.
From this sutta, we have learned about the virtually limitless extent of the cosmos. The
Lord Buddha also categorized the universe in detail, in the way that cannot be done by
scientific instruments or conventional human perceptions. Only those whose mind has
been cultivated to the same degree as the Lord Buddha can see the immensity of space
clearly. The Lord Buddha thus divided cosmoses into three types:
1. Small cosmoses: consisting of one thousand universes

2. Medium-sized cosmoses: consisting of one million universes
3. Large cosmoses: consisting of one billion universes
We also understand that human beings and other forms of life are not only residing in
our world or our universe but also in other universes as well.
3.2 Buddhist Cosmology
Now realizing the immensity of the cosmos, we will now move on to study the structure
of the Buddhist universe. The physical layout and components of every universe is the
same. According to scriptures:2
“Aananda! The entire universe system is as immense as the length of a

moonbeam or a sunbeam. Each universe, is endowed with 1,000 moons, suns,
Mount Sumeru, a Rose Apple Continent [Jambuudiipa], a Western Continent
[Aparagoyaanadiipa], a Northern Continent [Uttarakurudiipa], an Eastern
Continents [Pubbevidehadiipa], 1,000 oceans, six realms of heaven and 1,000
realms of Brahma”.
It is apparent how vast the universe is, though it is incalculable. It extends as far as a
moonbeam or a sunbeam. If we are able to measure how far a beam of light from the
sun or the moon could extend, which might be very hard to accomplish, we would be
able to know the size of the universe.
Furthermore, each universe shares identical physical components comprising a Sun, a

Moon, Mount Sumeru, four continents: the Rose Apple Continent [Jambuudiipa], the
Western Continent [Aparagoyaanadiipa], the Northern Continent [Uttarakurudiipa], the
2
ibid.
37
Eastern Continent [Pubbevidehadiipa], four cosmic oceans, six realms of heaven and
the Brahma world. Even though the Cuulanii Sutta did not mention the formless-planes
and hell realms, they are included in the universe according to the Buddhist Scriptures.
(see facing page for overview of universe structure).
3.3 Physical Layout of the Universe

As each universe has an identical structure and what follows in brief will be an
examination of the common components to allow the reader to realize the constituents
and relationship between them.
3.3.1 Around Mount Sumeru
At the center of each universe is Mount Sumeru. Mount Sumeru is surrounded by seven
mountain ranges, each like concentric tiers radiating concentrically around Mount
Sumeru. Each tier is separated by water. There is also a cosmic ocean beyond the last
mountain range. Within this cosmic ocean are four major continents located at the four
points of the compass around Mount Sumeru. The sun and the moon revolving around
Mount Sumeru at an altitude midway between sea level and the summit of Mount
Sumeru.
1. The Four Continents

The four continents3 in which human realms are located are as follows:
1.1 The Eastern Continent [Pubbevidehadiipa] is located to the east of Mount

Sumeru and is lit by gray light.
1.2 The Western Continent [Aparagoyaanadiipa] is located to the west, covered with
crystal and is lit by clear light.
1.3 The Northern Continent [Uttarakurudiipa] is located to the north, covered with
gold and is lit by golden light.
1.4 The Rose Apple Continent [Jambuudiipa] is located to the south, covered with
emerald and is consequently lit by green light.
3
SnA.ii.443, A.i.227, A.v.59
38
3.3.2 Above Mount Sumeru

Having learned about the physical layout of Mount Sumeru, we will now move on to
vertical structure of Mount Sumeru above which are the fortunate realms of existence:
This is the first level of heaven and is located from the shoulder to the foot of
the mountain. It is the home of several types of deity including earth sprites,
tree sprites and air sprites. Some types of deities reside on the Rose Apple
Continent amongst the human beings. Those living on other planets are called
air sprites.
2. The Heaven of the Thirty-Three [Taavat.imsa]
This is the second level of heaven and is located on the summit of Mount
Sumeru, about half way up the Plane of Sense-Pleasure.
This is third level of heaven is located in mid-air above the Heaven of the
Thirty-Three.
This is the fourth level of heaven and is located above the heaven of the
Yaamaa Gods is and larger than it.
5. The Heaven of the Gods Who Rejoice in Their Own Creations
[Nimmaanaratii]
This is the fifth level of heaven and is located above the Heaven of the
Satisfied Gods and is still larger than it.
This is the sixth level of heaven and is located above the Heaven of the Gods
who rejoice in their own creations and larger than it still.
The Form- and Formless-Brahma realms are located above the Heaven of the Gods
who lord over the creation of others and are larger the higher they go.
3.3.3 Below Mount Sumeru

The unfortunate realms are situated beneath Mountain Sumeru.
Mount Sumeru rests upon the peaks of three smaller mountains. Between these smaller
mountains, there are valleys which are the realm of the Titans [asuura] or drunken
angels who were banished from heaven). Between each mountain beneath the realm of
Titans is the realm of the hungry ghosts [peta] and monsters [asuurakaaya].
39
Beneath the realm of the monsters are the hell realms, with the first level of hell at the
top and the eighth level of hell (the largest) at the bottom. There are also smaller
satellite [ussada] hells and Purgatory [yamaloka] radiating concentrically from each main
level of hell.
3.4 The World of Beings

When we look out into the immensity of the universe, we cannot help but wonder
whether there is life out there. But, in fact this is because most realms of existence
cannot be seen by the naked eye except for the human and animal realms. Therefore,
we only see a boundless space but not all the heaven realms or their innumerable
inhabitants.
3.4.1 Distinction Between Realms and Planes of Existence

There are two terms that are often confused: Planes [bhava] and realms of existence
[bhumi]. Thus we need to clarify the distinction before going further:
Planes [bhava] means the world of beings or living condition of beings:
1. The plane of sense-pleasure is the place inhabited by those who indulge in

sensual pleasure.
2. The form-plane is the place inhabited by Form Brahmas [ruupa-brahma].
3. The formless-plane is the place inhabited by Formless Brahmas [aruupa-
brahma].
Realms of existence [bhumi] means ground, land, or domain which in our context is
subdivided thirty-one realms of existence (to be discussed later)
‘Planes’ and ‘realms’ share similarities of meaning. The number of categorization is

not the same. Realms can be subdivided more than planes. However, only planes can
be subdivided into three (sensual-, form- and formless-planes) which are collectively
referred to as the ‘Triple World’ [ti-bhava]. Generally, we often use these two words
together.
What follows is an examination of each plane of existence in brief for us to understand

about lives in the three planes. We can examine each plane in more detail in the course
unit on Afterlife Studies.
40
41
42
3.5 Constituents of Each Plane

Each universe has the same structure and layout as well as comprising thirty-one
realms of existence arranged into three planes – the Sensuous Plane, the Form Plane
and the Formless Plane.
3.5.1 The Different Planes Defined

Sensuous Plane contains the abodes of beings whose minds are still attached to the
temptation of the sensual pleasures. There are eleven realms within the sensuous
Plane: one human realm, four hell realms and six heaven realms.
The Form Plane or Form-Brahma plane contains the realms of beings whose minds
have attained the Form absorptions [jhaana]. The Brahma plane is located above the six
heaven realms and is more refined than the heaven realms.
The Formless Plane or Formless-Brahma plane contains the realms of those who have
attained the Formless absorptions. It is located above the Form Plane and is more
refined than it. Each plane will now be examined in more detail.
3.6 Sensual Plane

The Sensual Plane contains the realms of beings whose minds are still attached to
sensual pleasure. It comprises eleven realms: the human realm, four hell realms and six
heaven realms. We will start with the human realm because this is the only place where
meritorious and evil deeds can be performed to the full, leading to rebirth in the fortunate
or unfortunate realms.
3.6.1 Human Realm

The human realm [manussaloka] is endowed with beings who possess a high level of
mind. The etymology of the Pali word for human, “manussa” is derived from ‘mana-’
meaning ‘mind’ and “-ussa“ or “-udama”, meaning ‘high’. Being ‘human’ therefore means
being virtuous, benevolent and courageous. The human realm is the abode of human
beings who are residing in our continent as well as other three continents sharing the
same universe with us.
The continents hosting the human realm are located at the compass points at the base
of Mount Sumeru (the centre of the Universe), namely the Eastern, Western, Rose-
Apple and Northern continents mentioned above.
The trees, leaves, seawater and sky in each continent take on their colors from the
reflections of the gemstones located on each face of Mount Sumeru. There are 500 sub-
continents associated with each continent. Human inhabitants on each sub-continent
43
have different appearances and ways of life from those inhabiting the continental
mainland.
Human beings on each of the four continents look physically similar, only they have
differing degrees of cultivation. For example, human beings inhabiting the Rose Apple
Continent have oval faces. Those on the Western Continent have round faces similar to
the full moon. Those on the Eastern Continent have faces in the shape of a slice of
lemon. People on the Northern Continent have square faces. The shape of the human
face on each continent reflects the shape of the continent itself. Humans inhabiting in
the Rose Apple Continent are attractive or ugly according to the karma they bring over
from previous lives. For the remaining three continents, all inhabitants look exactly the
same because they have the same level of virtue as one another.
The following are the three characteristics that people in the Rose Apple Continent are
better endowed with than those on other continents and even those of the second level
of heaven.
1. They are determined to do meritorious deeds [suurabhaava] such as giving,
keeping precepts and meditating
2. They strongly believe in the Triple Gems [satimanta]
3. They are able to ordain and live the holy life [brahmacariyavaasa]
Four special characteristics found only in people of the Rose Apple Continent are as
follows:
1. Being Courageous: willing to do virtuous or evil deeds. Those who choose to do
good can attain to Buddhahood or various levels of Buddhist sainthood. On the
evil side, they can go to the extent of killing their parents or arahants, or bruising
a Buddha. People in the other three continents would not be able to go so far.
2. Being Rational: in both appropriate and inappropriate ways. They tend to be
able to understand the causes of concrete and abstract matters.
3. Being Able to Understand Benefits and Harm of Things: both worldly and
supramundane benefits. Worldly benefits include gains, glory, praise, happiness,
human and heavenly wealth. Levels of understanding however vary according to
faith, perseverance, wisdom, perfection and who they associate with.
4. Understanding Wholesomeness and Unwholesomeness: whether it be
worldly or transcendental wholesomeness. On the wholesome side, this would
include giving, keeping precepts and meditating. On the unwholesome side it
would include greed, hatred and delusion.
Those on the Northern Continent possess three characteristics more refined than those
of the Rose Apple Continent and those of the second level heaven because:
1. They do not regard their wealth and possessions as their own.
2. They do not regard their children, wife or husband as their own.
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3. They live up to 1,000 years.
There is nothing special about the Eastern and Western Continents. People there have
similar lifestyle to those on the Rose Apple Continent. However, the states of mind do
not have the potential to reach the extremes of those on the Rose Apple Continent. The
Lord Buddha, the bodhisattva and the arahants are born to pursue perfection only on
the Rose Apple Continent.
We are born as human beings because we possess the underlying virtues that makes
us human beings – namely, the Five Precepts. Those who are not able to keep the Five
Precepts will likely not regain human status.
3.6.2 The Four Unfortunate Realms

The unfortunate realms [apaya] of existence are the abodes where beings suffer pain
and woe. The beings there are not able to perform any virtuous deeds. It is the lowest
realm of existence and consists groups of of four levels: the hell realms, the animal
realms, the hungry ghost realms and the realm of monsters.
1. The Hell Realms [niraya]: This is a realm of great pain. Inhabitants are woeful. The
hell realms are vast and divided into larger and smaller levels. Beings in each level
are punished in different ways depending on the evil deeds they had performed. The
hell realms is divided into three main regions; the major hells, the satellite hells and
purgatory.
1.1 The Major Hells

The Major hell, comprising eight levels, is the largest region within the hell realms.
Inside there are denizens of hell who are obliged to inflict punishment on those
reborn in hell. These denizens arise spontaneously as the result of evil deeds done
by their victim. The eight levels of major hell are as follows:
1.1.1 Sañjiiva Hell is known as the ‘undying’ hell. That means beings are
brutally punished according to their evil deeds done in the past. They are
punished in several ways such as being cut into pieces or being burned
to death. When they die, a so-called “karmic wind” will blow and they will
be born again in the same predicament as before. The cycle is repeated
again and again until their karmic debt has been paid off. Killing is the
main karma leading beings to be born in this major hell.
1.1.2 Kaa.lasutta Hell is known as the ‘hell of the black threads’ because in
this level, the denizens of hell punish the victims by putting them on red-
hot steel plates and marking them off with black steel threads as big as a
palm tree before cutting the victim to pieces along the black marks.
Stealing is the main karma earning a place for beings in this major hell.
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1.1.3 Sa”ngha.ta Hell is known as the ‘hell where bodies are crushed’. They
are roasted in agony in the fires of hell before being crushed to death
between two big steel mountains. Sexual misconduct is the main karma
earning a place for beings in this major hell.
1.1.4 Roruva Hell is known as the ‘hell that is filled with cries of pain’. Beings
are laid face down in a steel lotus. As soon as they are up to their
cheeks at one end and up to their toes and wrists at the other a fire
flames up and incinerates the lotus with the victim inside. Telling lies is
the main karma earning a place for beings in this major hell.
1.1.5 Mahaaroruva Hell is known as the ‘hell that is filled with many cries of
pain’. Beings are made to stand in a steel lotus which has sharp, black-
hot petals. They are burned from head to toe, from the inside out through
their nine bodily openings. The fire is so hot that this level of hell is
sometimes called ‘the hell that is filled with fire-induced cries of pain’
[jaalaroruva]. Taking alcohol and drugs is the main karma earning a
place for beings in this major hell.
1.1.6 Taapana Hell is known as the ‘hell that is filled with incalculable heat’.
Victims are forced to climb up onto the point of a spear the size of a palm
tree engulfed in flame. They find ourselves impaled on the point of the
spear and are burned like a chicken on a spit before being eaten by an
enormous dog which tears the flesh from their bones. Being addicted to
gambling is the main karma earning a place for beings in this major hell.
1.1.7 Mahaataapana Hell is known as the ‘hell that is unbearably hot’. Beings
are stabbed with swords and spears engulfed in flame as they are
chased up a volcano before the acid rain blows down on them, while
from below they are pierced by gigantic steel thorns. A life involved with
the roads to ruin [apayamukha] is the main karma earning a place for
beings in this major hell.
1.1.8 Aveci Hell is known as the ‘hell that is without respite’ (lit. waves). In
some of the hells there are times when the torment is more and times
when it is less – but in this hell, the torment is continuous without letting
up. It is the biggest hell that is full of terrors and the most frightful. It is
surrounded by burning steel gates. There are more beings here than in
other hells. They are punished in the same posture that they committed
their evil deeds. Killing their parents, enlightened ones, harming a
Buddha or creating a schism in the monastic community is the main
karma earning a place for beings in this major hell.
1.2 Satellite [Ussada] Hells

A satellite hell is a group of realms occupied by those who have already exhausted
their retribution in the relevant Major Hell. Around each level of Major Hells there are
sixteen satellite hells (four in each of the compass directions). Therefore, there are a
total of 128 satellite hells. Satellite hells that are located in the equivalent direction of
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each Major hell are referred to by the same name as that Major Hell but differ in
degrees of severity:
1.2.1 Worm [guutha] Satellite Hell: This level of hell is full of needle-toothed
worms as big as elephants, which devour victims to death not even
leaving the bones. Smaller worms devour the victims bodily organs from
the inside.
1.2.2 Glowing Coals [kukku.la] Satellite Hell This level is full of black-hot
glowing coals which burn the victims there to death. They come back to
life and are burned to death in the same way over and over again until
their retribution is exhausted.
1.2.3 Sword-Leaf [asipatta] Satellite Hell: When victims in the hell enter a
mango grove, mango leaves which are sharp like swords or spears fall
on them, piercing their limbs. As they run away iron walls engulfed in
flame suddenly grow up out of the ground to cut off every direction they
try to escape and the victims have the flesh stripped off them by metal
mouthed dogs and vultures until they die.
1.2.4 Caustic River [vetara.nii] Satellite Hell: The victims are scarred with a
metal net then thrown in caustic water which becomes engulfed in flame
burning them. If they slip under water they are cut by sharp metal lotus
petals and leaves. They thrash about just like a fish which is being
beaten over the head. They are then pulled up and pierced with spears
by the denizens of the satellite hell and left on a spike, like a fish on a
hook. They are then put on a hot steel plate and forced to take in hot
water and hot molten steel until they are burn up from the inside and die.
1.3 Purgatory [Yamaloka]

Those whose retribution has not yet been exhausted come to this level of hell after
traversing the satellite hells. Each Major hell has ten Purgatory realms around it at
each of the four compass points. There are a total of 320 units of Purgatory if all
eight Major hell are counted. There is no real difference between the purgatories in
the different directions or attached to different levels of major hell except for degrees
of severity. Inside the purgatory, a judge with his jury decides what realm beings
should be sent to next. The judge and jury are angels, unlike the denizens of hell
who arise spontaneously by force of the bad karma of each victim. The ten
Purgatories are as follows:
1.3.1 Lohakumbhii Purgatory: Beings are thrown into a cauldron as tall as a
mountain filled to the brim with molten metal. Sometimes the victims are
strangled with a steel rope by the denizens of the purgatory. Killing is the
main karma earning a place for beings in this purgatory.
1.3.2 Simbalii Purgatory: Male and female victims are forced to take turn to
climb a yew tree which has sharp, burning thorns to meet with one
another. The thorns tear them to shreds as they climb up or down.
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Sometimes they are attacked by steel-beaked crows as they climb.

Adultery is the main karma earning a place for beings in this purgatory.
1.3.3 Asinakha Purgatory: Beings gouge out their own flesh with their own
long, sharp finger- and toenails as their only source of food. Stealing is the
1.3.4 Taambodaka Purgatory: Beings are forced to lie face up on a red-hot
steel plate. The denizens of the purgatory bring red-hot smelted copper
and pour this down the victims’ throat until they die. Drinking intoxicants is
the main karma earning a place for beings in this purgatory.
1.3.5 Ayogul.a Purgatory: Beings are so starving hungry that they eat blocks of
red-hot steel which burn them to death from the inside. Embezzlement is
the main karma earning a place for beings in this purgatory.
1.3.6 Pissakapabbata Purgatory: Beings are crushed to death by four
mountains which come flying at them from four directions simultaneously.
Being an unjust ruler is the main karma earning a place for beings in this
purgatory.
1.3.7 Dhusa Purgatory: Thirsty beings encounter a shady pool where they
drink. Through the retribution of their karma, the water turns to dry husks
inside them which catches fire burning them to death from the inside.
Being an unscrupulous merchant is the main karma earning a place for
beings in this purgatory.
1.3.8 Siitalosita Purgatory: Beings are thrown into icy water where they freeze
to death. As soon as they are dead, they come back to life only find
themselves being thrown into the water again. Drowning live animals is the
1.3.9 Sunakha Purgatory: This purgatory is filled with five types of dogs –
black, white, yellow, red and spotty dogs. Beings are chased and savaged
to death by these dogs. Using harsh speech against one’s parents, older
relatives or those pure in their precepts is the main karma earning a place
for beings in this purgatory.
1.3.10 Yantapaasaa.na Purgatory: Beings are crushed to death by two
mountains which come flying at them from opposite directions
simultaneously. Mistreating one’s spouse is the main karma earning a
place for beings in this purgatory.
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1.4 Lokanta Hell

This is the special level of hell where there is eternal darkness. The beings
condemned there have huge bodies. They cling on to the rim of the cosmos by their
fingernails. If they encounter fellow victims in the hell, they assume they are each
others’ food and attack each other mercilessly. Sometimes they fall into an icy sea of
acid which eats away their body. Once out of the acid, they re-affix themselves on
the rim of the cosmos. They endure torment in this way here for an undefined length
of time. Only when a Buddha becomes enlightened, is there ever a brief flicker of
brightness in the darkness there. Having extreme False View – False View so bad
they can even hurt monks – is the main karma earning a place for beings in this level
of hell.
Comparative Age of Hell Beings and Human Beings
Great Hell Lifespan (in 1 Day in Hell (in Lifespan (in Million
Hell Years) Million Earth Earth Years)
Years)
1. Sañjiiva Hell 500 9 1,620,000
2. Kaa.lasutta Hell 1,000 36 12,960,000
3. Sa”ngha.ta Hell 2,000 144 103,680,000
4. Roruva Hell 4,000 576 831,040,000
5. Mahaaroruva Hell 8,000 1,304 6,635,520,000
6. Taapana Hell 16,000 9,216 53,084,160,000
7. Mahaataapana Hell Approximately half a sub-aeon [antarakappa]
8. Aveci Hell Approximately one sub-aeon [antarakappa]
2. Pittivisaya Realm
The realm of hungry ghosts [pittivisaya] is inhabited by beings wandering around in the
forest, hills, sea or islands. After they have broken free of hell, they are born as hungry
ghosts [peta] who suffer from hunger and search in vain for food and clothing. Because
of unwholesomeness in their past lives they are reborn in this realm.
There are twelve types of hungry ghosts as follows:

1. Hungry ghosts eating spittle, phlegm and vomit [vantaasa-peta]
2. Hungry ghosts eating human or animals corpses [ku.napaasa-peta]
3. Hungry ghosts eating feces [guuthakhaadaka-peta]
4. Hungry ghosts with a burning month [aggijaalamukha-peta]
5. Hungry ghosts with a mouth the size of the eye of a needle [sucimukha-peta]
6. Hungry ghosts suffering from hunger and thirst [ta.nha.d.dita-peta]
7. Hungry ghosts with a body like a burning tree trunk [sunijjhaamaka-peta]
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8. Hungry ghosts with long and sharp finger- and toenails [sattha”nga-peta]
9. Gigantic hungry ghosts [pabbata”nga-peta]
10. Hungry ghosts with a body like a boa-constrictor [ajagara”nga-peta]
11. Hungry ghosts endowed with its own heavenly mansion which it can use only
during the day [vemaanika-peta]
12. Powerful hungry ghosts ruling other hungry ghosts in the forests at the foot of the
Himalayas [mahiddhika-peta]
There are also other types of hungry ghosts. One type of them, the ‘paradattuupajiivi’
hungry ghost, can receive and rejoice in merit transferred from their living relatives as
they often reside around their previous human homes.
3. Monster [asuurakaaya] Realm

This realm is the abode of unrelenting and dejected demons. Some of them are starving
and emaciated. Their eyes and mouths are so small that it causes them difficulty in
looking for food and eating. Stealing and embezzling monastic money are major karma
for this state of rebirth. There are three types of Monster as follows:
1. Angelic Monster [angel-asuurakaaya]: these live their lives similarly to angels.
They reside in a big comfortable tunnel beneath the three mountains supporting
Mount Sumeru.
2. Hungry-Ghost Monsters [petti-asuurakaaya] suffer in the same way as hungry
ghosts.
3. Hell-Bound Monsters [niraya-asuurakaaya] live the most suffering lives in the
Lokanta Hell.
It seems monsters are quite similar to hungry ghosts, however they differ in that the
hungry ghosts suffer from hunger but monsters generally suffer from thirst as they can
barely get to water. Some of them have had nothing to drink for millions of millions
years.
Monsters live harder lives than hungry ghosts. They are uglier and more frightening.
Therefore, they are ashamed to be seen. This is why ‘lacking courage’ [asuura-] is
included in the etymology of their name.
4. The Animal [tiracchaana] Realm

The animal realm is home to all animals whether it be dogs, cats, rats, chickens, ducks,
snakes or fish. Animals can not attain Nirvana in that form. They can only go to heaven
at the most.
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The animals do not suffer as much as hungry ghosts or monsters. They tend to derive
enjoyment from only three types of pleasure; eating, sleeping and sexual intercourse.
The etymology of the word ‘Ti-’ + ‘-racchaano’ derives from these beings enjoyment of
only three pleasures.
There are four groups of animals as follows:
1. Animals with No Feet [apada-tiracchaano] including snakes, fish and
intestinal worms
2. Biped Animals [dvipada-tiracchaano] including chickens, ducks and crows.
3. Quadruped Animals [catupada-tiracchaano] including dogs, cats,
elephants, horses, cows and buffalo.
4. Many-Footed Animals [apada-tiracchaano] including all animals which
have more than four legs, whether it be ants, termites or centipedes.
Animals share the same plane of existence as human beings. They are generally visible
to the naked eye, unlike hungry ghosts and monsters which cannot be seen under
ordinary circumstances. Animals move from place to place and live harder lives than
human beings. They are attacked by predators, face hunger and have no fixed abode.
There is, however, another type of animal that live in the Himavanta Forest (of the first
level of heaven). They are a higher class of animals and are not visible to the naked
eye.
Delusion is the main karma leading beings to be born as animals. Delusion includes for
example being obsessed with one’s wealth or loved ones. Others come to the animal
realm to use up residual retribution after having passed through the realms of hell,
hungry ghosts or monsters. Rebirth as animals usually continues repeatedly for several
lifetimes. They therefore they barely have the chance to accrue merit.
3.6.3 The Six Heaven Realms

The heaven realms are a celestial place occupied by angels. Angels are self-luminous
as a result of meritorious deeds brought over from the past life. They spontaneously
arise [opapaa.tika] in heaven in adult form. They are not born from a mother’s womb or
an egg. The level of merit accrued during the human life determines the level of heaven
in which they are reborn. There are six levels of heaven: the Heaven of the Four Great
Kings [Caatummahaaraajika], the Heaven of the Thirty-Three [Taavat.imsa], the Heaven
of the Yaamaa Gods [Yaamaa], the Heaven of the Satisfied Gods [Tusita], the Heaven
of the Gods who rejoice in their own creations [Nimmaanaratii], the Heaven of the Gods
who Lord over the creation of others [Paranimmitavasavattii]:
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This lowest level of heaven is ruled by the Four Great Kings and is located on Mount
Sumeru. It is under the dominion of the second level of heaven. This heaven is
closer to the human realm than any other levels of heaven. This heaven includes
four major areas each of which are full of pleasant places such as scented lotus-
ponds, flowers-gardens and fruit groves. The four areas are ruled by the four kings
as follows:
1) King Dhatara.tha rules over the eastern region of Catummaharajika. He
governs three groups of angels – the celestial musicians, sorcerers and
ogres.
i. Celestial Musicians [gandhabba] are angels who are born and live in
ten scented parts of wood; root, heartwood, wood, bark, sap, bough,
leaves, flower, fruit and underground root. There are three classes of
them; higher, middle and lower class. Higher-class angels such as
Pañcasikkha dwell in heavenly mansions in the first level of heaven
and have their own retinue. Middle-class angels or tree sprites are born
in the Himavanta Forest. They are followers of higher-class angels.
Lower-class Angels share the human realm. Some of them have family
-- some do not. They are a type of tree sprites dwelling in fragrant trees
such as the Malabar ironwood tree. Celestial musicians are gifted with
ability in music, drama, dancing, arts, literature and poetry. It is their
duty to entertain other angels. To be born as celestial musicians, they
performed both meritorious deeds but also indulged in sensual
pleasure.
ii. Sorcerers [vidhayaadhara] are those knowledgeable in various
disciplines including the eighteen Liberal Arts, Medicine, Astrology and
Science. They are able to fly and capable of working magic and casting
spells. Some of them live by themselves but others live in a group.
Some are married, some are not. Some are ascetics. Some are similar
to human beings.
iii. They are endowed with strange appearance: with curly hair, dark
complexion, a big belly, pot-shape testicles and no fangs, not as
frightening as ogres. They are also divided into higher and lower
classes. These celestial musicians also have the duty to punish beings
in purgatory, part-time.
2) King Viru.lahaka rules the Southern part of the first level of heaven. This
part where the Garudas reside. Pride and stubbornness while performing
meritorious deeds is the main karma earning a place for beings in this
region of heaven as a Garuda.
3) King Viruupakka is in charge of the Western part of the first heaven,
which is the realm of Nagas. Pride and stubbornness while performing
region of heaven as a Naga.
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4) King Vessava.na or King Kuvera rules the Northern part of the first
heaven and all ogres [yakkha]. Some ogres are endowed with great
beauty and are self-luminous. Others such as water demons, are ugly,
frightening, ferocious and aggressive. Anger and irritation while performing
region of heaven as an ogre.
There are also other lower-class angels such as earth sprites, tree sprites and air
sprites.
 Earth Sprites share our human realm dwelling in termite mounds, hillocks,
underground caves, mountains, rivers, houses, pagodas, pavilions or arches
Some of them have their own heavenly mansion.
 Tree Sprites dwell in the branches or trees and in the treetops. Some reside
in heavenly mansions, others not.
 Air Sprites are endowed with their own heavenly mansions located around
16 kilometers (one league [yojana]) above the ground. These types of angels
are under the rule of the Four Great Kings.
 Celestial Musicians have their differences from earth sprites. Whereas the
former would never leave their homes in the woods even if it were damaged,
the later would move to a new tree together with their heavenly mansion if the
tree were cut down.
The Himavanta is a golden forest. Everything including the ground, leaves, etc.
are in gold. It is located at the slope of Mount Sumeru. Formerly, it was a
continuation to the four continents. However, when human beings started to
commit more unwholesome deeds, the land separated preventing travel between
the human realm and the Himavanta forest. The Himavanta forest consists of
84,000 mountain peaks, five main rivers; Ganga, Yamuna, Sarabhuu, Aciravadii
and Mahimaa. It has seven main ponds; Anotatta, Ka.n.namu.n.da, Rathakaala,
Chaddanta, Mandakinii, Siihappaata and Ku.nala. Around the Anotatta pond are
five mountains; Sudassana, Cittakuu.ta, Kaa.lakuu.ta, Kailash and
Gandhamaadana in which are located a cave named Nandamuula where many
Paccekabuddhas live. Within the Nandamuula are three caves; one of gold, one
of crystal and one of silver. There are many extraordinary creatures residing in
Himavanta such as half-bird half-human creatures, naagas, garudas, heraldic
lions and special types of elephant, bird, fish and fruit.
2. The Heaven of the Thirty-Three [Taavati.msa]

The heaven of the thirty three is a vast heaven realm located at the summit of Mount
Sumeru, surrounded by crystal mansions and walls with a thousand crystal gates. At
the center of Taavat.imsa is a castle named Vejayanta, decorated with seven types
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of gems. It belongs to King Sakka (sometimes known as King Indra) the ruler of the
realm. This heaven is divided into thirty-two districts, each of which governed by one
of thirty-two close friends of Sakka. Residents here can include those who have
attained the lower stages of Buddhist sainthood, such as once-returners
[sakadagaamii] and stream-enterers [sotapanna] – as well as those who have
attained the Triple Gem inside and angels in general.

The heaven of the Yaamaa Gods is ruled by Suyaama Angel. This heaven is located
far above the second level of heaven. Unlike the lowest two levels of heaven, Yama
has no solid ground. It is located in a place far beyond the light of the sun and the
moon. Angels there can see things by the light of their own bodies. They calculate
the passing of time by looking at the heavenly flowers which bloom during the day
but close at night.

This fourth level of heaven is ruled by King Santatusita. Inhabitants of the Heaven of
the Satisfied Gods are those who have resolved to attain enlightenment for the
benefit of their fellow-men. They choose the Heaven of the Satisfied Gods as a
‘resting place’ on their way to enlightenment. They are graceful, blessed and cheerful
in Dhamma. They live in magnificent heavenly mansions. The future Buddha is even
now residing in the Heaven of the Satisfied Gods. King Santatusita is in fact the
former mother of the present Buddha. The inhabitants of the Heaven of the Satisfied
Gods are endowed with generosity. They want to help other people. When they are
born as human beings, their heavenly mansions and wealth in heaven wait for them,
unlike angels in other levels of heaven whose heavenly wealth disappear when they
return to be reborn on earth.
5. The Heaven of the Gods Who Rejoice in Their Own Creations [Nimmaanaratii]
This fifth level of heaven is ruled by King Sunimmita. Angels on Nimmanarati are
able to conjure up anything they wish.
This sixth level of heaven is the highest and largest. Angels on this level get
whatever they want through having them conjured up by other angels.
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Causes of Birth on Each Level of Heaven

To be born in heaven requires a person to perform virtuous deeds and accrue sufficient
merit. The degree of wealth and refinement may vary according to the degree and type
of intention behind the meritorious deeds, which can be categorized as follows:
1. Fear-Driven: These people perform good deeds because they do not want to go
to hell, if it really exists. They are not have pure intention to cultivate such good
deeds. This can be compared to a child doing good deeds just because they do
not want to be punished. These people are tend to be born as mere earth-, tree-
and air sprites.
2. Reward-Driven: These people cultivate merit just because they want something
in return. This can be compared to a child doing good deeds hoping to get
candies or toys. These people tend to be reborn as angels in at best the lowest
level of heaven.
3. Admiration-Driven: These people perform good deeds because they crave
praise. This can be compared to a child doing good because they want to be
accepted by others. These people tend to be reborn as angels in at best the
lowest level of heaven.
4. Merit for Merit’s Sake: These people perform meritorious acts because they
think it is the right things to do. They are confident of their righteous deeds
regardless of others’ opinions. They tend to be reborn as angels in the second
level of heaven or higher depending upon purity of their mind while they are
performing the merit.
Comparative Age of Angels on Heaven and Human Beings
Heaven Lifespan (in Length of One Day & Lifespan (in

Heaven One Night in Heaven Millions of
Years) (in Earth Years) Earth Years)
1. Catummaharajika 500 50 9
2. Taavat.imsa 1,000 100 36
3. Yaamaa 2,000 200 144
4. Tusita 4,000 400 576
5. Nimmanarati 8,000 800 2,304
6. Paranimmitavasavatti 16,000 1,600 9,216
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3.7 Form Plane

The Form-Plane or Form-Brahma world is inhibited by Form-Brahmas. The Form Plane
is located higher than heaven realms with finer and more delicate heavenly treasure.
A Brahma is a divine being who has become fully restrained from sense-pleasure
[kaamachanda] from a time when they were still human beings. A Brahma looks more
like a man than a woman. Human beings who have attained the form-absorptions
[ruupa-jhaana] will be born in the Form Plane. The Form Plane is further divided into
sixteen levels each of which is inhabited by beings with different levels of absorptions.
1. The Three Realms of the First Absorption

Those inhabiting this realm are those who have attained the first absorption. The
following three levels of this first-absorption realm are located on the same level
as one another, rather than being one above the other like for heaven realms:
a. Realm of the Great Brahmas’ Attendants [Brahmapaarisajjaa]: The
inhabitants are brahmas who have attained the beginning level of first-
absorption. They are ordinary Brahmas with no extraordinary power. They
are followers of the Great Brahmas.
b. Realm of the Great Brahmas’ Ministers [Brahmapurohitaa]: The
inhabitants are Brahmas who have attained the medium level of first
absorption. They help the Great Brahmas with various tasks.
c. Realm of the Great Brahmas [Mahabrahma]: The inhabitants are
Brahmas who have attained the highest level of first absorption. They are
leaders of the first two types of Brahmas. Sahampati Brahma who
originally invited the Lord Buddha to share his message with teachable
beings was also an inhabitant of this realm. Brahmas who have attained
the highest level of first absorption will be at the center of each realm and
surrounded by those who have attained lower levels of Absorption.
2. The Three Realms of the Second Absorption

The second absorption sphere is inhabited by those who have attained the
second level of Absorption. It is located above the three realms of the first
absorption.
a. The Realm of the Brahmas of Limited Luster [Parittaabhaa] is (‘paritta-
‘ means limited, ‘-aabha’ means luster).
b. The Realm of the Brahmas of Infinite Luster [Appamanabha]
c. The Realm of Brahmas with Radiant Luster [Aabhasaraa]: Beings are
reborn here as a result of their bright and clear mind.
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3. The Three Realms of the Third Absorption

Those inhabiting the third absorption sphere are those who have attained the
third level of absorption. It is located above the three realms of the second
absorption.
a. The Realm of Brahmas with Limited Aura [Parittasubhaa] These
beings have an aura as that of the moon, however, less brilliant than that
of Brahmas in higher realms.
b. The Realm of Brahmas with Infinite Aura [Appamaa.nasubhaa]
c. The Realm of Brahmas with Steady Aura [Subhaki.nhaa]
4. The Seven Realms of the Fourth Absorption

The fourth absorption sphere is inhabited by those who have attained the fourth
level of Absorption, including:
a. The Realm of Brahma with Abundant Rewards [Vehapphalaa]: The
power of merit there is exempt from destruction and dissolution. Among
Brahmas in the nine levels mentioned so far, those in the realm of
Brahmas with steady aura live the longest lives. They live sixty-four world
cycles Anyone who reaches sixty-four world cycles will return to be reborn
during the re-evolving of the world system. Then, followed by other
Brahmas with shorter lives. After sixty-four world cycles, the third
absorption sphere will be destroyed by wind. However, the Realm of
Brahmas with abundant rewards is resistant to destruction by fire, water or
wind. Brahmas in Vehapphala therefore live for 500 world-cycles.
b. The Realm of Non-Percipient Beings [Asaññiisattaa]: These beings are
endowed with no sensation [vedanaa], perception [saññaa], mental
formations [sa”nkhaara] or consciousness [viññaa.na]. They are only
endowed with the aggregate of corporeality with the ability to put out all
feelings -- but they still have defilements. They have a golden form similar
to a Buddha image, and can take any one of the three postures; sitting,
lying, or standing, depending on the position they died in, in their previous
life. They will remain in such a position throughout their lives.
Both realms in the fourth absorption sphere are located higher than the third
absorption sphere. Brahmas in the higher realms can see those in the lower
realms but those in the lower realms can not see those in the higher ones. Form-
Brahmas in the eleven realms mentioned so far will all return to reborn in hell or
heaven, depending on their past karma, for as long as they have not attained the
stages of sainthood.
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5. The Five Pure Abodes [Suddhavasa]

There are five levels categorized by purity of the following five faculties: faith
[saddha], effort [viriya], mindfulness [sati], concentration [samaadhi] and wisdom
[paññaa].
a. The Realm of Brahmas Who Do Not Fall from Prosperity [Avihaa]:
These are brahmas in whom faith is the strongest of faculties. They will not
be reborn before reaching their allotted span. Brahmas in the four higher
realms however can choose to be born before reaching their allotted span.
b. The Realm of Serene Brahmas [Atappaa]: These are brahmas in whom
perseverence is the strongest of faculties. They never fall from happiness
because their mind is immersed in meditation the whole of the time. They
are free from all mental hindrances [nivara.na]
c. The Realm of Beautiful Brahmas [Sudassaa]: These are brahmas in
whom mindfulness is the strongest of faculties. They therefore have the
Five Eyes of the Blessed One; physical eye which is exceptionally
powerful and sensitive, the Divine Eye, the Wisdom Eye, the Buddha Eye
and the All-seeing Eye. They are endowed with great beauty – a pleasure
for all others to look upon.
d. The Realm of Brahmas Who Are Clear-Sighted [Sudassii]: These are
brahmas in whom concentration is the strongest of faculties. They can see
even more clearly than Beautiful Brahmas especially through their physical
eyes, Divine Eye and Wisdom Eye. However, their Buddha Eye are
equally powerful as those of the Beautiful Brahmas.
e. The Realm of the Supreme Brahmas [Akanittha]: These are brahmas in
whom wisdom is the strongest of faculties. Akanittha Brahmas are
endowed with the greatest heavenly wealth and happiness. Brahmas in
the four other realms of the Pure Abodes are able to move into upper
realms but Supreme Brahmas are born and die in their own realm. Within
the Realm of Supreme Brahmas an important sanctuary is located named
the Dussa-Cetiya. Kept in this monument are the royal robes of Prince
Siddhattha which he renounced on the day of his ordination. Gha.tikaara
Brahma came down from the Supreme Brahma realm to offer the eight
requisites to the ordaining prince. He kept the robes together with one of
the requisites, in the Dussa-Cetiya which is about 192 kilometers (twelve
leagues [yojana] in height.
The Pure Abodes appear only when the teachings of the Lord Buddha are
available as it is the realm of ones who have attained the third stage of Buddhist
sainthood. When there is no appearance of Buddhism, those attaining this level
of mind cannot come into existence either. Therefore, the Pure Abodes arise only
at certain times. They only last less than the collective lifespan of the Five Pure
Abodes which is about 31,000 world-cycles. After that all Buddhist saints will
come to an end of rebirth and the Pure Abodes disappear. They will reappear
again when the next Lord Buddha arises – coming full circle.
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Age of Form-Brahmas in the 16 Form Plane
Form Plane Lifespan

1. Great Brahmas’ Attendants One-twelfth of a world cycle1
2. Brahmas’ Ministers One-sixth of a world cycle
3. Great Brahmas One quarter of a world cycle
4. Brahmas of Limited Luster 2 world-cycles
5. Brahmas of Infinite Luster 4 world-cycles
6. Brahmas of Radiant Luster 8 world-cycles
7. Brahmas with Limited Aura 16 world-cycles
8. Brahmas with Infinite Aura 32 world-cycles
9. Brahmas with Steady Aura 64 world-cycles
10. Brahmas with Abundant 500 world-cycles
Rewards
11. Non-Percipient Beings 500 world-cycles
12. Brahmas Who Do Not Fall 1,000 world-cycles
from Prosperity
13. Serene Brahmas 2,000 world-cycles
14. Beautiful Brahmas 4,000 world-cycles
15. Clear-sighted Brahmas 8,000 world-cycles
16. Supreme Brahmas 16,000 world-cycles
3.8 Formless Plane

Formless Plane is the formless world or the world of Formless-Brahmas. It is
located higher than Form-Plane and endowed with greater heavenly wealth.
Formless-Brahma is more beautiful and self-luminous than Form-Brahma. They
are born as Formless-Brahmas because they have attained formless
absorptions. Formless-Brahmas can also be beings with handicaps
[abhabbasatta] who are unable to attain enlightenment in that life time (Brahmas
on the level of non-percipient beings are also considered handicapped). The
Formless Plane includes the following four levels each of which are inhabited by
those who have attained different levels of absorption:
1
Kappa Sutta A.ii.142
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1. The Realm of Infinite Space [Aakaasaanañcaayatana] is inhabited by

those who have attained first formless-absorption. They use infinite space
as meditation object and can live up to 20,000 world-cycles.
2. The Realm of Infinite Consciousness [Viññaa.nañcaayatana] is the
realm of those who have attained second formless-absorption. They use
space as meditation object. They live up to 40,000 world-cycles.
3. The Realm of Nothingness [Akiñcaññaayatana] is the realm of those
who have attained third formless-absorption. They think of nothing when
they meditate. They live up to 60,000 world-cycles.
4. The Realm of neither Perception nor Non-Perception
[Nevasaññaanaasaññaayatana] is the realm of those who have attained
the fourth formless-absorption. They feel neither perception nor non-
perception. They live up to 84,000 world-cycles.
Conclusion
Having studied the structure of the universe, we can now appreciate how
humans, as well as other living beings, are reborn endlessly in different realms
and universes. Such rebirth inevitably brings us grief and sorrow. Beings born in
hell suffer greatly from severe punishment. Human beings suffer from transience,
suffering and death. Angels also suffer from lack of heavenly wealth. Even
Brahmas suffer from not being as greatly self-luminous as others. No one
experiences untainted happiness.
Therefore, as we already know these facts of life, we should try find release from
the cycle of life by accruing as much merit as possible and leading other people
to do so as well. Enough merit will lead us to true great happiness.
______________________
63
CHAPTER 4
The Origins of the Earth and
Mankind
64
Chapter 4
The Origins of the Earth and Mankind
4.1 Timescale for the Rise and Fall of the Universe
4.2 The Measurement of Time Suitable for the Age of the Universe
4.2.1 A Lifespan [aayu-kappa]
4.2.2 The Sub-Eon [antara-kappa]
4.2.3 The World Cycle Quadrant [asa”nkheyya-kappa]
4.2.4 The World Cycle [mahaa-kappa]
4.3 Beliefs Concerning the Origins of the Earth

4.3.1 General Beliefs & Scientific Hypotheses
4.4 The Origins of the Earth and Mankind According to Buddhist Theory
4.4.1 The Buddha’s Motivation to Teach on Genesis
4.4.2 Rule of Thumb in Verifying Credibility of Dogma
4.4.3 The Origins of the Universe, the Earth, Mankind and All Beings
Chapter at a Glance
1. The Universe and the Earth have arisen and decayed countless times. In
each period of time, arising, perpetuation and decay has taken so long
that it is uncountable. Even a million years is short by comparison. The
cycle of arising and destruction of the world began at the point when the
fires incinerating the Earth burn out. The Universe was filled with empty
air. Subsequently, the rain fell and flooded the Universe. Later, as the
water level dropped, uncovering spheres of existence from form-planes
down to the first level of heaven (the Heaven of the Four Great Kings),
once the water had found a steady level sediments congealed and
floated on the surface. These sediments, known as Curds of Earth, were
yellow, sweet and fragrant. When Brahmas came down to eat Curds of
Earth, they became human. Thereafter, humans the levels of defilements
in the human mind increased causing the Curds of Earth to disappear.
New coarser forms of food appeared in its place. Consequently the
human body changed to exhibit sexual characteristics — male or female.
There started to be reproduction by sexual intercourse and then the
nomadic humans settled down in homes. Many kinds of animals were
born. At this point, human defilements of greed, anger and delusion
proliferated. With the decay of quality of mind, the quality of the
environment was compromised. Earth was destroyed by fire, wind or
water; and, the cycle of arising, perpetuation and destruction of the Earth
and Universe came full circle. The world and the universe arose and
decayed in this way countless times over the eons.
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2. To calculate the period of time taken for the arising, perpetuation and
decay of the Earth and Universe by mathematical or scientific units would
be impossible. Our conventional units are too small. Buddhism is the only
religion in the World that uses its own units to calculate the age of the
Earth and Universe, which are a number referred to as ‘an incalculable’
(= 10140) and ‘eon’ [kappa] (including the lifespan [aayu-kappa], sub-eon
[antara-kappa], World Cycle Quadrant [asa”nkheyya-kappa] and World
Cycle [mahaa-kappa]
3. Buddhism is a religion of those who believe in cause and effect. The

Buddha never taught people to accept things on blind faith but advocated
considering the facts and verifying the truth for oneself. He told people
not to accept things simply because of: 1. hearsay; 2. tradition; 3. report;
4. text or scripture; 5. logic; 6. inference; 7. reasoning; 8. theory; 9.
probability, or; 10. respect for a teacher who says so.
4. Mankind originated from the Brahmas with Radiant Luster. In the first era,
human beings were born by spontaneous arising. Humans arose
instantly in adult form without needing a parent. Human beings at that
time did not have sexual relations, had their own aura, could fly, were
nourished by delight alone, had the same appearance as a Brahma and
were long-lived. Later, the fragrance from the Curds of Earth tempted the
Brahmas to taste it. Once they had tasted the curds, their auras
disappeared and they could not fly anymore. Nonetheless, the Earth in
the first era was comfortable; there wasn’t any poverty. The only
hardship was that fine food vanished, and was replaced by coarser food.
Discrimination reared its ugly head because of differences in skin color.
Gender differences caused humans to be attracted sexually to one
another. Settling down in homes, hoarding and taking advantage of one
another eventually caused a system of government to be set up. The first
era of government was an absolute monarchy, with the monarch acting
like a father taking care of his children. A wise man who of suitable
characteristics, manners and who was respected would be selected as
king [kasatriya] -- the etymology of which implies that at that time he was
also leader of agriculture [kaseta]. Animals in the first days also arose by
spontaneous birth. Elephants and horses were the first animals to appear
on Earth. Humans only resorted to eating animals because those who
had come to the human realm from the hell realms brought their angry
and aggressive tendencies with them. They used to bear grudges
against each other. Once they saw each other, they thought of killing. At
first, they didn’t kill to eat, but later on, humans experimented with eating
meat and became addicted to its taste. As meat-eating became more
widespread humans misunderstood that animals were born as their food.
Chapter Objectives
This unit should give students the knowledge and understanding to be able to:
1. Explain the cycle of arising, perpetuation and destruction of the universe.
2. Explain the units of time suitable to description of the origins of the
universe.
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3. Explain principals to be considered before believing under the Buddhist

method precisely.
4. Explain the origin of mankind, its characteristics, the first era of human
livelihood, the origin of the first form of government on Earth, the origin of
animals and the eating of meat precisely.
Introduction
Many may have studied about the story of the origins of the universe, the earth
and mankind, as this subject has attracted vast interest to humans ever since
ancient times. Many people have created hypotheses and tried to search for the
answers to the questions --- what is the origin of all beings? How is the earth
created? Where do we come from? Who was the first human on the earth? In
spite of much research, there are still no concrete answers to such questions.
In this chapter, we will learn about the origins of the universe, the earth,
mankind and all other beings from a Buddhist perspective. Before studying
these, we will explain the cycle of the arising, perpetuation and decay of the
universe. This includes units of time suitable to measure the arising,
perpetuation and decay of the universe.
4.1 Timescale for the Rise and Fall of the Universe

The origin of the universe, the earth, mankind and all beings takes place in
many steps. They all go through arising, perpetuation and decay as mentioned
earlier. The timescale involved in the arising, perpetuation and decay of the
universe challenge conventional scientific units of measurement therefore
Buddhism uses its own units of measure suitable for the calculations involved
with the timescale of the arising, perpetuation and decay of the universe as
described in its cosmology.
4.2 The Measurement of Time Suitable for the Age of the

Universe
From the Lord Buddha’s discoveries mentioned in Chapter 1, we realize that the
timescale of the arising, perpetuation and decay of the universe is a very long
time – even a million years is short by comparison. Thus when making
measurements we are forced to use terms such as ‘an Incalculable’
[asa”nkheyya] (= 10140) or the ‘eon’1 [kappa] to do justice to the immensity of the
time under examination. Such terms are unique to Buddhism.
Therefore, the calculation on the timescale of the arising, perpetuation and

decay of the universe cannot be done according to the conventional units of
time which are too short. The unit of measure favored in Buddhism is the eon
which can be divided into four types:2
1
As Defined in the 1982 Rajapunditiyasathana Thai Dictionary (3rd ed. 1987) p.207
2
Thavin Wattirangkul Rao keu krai (Bangkok: 1987) p.35
67
4.2.1 A ‘Lifespan’ [aayu-kappa] means the average lifespan of beings in a

certain realm, at a certain time in history. For instance, on earth, most people
when the Buddha was alive had the lifespan of a hundred years so the ‘lifespan’
at that time was one hundred years. In the present day, the average lifespan is
seventy-five years so the ‘lifespan’ is now seventy-five years. In heaven realms
such as the Heaven of the Four Great Kings the ‘lifespan’ might be five hundred
heaven years. The same principle can be applied to other realms
4.2.2 A Sub-Eon [antara-kappa] is the time it takes for the human ‘lifespan’ to
reduce from ‘an incalculable’ (i.e. 10140) years down to ten years and be
restored again to ‘an incalculable’ years. One complete cycle thus takes a ‘sub-
eon’.
4.2.3 A World Cycle Quadrant [asa”nkheyya-kappa] is sixty-four sub-eons

long. The Buddhist scriptures summarize four types of World Cycle Quadrant:3
1. The era when the world goes up in flames [sa.mva.t.ta-

asa”nkheyya-kappa] The duration in which the universe is being
destroyed is one World Cycle Quadrant.
2. The era when the world has been completely destroyed
[sa.mva.t.ta.t.thaayii-asa”nkheyya-kappa] is the period when the
universe is completely destroyed. There is only emptiness for ten World
Cycle Quadrants.
3. The era when the world is re-evolving [viva.t.ta-asa”nkheyya-kappa]
The duration is one World Cycle Quadrant.
4. The golden age of the world [viva.t.ta.t.thaayii-asa”nkheyya-kappa]
This is the duration from the start of the universe to its full development.
The earth, mountains, rivers, trees, oceans, the sun, the moon, stars,
humans and animals appear. The duration is one World Cycle Quadrant
[asa”nkheyya-kappa].
4.2.4 The World Cycle [mahaa-kappa] is the complete cycle of the universe
through all four of the World Cycle Quadrants mentioned above. The duration of
one World Cycle is a very long time and is undetermined. The Lord Buddha
taught:4
“O! Monks! Supposing there was a metal container one league (sixteen
kilometres) long, one league wide and one league tall. The container is
filled with mustard seeds. If a man took one seed out of the container
every one hundred years, even when all the mustard seeds have been
removed, an eon is not yet over.”
In another example:5
“O! Monks! Supposing there was a giant stone mountain one league long,
one league wide and one league tall, with no holes in it and no caves. If a
man were to take a thin cloth and wipe the mountain once every hundred
3
Kappa Sutta A.ii.142
4
Saasapa Sutta S.ii.182
5
Pabbata Sutta S.ii.181
68
years. The time it takes for this mountain to be worn down to the ground
is the same length as an eon.”
By now it will be easier for the reader to envisage the long duration of each
stage in the world cycle. Although the Lord Buddha gave ample metaphors for
the timescales involved, the actual time may be even longer. The cycle of the
arising, perpetuation and decay of the universe has been going on continuously.
It has gone through countless cycles – realizing this should make us weary of
the cycle of existence and give us a sense of urgency to practice the Buddha’s
teachings to the full.
4.3 Beliefs Concerning the Origins of the Earth
4.3.1 General Beliefs & Scientific Hypotheses
Many theistic religions whether it be those of the ancient Egyptians, the

Samarians and the Babylonians, Christians, Brahmins, Moslems or Shintoists
have believe that their god was responsible for creating the universe. The sun,
the moon, the stars, the earth, mankind and all other beings are supposedly the
work of a creator god; with each religion having scriptural accounts of their
version of Genesis.
In the present day world, many new technologies and techniques are
discovered by the hour. Such technologies have been used to verify or rule-out
truths about the universe which have been taken on the basis of belief since
ancient times – such as the hypothesis that the world and the universe came
from the Big Bang or that the human race evolved from apes. Such hypotheses
sound reasonable – but in the scientific process there are always new ideas to
disprove the old ones. To date there are only hypotheses – nothing concrete
enough to amount to a theory of the origin of the universe.
Buddhism also has a standpoint in this debate, and the accounts of Buddhist
Genesis presented here are derived from the Buddhist scriptures predating
science by almost 2,500 years.
4.4 The Origins of the Earth and Mankind According to

Buddhist Theory
4.4.1 The Buddha’s Motivation to Teach on Genesis
The Lord Buddha had described the origins of the universe, the earth, mankind
and all the beings in the Agga~n~na Sutta 6 . This discourse, deals with the
origins of the universe, the earth, mankind and all beings as well as how all
these phenomenon have changed over time.
The main purpose of this teaching was not to explain Genesis but rather to
undermine the Brahmin claims about the origin of the caste system. The
6
D.iii.80ff.
69
teaching was given to two novice monks named Vase.t.tha and Bhaaradvaaja,
who had been born in the Brahmin priestly caste. At that time in India, there
were four different castes in the system, which included:
1. The kingly caste.

2. The priestly caste.
3. The merchant caste.
4. The working caste.
The priestly caste was considered a high-level caste. The merchant caste was
considered a medium-level caste and the workers were considered the lowest
level caste. All members within these four levels of caste would look down one
another. Members of one caste would not associate with those of others. If
there was a male-female relationship between different levels of caste, the child
born to the couple would be shunned as an outcaste). When Vase.t.tha and
Bhaaradvaaja became Buddhist monks (the Brahmin religion generally looked
down on Buddhist monks and called them 'shavelings') they were considered to
have slipped to an inferior caste level – one purported to have originated from
the feet of the Brahma.
The Lord Buddha explained about the origins of the caste system to the two
novice monks. He described the universe from a time when it was still filled with
water down to the time when the caste system was established. He concluded
an individual is made superior or inferior according to the wholesome and
unwholesome actions they have performed – rather than by an externally
imposed categories. Although this teaching was not meant to explain the origins
of the earth, mankind and all beings – it serves us well in knowing the Buddhist
standpoint on the origins of life in the Creation debate.
4.4.2 Rule of Thumb in Verifying Credibility of Dogma
Those with previous beliefs about the origins of the universe may have
reluctance concerning the Buddhist approach to these issues. Deciding what to
believe is never an easy matter and in this respect the Buddha gave guidelines
to test whether an argument is worthy of one’s belief or not.
Because Buddhism is not a religion that forces anyone to believe in its

teachings, it isn’t concerned whether people having faith in the religion or not.
Buddhism is a religion for those who have enough wisdom to decide for
themselves. It is the religion that provides reasoning. When the Buddha
presented teachings, he did so because he saw the benefits others could gain if
they put them into practice. The teachings were not meant to be believed in, but
the Buddha wanted people to reflect on them and prove the teachings to their
own satisfaction. On this subject he taught:7
“It is right that you question. You have doubts in things which are worthy of
questioning.
7
Kaalaama Sutta A.i.188
70
1. You should not follow the a teaching because of hearsay;

2. You should not follow the a teaching because of tradition;
3. You should not follow the a teaching because of report;
4. You should not follow the a teaching because of text or scripture;
5. You should not follow the a teaching because of logic;
6. You should not follow the a teaching because of inference;
7. You should not follow the a teaching because of reasoning;
8. You should not follow the a teaching because of theory;
9. You should not follow the a teaching because of probability
10. You should not follow the a teaching because of respect for a teacher
who says so
If you know for yourself that an act is harmful or unwholesome, criticized by
the wise, that if done to the fullest is of no benefit and will bring suffering --
you should refrain from such acts.”
Hence, it is not strange that someone will reject or disagree with stories about
the origins of the earth. From the Buddhist point of view, it does not matter
whether readers to believe in such stories immediately but it will be an
advantage if they can eventually come to prove it for themselves.
4.4.3 The Origin of the Universe, the Earth, Mankind and all Beings
Before the Origins of Mankind

The universe, the earth and all beings all began with empty space. There was
only emptiness (in chapter 2, we learn that “space” is a substance without the
admixture of any other elements; it is a fundamental building block of all life).
This space was left when the previous universe was destroyed by fire, water
and wind – an event which we will learn more about in chapter 6.
Since the universe and the earth had arisen and decayed countless times and
they continue to arise and fall away without any end in sight, it is difficult to
pinpoint the beginning or the ending of the cycle exactly. The reconstitution of
the universe described in this chapter is that which takes place after the
universe had been destroyed by the fire.
The universe had been devoid of matter for a long period of time (so long that
the length of time cannot be specified) until rain fell in a universe that had only
space in it. In the beginning, the raindrops were very fine, but later their size
increased until the drops were as big as the trunk of a palm tree. Due to the
continuous rainfall, the water level increased until it flooded the entire universe.
The reason why the rain was able to stay in the universe was due to the support
of the wind, which acted like a gigantic bowl. Hence, the wind helped pool the
rainfall together instead of letting it scatter. This characteristic of the wind
gradually caused the rainfall to cease and the water level gradually decreased.
As the flood receded many heaven realms were uncovered all the way from the
topmost Brahma-level down to the Heaven of the Four Great Kings.
When the flood receded to ground level, the water level stabilized.
Precipitations from the congealing of coarse elements appeared floating on the
71
surface of the water. (By contrast the Brahma and heaven realms originated
from the precipitation of elements so subtle they could not be seen with the
naked eye.) The precipitations that congealed and floated on the water were
similar to those of the lotus leaves that float on the water without sinking. These
precipitations had a yellow-color, a sweet taste and a fragrance. They are
referred to as “Curds of Earth” and later it was to become the substrate for
many other forms of life and is otherwise known as “primal soil”.
After the ground was formed, foliage began to grow. The first breed of plants
that grew was lotus trees -- those that grew in the open air (which is different
from those in the present day which are always aquatic). These lotuses would
always be the first plant forms to appear on a ‘freshly arisen’ Earth – however,
the number of lotus flowers appearing on each tree at the beginning of each
world-cycle might not be the same. Sometimes there would not be any flowers
and for other world cycles there would be one to five flowers but not more than
that. The number of lotus flowers appearing would indicate the number of
Buddhas destined to be born in that world-period. For instance, at the beginning
of our world-period five lotus flowers appeared meaning that five Buddhas
would arise. As a result, this type of lotus is known as the “the prophetic lotus”.
The First Era of Humans
Once the Earth had become habitable, a certain kind of celestial beings, called
Brahmas of Radiant Luster, died from the Brahma realms and are born as
humans because their Brahma lifespan has ended. Humans in the first era did
not need parents to give birth to them -- they arose in adult form. This type of
birth is called spontaneous arising [opapaatika].
Those humans’ sizes and appearance was the same as when they were
Brahmas. They had no gender, their body had an aura – being self-radiant.
They were able to fly in the air -- and delight, rather than solid food, was their
staple diet.
The form of earth in this period was flat and was connected to the first level of
heaven (Heaven of the Four Great Kings). Beings could come and go freely
between the human realm and heaven at that time. Little by little, the world
changed shape, breaking further and further away from heaven in measure of
the increasing level of defilements people demonstrated in their actions of body,
speech and mind. The flat-shaped earth swelled to become oval-shaped and
eventually spherical. It took a long period of time to change the shape of the
earth in each step. In the spherical earth era, human lifespan is less than
100,000 years.
Food in Earliest Days of the world
The lifetime of humans in the first era was almost infinite until a certain man
(there are many humans who were alive at that time, not just one or two) was
tempted by the color and fragrance of the curds of earth to the point he wanted
to taste them. Merely by licking the curds of earth with his tongue, their taste
was absorbed and spread throughout his whole body. He really loved the taste
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and ate more. The other beings followed his example and as a result of eating
these solid curds of earth, their bodily aura and their inner brightness started to
disappear. The whole world fell into darkness and humans became scared.
In the darkness, the god Suriya along with the sun suddenly arose to drive away
the darkness. At that time, there was an arising of the moon and the stars so
that daytime, nighttime, days, months, years and the seasons became
discernable. These developments took place over a very long period of time.
The solid food not only the removed their bodily aura, but caused their bodies to
lose their bright complexion. The darkness of complexion varied from one being
to another. Some were dark, others brighter -- depending on kamma from
previous lives and their level of sensuality in the past. When the differences
became apparent, those of brighter complexion looked down on the darker ones.
As a result, of this discrimination, their bodies become coarser and they lost
their ability to fly. In addition, this misdemeanor caused the environment to
change. The curds of earth disappeared and became a sort of mushroom. It
was still delicious, smelling sweet and appetizing. The more beings became
dominated by defilements, the less refined their staple food became. The
mushrooms degraded to creepers and eventually changed from creepers to
rice.
The rice in that era was different from rice nowadays. The chaff was thin like the
husk of cucumbers so that humans could eat the white-yellow rice grains whole,
without threshing. Its taste was delicious, soft, sweet-smelling and full of
nutrition. Just eating it could relieve a person of hunger and fatigue. The length
of a rice grain in those days was about is around 1 cubit (according to body size
of people at that time). One grain of rice was enough for 3-5 people. When
humans wanted to eat, they would lay the rice grain out on a special kind of flat
stone and the rice will be cooked automatically.
Due to the large stature of humans in the early era, which is a lot bigger than
the current size, the rice stems were enormous. Its height was equal to a
Yangna tree8. It is even bigger and taller than humans in that era. Normally, the
ear of the paddy is upright. But when the rice is ripe, the ear bent down to a
height that humans could easily reach. After the grain had been removed, it
would quickly grow back. This rice could grow everywhere.
Existence of Human Organs
Because there was an increase in the amount of coarser and inferior food (due
to increased level of defilements in the human mind), the food that humans ate
could not be absorbed as efficiently as before. Undigested waste accumulated
in the body and digestive organs appeared together with sexual organs.
Whether the sexual organs were male or female depended on the purity with
which they have kept the Third Precept in previous lifetimes.
8
D. alatus Roxb which is 40-45 meters tall
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The different gender characteristics between individuals fired a sexual appetite

between them and eventually the onset of sexual intercourse. Sexual
intercourse was previously unheard of for humans. The majority of the
community shunned the minority who resorted to sexual intercourse chiding the
couples to desist by criticism, abuse and eventually banishment. The
banishment was described as follows:9
“Any humans caught copulating would be strewn with dust, ashes or cow
dung and taunted ‘Rascal! To hell with you! Rascal! To hell with you!
How can one human being do this to another . . . ?”
Creating Shelters
Couples that had sexual intercourse, had to do so in secret. They had to build
their own shelters where they could hide their shameful acts. They built houses
and settled down. After people started having sexual intercourse more widely,
womb-born [jalaabuja] birth started to become the most common. From that
time onwards human beings were born from the womb rather than arising
spontaneously.
Once humans built houses to stay in, they became too lazy to hunt for grains of
rice and became greedy. When they went out for stalks of rice, instead of
gathering enough just for that day they would pick more than they needed and
hoarded it. As their greed increased, the quality of the stalks of rice worsened
and the size became smaller. The husk on the rice thickened. Grains of rice
didn’t replace themselves when they were picked. They started to become
scarce.
The fall from celestial beings to humans at the beginning of time was caused by
giving into the temptation of the curds of earth – namely succumbing to desire
on the part of the Brahmas. Having tried it once, the Brahma became slave to
their defilements. The curds of earth were their downfall just as bait might be
the downfall of a foolish fish.
Although the Brahmas were human at the beginning of time, the human lifespan
was so long that it’s lasted incalculable eons. Long life was possible because
there was not as much pollution as there is now. Weather and seasons were
not unbalanced but remained temperate. There was no need for shelter to keep
the rain off and no need for shade to protect from the sun. The appearance of
beings was similar to that of the Brahmas. There was no need to work for a
living because there was no real hardship.
The world at the beginning of time was a world of comfort without any hardship.
If there is any discomfort, it was insignificant and usually just a case of making
do with something less pleasurable. For example, when there was a shortage of
curds of earth, people were reduced to eating the less refined mushroom
elements in the soil.
9
Aggañña Sutta D.iii.80
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One change that had a major impact on the beauty or ugliness of people’s
complexions occurred at the beginning of time when people started to eat not
because they needed to, but because they wanted to. Because the Brahma had
delight as their staple food, other foods were not necessary. If one succumbed
to their greed and started eating staple food fit for a human, coarse elements
would remain in the body. Such residues cause the quality of skin complexion to
worsen. However, if one consumes just enough to survive, there will be less
coarse elements in the body. The skin will remain clear -- hence, their skin is
more attractive than those who consume more.
It can be compared to mixing black paint into white. Because white paint is the
color of purity, even mixing in only a little black, will turn the white gray.
However, if we mix a lot more, the white will become black. Hence, people
discriminated against one another on account of their skin color.
The bodies of the celestial beings lost their radiance as it became more solid,
rather like a reaction that forms a chemical compound. The changes in their
bodies were slow, similar to the changes of water put in a freezer. Water starts
as a liquid, but once it gets cooler, it becomes marbled and when it reaches
certain temperature, it finally becomes ice. Water doesn’t become ice instantly.
In the same way the bodies of the celestial beings changed to humans over the
course of millions and millions of years.
The body of the primal human beings is much larger, taller and stronger than
the equivalent in the present day. In Buddha scriptures such as the
Buddhava.msa the dimensions of the men who became Buddhas is described.
Some were as tall as sixty cubits.
In less ancient history, mysterious large-sized weapons were excavated like the
weapons in Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s burial site. Further examples are
displayed in Thai National Museum although they are not from the beginnings of
time. They obviously belonged to humans who had very large bodies and were
very strong indicating that changes in environment had an impact on the human
body over the years. Once the environment and nature became worse, the
human body became smaller, weaker and more prone to illness. However, as
we have learned, changes in the natural environment originate in changes in
the quality of the mind.
The First Form of Government in this World
When rice stalks became scarcer and further from the dwelling places, people
then began getting territorial and setting boundaries around their land. Some
people stole rice from others’ land and eventually theft started to became a
problem. When the thieves were caught, they lied about what they had done.
Some even got violent with others harming them. The community therefore
agreed to set up a government to keep law and order.
In the process of selecting a leader to govern the people, the people had to look
for someone with sufficient wisdom, brilliance and majesty and awesome
enough to be capable of governing all the people. Once they found someone
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with these qualities, they elected him as king to govern the country. The king of
the land laid down laws to facilitate peace and happiness in the community. The
land was divided up in an equitable fashion. Thus, the first person respected as
a monarch [Pali = kasatriya], meant a person who excelled in handling land
[Pali = kaseta]. This system of government was the first such system in the
world. Unlike the present day, monarchs in that era reigned like a father caring
for their children.
Aside from the decision-making process of selecting a king, there were some
people who seeing others engaging in wrongdoings, encouraged them to desist.
These good people who led others to abstain from immoral behaviors were the
precursors of the Brahmins. They all built huts covered with leaves from the
forest and engaged in meditation on visual mental objects [kasi.na], the ten
recollections and introspection. They did not go out and make a living like other
people in this world, but instead procured food by depending on alms. The
villagers saw these people as above immorality and wrongdoing – an example
of virtue which the villagers could not yet manage themselves. This made the
villagers happy to support the Brahmins with food. Once they had received alms,
they continued to strive in concentration until meditation arises. These people
were also referred to as ‘absorption attainers’ [jhaayikaa].
Some Brahmins who engaged in meditation were unable to make progress.

Instead of meditating, they went on trips around the community and wrote
scriptures. Those Brahmins were known as ‘courteous ones’ [ajjhaayika]. In the
ancient era, this word was probably perjorative. But today, it has taken on a
positive meaning. Those who lived a family life and had to work for a living were
referred to as the working caste [vessaa]. Later the term ‘vessaa’ was reserved
for the merchants (those who owned the businesses) while the term ‘suuda’
was used to denote employees or manual workers.
The Birth of Animals
Afterwards, animals started to arise in the world with elephants and horses
being the primal species. They manifested themselves in large amounts. People
were able to tame elephants and horses as beasts of burden in cultivating the
land and as pack animals to use for transportation. Before using them, people
first rounded-up all these animals and selected the animals that had the best
qualities to offer to the king and then had the king divide up the animals for the
use of the citizens.
Once humans had selected a king to govern their society, people were obedient
to the laws he laid down. However, the level of defilements in the human mind
did not lessen, but worsened. Thus, the staple foods available became coarser;
the food changed from the previously aromatic rice to become less beneficial
and savory forms of food such as vegetables and fruits which arose
spontaneously. They appeared in fully grown form. There was no need to plant
a seed and wait for it to grow. Once humans saw this, they harvested it and ate
it along with the rice. In the beginning, even the stalks could be eaten raw and
there was no need to add flavoring or cook it as we do today.
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As mens’ level of desire increased, new forms of animals manifested

themselves. These animals used to be denizens of the unfortunate realms in
another universe – some being denizens of hell, hungry ghosts [peta], monsters
[asuurakaaya] or animals. When the former universe these animals lived in
came to the end of its natural life, because these animals had not exhausted
their bad karmic retribution, they were reborn in this universe to continue using
up their karma. Whichever animals had the retribution to become animals were
born as animals in this new cosmos.
Animals in the primal era were like humans – namely that they were born by the
mode of spontaneous arising. They were born immediately in adult form with no
need for parents. The type of animal they were born as depended on the
combination of residual greed, hatred and delusion in the mind. Most of those
being born as animal had a predominance of delusion. However, if there was
more anger than delusion, they would tend to be born a carnivore. If there was
more predominance of greed than hatred, then a herbivore would result. If
greed and anger were in equal proportions, the animal would be born an
omnivore. Greed, hatred and delusion are like the primary colors from which
any other color can be mixed. The combination of just three defilements can
give a full spectrum of species.
The only sort of animals that were born before the plethora of animal species
were elephants and horses, which are considered high-level animals and are
born in the fashion of spontaneous arising. After that, other types of animals
were born. In the beginning these animals were also born in the same fashion
of spontaneous arising. However, there were gender differences apparent
between them. If the being has the remnants of the retribution of breaking the
third precept, they were born female. If they don’t have such retribution or have
atoned for any they had, they would be born male. Once animals of different
genders start to reproduce together, a new type of birth was initiated that needs
gametes from both the male and female. Babies started to be born from eggs
and from that time on, all animals were born from eggs rather than being
spontaneously arising.
From this point onwards, animals tended to be of smaller types. This began with
the higher-level animals which are elephants and horses which were historically
older than other types of life like oxen, buffalos, lions, antelope, deer, pigs, dogs,
cats, ducks and chickens. Both males and females were born in very large
amounts in all of these types of animals. When the level of defilements in the
human increased further, smaller animals like ants, termites, mosquitoes and
other insects became widespread.
From that point on, there was diversification of animal species. A huge variety of
species developed because of human defilements diversified and with it the
retribution of those animals. This diversification will continue until we reach the
time when the human lifespan reaches it’s shortest. The shortest human
lifespan is ten years. The animals born at this time will have especially large
bodies. Small iguanas of other times will be born as large iguanas at this time.
The animals born in this era are not born by spontaneous arising any more.
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Instead they are born by sexual reproduction and their ferocity increases as
time goes on.
Humans Begin to Eat Meat
The reason that humans begin to eat meat is because those who had come to
the human realm from the hell realms brought their angry and aggressive
tendencies [dosacarita] with them. Because in past lives they had been
carnivorous animals, when they become born as humans, they had still not
broken free of the temptation to kill for meat. When they met the animals they
had been killed by in past lives, the karmic entanglement tempted them to want
to kill those animals. In that era, animals were killed by stoning or being beaten
with sticks.
At first, such karmic entanglements motivated the people merely to want to kill.
It was only later that the thought to eat the flesh from the corpse occurred to
them. Once they started eating meat they became addicted to the flavor. Later
they started to kill especially to obtain flesh to eat – and meat became part of
the human diet down to the present day.
As meat eating became more popular some people misunderstood that animals
were born merely to be human food. As barter for meat changed to buying and
selling, a market grew up for meat and eventually currency to pay for it.
The matters discussed here regarding the evolution of human beings are only
referring to those that are born in the world that we live in now, which is called
the Rose-Apple continent. Aside from the world we live in, there are still human
beings who are born in the other three cosmic continents. They are the
Northern Continent, Eastern Continent and Western Continent. Originally, the
lifespan of humans that lived in these worlds were very long and lasted an
incalculable eon. When the defilements in the minds of humans increased, it
made the environment less healthy. This is because the merit that nourishes
and supports humans decreased. This merit is originally came from the
wholesome actions of humans. Increased defilements thus causes the lifespan
of humans to decrease further.
Humans in the Northern Continent have a lifespan that can be reduced to 1,000
years and then it remains constant. Humans that live in the Eastern Continent
have a lifespan that can be reduced to 700 years and then it remains constant.
And humans that live in the Western Continent have a lifespan that can be
reduced to 500 years and then it remains constant. Those humans that live in
the Rose-Apple continent have a lifespan that can be reduced to ten years and
after it reaches ten years, the lifespan of humans in that continent will increase
until it reaches the length of an incalculable eon again. And once it reaches an
incalculable eon, it starts to reduce again.
In each universe, there are the same set of four continents. All the universes
have the same lifespans as the humans on the Northern, Eastern and Western
Continents as a rule and follow the Five Precepts. Everyone thus has a life that
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is peaceful and happy. Nevertheless, the Lord Buddha always chooses to be

born on the Rose-Apple Continent.
Conclusion
There have been many changes in our world since, at the very beginning of
time, a celestial being came down to eat ‘Curds of Earth’. Because of this, he
became our world’s first human. Since that time, the way humans live has
changed to that we know today. The origin of everything begins with the mind of
the human itself. Even though scientists have not discovered where humans
came from, the Lord Buddha taught us through his teachings that humans did
not evolve from animals as scientists assume.
If scientific knowledge is compared to the knowledge of Buddhism, it starts to

look like mere fragments of the whole truth. Even Albert Einstein, a scientist in
the new era who discovered the Theory of Relativity, still expressed his opinion
regarding Buddhism:
“The religion of the future will be a cosmic religion. It should transcend a

personal God and avoid dogmas and theology. Covering both the natural
and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense arising from the
experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.
Buddhism answers this description. If there is any religion that would
cope with modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.”10
The fact the reason the Lord Buddha taught about the universe, the world,
humans and even the origin of these things was to divulge the origins of
Brahma and the caste system. This teaching was intended to restore joy and
pride about having become Buddhist monks, to Vase.t.tha and Bharadvaaja
novices. The Lord Buddha did not intend to talk about the origins of the world
directly because he did not reckon this knowledge would ever help people rise
above suffering. Normally, if anyone asked the Lord Buddha questions
concerning the origins of the world he would not answer. Once, there was even
one monk who threatened to disrobe if the Buddha didn’t answer his questions
concerning the origin of the world – even so the Buddha still did not answer this
question because he believed that it would not benefit that monk at all.
Nevertheless, because the Lord Buddha built up much merit and good deeds so
that he can reach is goal of Enlightenment as a Buddha, he knew that he did
not want to just have knowledge about things. He wanted to help every being
escape suffering. For this reason, he revealed the origin of the world to
Vase.t.tha and Bharadvaaja because it was of benefit to them.
In conclusion, when studying cosmology, if we study merely to increase our
knowledge, it would not serve any purpose at all, going against the objectives of
the Lord Buddha in teaching these materials. However, if we study it and it
helps us to become disenchanted with the suffering of the cycle of existence, it
will inspire us to strive so that we do not have to return to this cycle of rebirth
again. This would be ample reason to study this subject.
10
May 19th, 1939, Albert Einstein’s speech on “Science and Religion” in Princeton, New Jersey,
U.S.A.
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CHAPTER 5
Universal Deterioration Caused by
Lack of Morality
80
Chapter 5
Universal Deterioration Caused by

Lack of Morality
5.1 The World Has Been Deteriorating since the Beginning

5.2 Chronology of Deterioration Events
5.3 Deterioration Started from the Governor
5.4 Appearance of Deterioration in Human Society
5.5 Deterioration to the Point of Crisis
5.6 The Root of Human Deterioration
5.7 Protecting the World and Allowing it to Prosper
5.8 Benefits of Understanding Human Prosperity and Deterioration
Chapter at a Glance
1. Deterioration in the quality of human life was set in motion by the eating
of solid food by primeval beings inhabiting the world – an action which
led to further alterations in the human and physical environments and
consequent worsening of human quality of life. Formerly abundant
natural resources became depleted. Discrimination and aggression
started to rear their ugly heads.
2. The degradation in human society became more severe when those in

power implemented unjust policies – and instead of solving social
problems, they were made worse.
3. The deterioration resulted in ignorance of the Tenfold Path of

Wholesomeness and peoples’ succumbing to the Tenfold Path of
Unwholesomeness. Such unwholesome behavior only served to
worsen the deterioration humans experienced.
4. Knowing the root causes of deterioration in quality of human life it

becomes obvious that wholesome behavior alone can protect the world
and lead it to prosperity.
Chapter Objectives
This unit should give students the knowledge and understanding to be able to:
1. Explain correctly how human behavior can be the root causes of

deterioration or prosperity in the world.
2. Describe the karmic outcomes of each form of wholesome and
unwholesome action correctly.
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Introduction
From previous chapter, we have learned how the universe and all the things in it
are formed by the combination of the four elements (earth, water, fire and the
wind) as mentioned in chapter 2. The emergence of components of the universe
has been gradual and has taken place over a long period of time. The timescales
involved are far beyond the scope of conventional units of time. The fully-formed
structure of the universe is as described in chapter 3. Later, after the formation of
the universe and the earth, the human beings arose. Originally, human beings
arose by the mode of spontaneous arising and had delight rather than solids as
their food. No need to consume the touchable food. Later, there was much
change. Starting from the moment these original beings ate solid food, their aura
disappeared. Male and female gender differences became apparent, they settled
down in houses and territories were divided up until the first king was enthroned.
This chapter describes how the deterioration of the universe and everything in it
has occurred because human behavior has succumbed to the defilements of
greed, hatred and delusion.
5.1 The World Has Been Deteriorating since the Beginning

According to our definitions, universal deterioration means not only deterioration
of the universe, but all the things in it as well. The symptoms of deterioration of
the universe don’t just become apparent during the ‘end-times’ of the universe,
but start to manifest in small ways right from the first changes that happen at the
beginning of history.
Immediately after the structure of the universe had fallen into place, the rate of
change (entropy) in the universe was very slight – however, with the arrival of
human beings the rate of change was dramatically accelerated – and this has
continued down to the present day. Human contact with nature has not only
changed nature, but has also rebounded on man to change his quality of life –
and on reflection we see that many of these changes have been to the detriment
of man and nature alike.
In the beginning when human beings were still Brahmas of Radiant Luster, they
had a radiant complexion and a bright aura, did not have to depend on external
light, had an ethereal body which transcended gender, could fly and walk in the
air, did not have to consume solid food because they were sustained by delight
alone. The human beings had long lifespans with very little suffering. However,
once these beings had succumbed to the appetizing flavor of the ‘curds of Earth’,
because they could not curb their desire for it, the wheels of deterioration were
set in motion for the human and physical environments.
The human beings changed so that their former auras were lost, their bodies lost
their radiance, gender differences appeared and with them internal organs
(internal organs developed out of the new need to digest solid food), they were
unable to float in the air as before and were grounded having to move from place
to place on foot.
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When the human behaviors changed, physical changes also started to take place
in the universe. From empty space, the components of the universal structure
started to emerge. The things which already existed disappeared or were reduced
or deteriorated in quality and quantity. The sun and the moon appeared, giving
their light to the universe. Then came the stars and there started to be a day and
a night and a rotation of the seasons. The wind blew and there was heat and
cold. The ‘curds of Earth’ was gradually depleted and was replaced by a coarser
food which later disappeared itself.
It is thus apparent that degradation is not something which has just started, but
has been happening since the beginning of history – or more precisely, since
there started to be human beings in the universe. As soon as humans appeared
in the cosmos, the globe started to deteriorate. However, since the deterioration
was not obvious, it seemed like only the natural changes as the habitat reached
equilibrium. However, on examination of the changes both in human quality of life
and the environment Buddhist scriptures tell us that it has been a continuous
downturn since the advent of human history. Thus, could say that the world had
deteriorated since the beginning.
5.2 Chronology of Deterioration Events

To show how the deterioration has taken place, what follows is a detailed
chronology of the prehistorical events already touched on in chapter 4. The first
changes to take place were in the human complexion. Complexions became
more darkened for those who ate more of the ‘curds of Earth’ and less darkened
in those who ate less. Those of brighter complexion looked down on those of
darker complexion, and because of this attitude of discrimination, the ‘curds of
Earth’ vanished and was replaced by a mushroom like food. As the mushrooms
were coarser than the ‘curds of Earth’, their complexion changing
correspondingly. The more the human consumed, the more they changed.
Differences of complexion exacerbated the discrimination, causing the
mushroom-like food to vanish. When the mushroom-like food had disappeared a
creeper like food appeared in its place.
Later, as human behavior degraded further wheat appeared in the place of

creepers. The wheat had a tall stalk and large grains with no husk. The grains
were nutritious and tasted good. The wheat could grow wild, anywhere. When the
grains were picked, it would grow back the same as before as many times as it
were picked. Although the food was plentiful, the humans grew lazy and did not
want to go out picking wheat every day. They picked more than a day’s supply
and hoarded the excess. Consequently, the wheat degraded to develop chaff. A
husk appeared. Once picked, wheat grains no longer grew back and the amount
of wheat became scarcer. It no longer grew anywhere – now growing only in
clumps. The grains and stalk became smaller in size. The wheat became
correspondingly less nutritious and tasty.
The wheat was not as easy to find as before. Therefore, the people divided up
territories and made boundaries around them. However, there were some
individuals who didn’t rely on the wheat grown on their own territories but stole
from their neighbors. The thieves were caught and admonished, however when
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released, went back to stealing as before. When caught again, they lied denying
what they had done. The ensuing arguments and violence led society to have to
find a solution to the problem of injustice.
5.3 Deterioration Started from the Governor

The people decided to select a governor to be responsible for the meting out of
justice to the wrongdoers. From then on, human society was governed by a king.
Some such governors had sufficient merit and power and became Universal
Monarchs who governed the land justly by Buddhist virtues. Such a monarch
ruled over all four cosmic continents and were endowed with seven treasures: the
wheel treasure, the elephant treasure, the horse treasure, the crystal treasure,
the woman treasure, the treasurer treasure and the minister treasure. He
overcame his foes merely by his presence.
A certain Universal Monarch named Da.lhanemi1 reigned until he noticed that his
wheel treasure had slipped from its usual place (indicating that the merit he
needed to rule justly had been exhausted) so he abdicated in favor of his son and
renounced the world, becoming a hermit who lived in the forest. Seven days later,
the wheel treasure disappeared altogether. To cause the wheel treasure to return
the hermit advised the new king to practice the virtues of a Universal Monarch
[cakkavatti-vatta], namely:
1. To rule the land justly, protecting both human and animal life – not
allowing injustice to take place in his kingdom.
2. To disburse wealth to those in need.
3. To request teaching from well-practicing monks or Brahmins as to what
constitutes wholesomeness or unwholesomeness, actions to be done,
actions to be avoided, actions which are for benefit and happiness and
actions that are for harm and suffering. On the basis of these
teachings, to act only in accordance with what is wholesome and to
shun unwholesomeness.
The son listened to the father’s words and acted accordingly. The wheel treasure
reappeared. Using the wheel treasure he was able to travel to all the four cosmic
continents and was able to reign over all of them justly at the invitation of the
kings of each continent. On each continent he instructed the assembled citizens:
“ Not to kill living beings.”

“ Not take what is not given.”
“ Not to commit adultery.”
“ Not tell lies.”
“ Not to drink alcohol.”
And allowed the king of that continent to reign as before under his dominion.
Thus, the Five Precepts are nothing new to our time. They are what has ensured
peace and harmony in the world long before the Buddhism. The Buddha did not
make up the Precepts – they are a long established tradition of the Universal
1
Cakkavatti Sutta D.iii.58
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Monarchs. For as long as a Universal Monarch existed on Earth, he would teach

his subjects to observe the Five Precepts. For as long as the people kept the Five
Precepts, peace and happiness would prevail – and there would be no threat of
aggression.
A further six generations of Universal Monarchs followed his example. When the
seventh in the line of Universal Monarchs saw that the wheel treasure had shifted
from its position, he became a hermit and told his son to carry on the traditions of
a Universal Monarch. Seven days later, the wheel treasure vanished completely.
The son who took the throne, merely mourned the disappearance of the wheel
treasure, without going to seek instruction from his father as to the practices of
the Universal Monarch. He ruled his kingdom instead by trial and error.
5.4 Appearance of Deterioration in Human Society

As a result of the omission in his conduct, the kingdom did not enjoy the
prosperity it had done under the previous monarchs. Later, his ministers informed
the king of the probable reason for hardship in their kingdom and urged him to
learn about the practices of a Universal Monarch from others who could
remember them. He was able to learn the details of the practice of a Universal
Monarch in this way – but he did not put all of them into practice. He made sure
no injustice took place in his kingdom, but he omitted to donate supplies to the
needy. In the absence of help, poverty abounded and consequently theft became
widespread. When the thieves were arrested they claimed that they had only
stolen because they had no other way of procuring wealth. Only then did the king
donate supplies to them, in the hope they would earn a proper living instead of
thieving.
When others learned that the king had donated preferentially to thieves, they too
resorted to stealing in the hope of getting royal support. The king realized that if
he continued with this policy, theft would soon be rife in his kingdom. Instead he
punished those thieves by shaving off their hair, tying them up to be paraded in
public, then executing them and impaling their head on a stake. When the thieves
found out the punishment for stealing had been increased to the death penalty,
they sharpened their weapons, and cut off the heads of the people they stole
from. Murder became rife in the kingdom.
Since the punishment for stealing was the death penalty, if suspects were
arrested and questioned, they would tell lie denying their involvement. Lying thus
became widespread. The main reason for all the killing, stealing and lying in the
kingdom was the fact that the king had not practiced the conduct of a Universal
Monarch since the beginning by donating to the needy.
As the killing of animals and humans became rife, together with telling lies, the
human lifespan became shorter. Peoples’ complexions lost their radiance further.
With the deterioration of lifespan and complexion in the first generation, those of
the second generation were affected more heavily still. The children with a
lifespan of parents with a lifespan of 80,000 years old would have a lifespan of
only 40,000 years. When this generation with a lifespan of only 40,000 years
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continued with their stealing and lies, their own children were left with a lifespan
of only 20,000 years.
When the human lifespan was reduced to 20,000 years, various people resorted
to divisive speech. When caught for stealing thieves would malign others
accusing them of theft too. Due to the further compromises to their self-discipline,
the human complexion and lifespan deteriorated further. The following generation
was left with a lifespan of only 10,000 years and their complexions worsened
leaving some with better complexions and some worse. Those with darker
complexions regarded the others with suspicion and committed adultery with
others’ wives.
As a result of the increasing toll of bad karma done by the humans the next
generation born had a lifespan reduced to 5,000 years. When two further sorts of
unwholesome behavior that became widespread in the human population were
harsh speech (swearing) and idle chatter reducing the lifespan of the next
generation to only 2,000-2,500 years.
With this 2,000 year lifespan generation, covetousness and vengeance became
widespread in human society and aggression became more common. Lifespan
and the complexion deteriorated further. Lifespan was reduced to 1,000 years
and with that generation False View became widespread. Lifespan and
complexion deteriorated further leaving the next generation with a lifespan of only
500 years. The 500 year lifespan generation saw the emergence of a further
three vices in society grasping for the unvirtuous [adhamma-raaga] greed without
end [visama-lobha] and passion of unnatural intensity [micchaa-dhamma].
Lifespan and complexion deteriorated further leaving the next generation with a
lifespan of only 200-250 years.
With the 250 year lifespan generation, society degraded to the point where
people no longer cherished their parents, elders, monks or ascetics.
5.5 Deterioration to the Point of Crisis
Since the human beings succumbed to more and more unwholesome behaviors,
and less and less wholesome behaviors, lifespan and complexion continued to
deteriorate until ten years was all that remained of the human lifespan. People
would come of marriageable age at five. The best remaining delicacies left at that
time – ghee, honey, molasses and salt – were completely exhausted. The best
food remaining was ‘kusa grass’ – the equivalent, of wheat, rice or meat in the
present time.
In this era, not one of the tenfold path of wholesomeness remained, the whole of
society having plunged into the tenfold path of unwholesomeness. No one
cherished their parents, elders, monks or ascetics any longer – and those who
neglected these things were praised by society. People didn’t know the difference
between wholesomeness or unwholesomeness any more. People were
preoccupied by things not for enlightenment [asaddhamma] and were
indiscriminate about who they ‘mated’ with -- be it their parents, brothers or
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sisters, the relatives, friends, students or teachers. Their sexuality was no

different from that of animals.
Besides indiscriminate sexual intercourse the humans of that era were also
violent and cruel towards each other, hunting each other down like prey -- be it
their parents, brothers or sisters, the relatives, friends, students or teachers. It
ended with a seven day holocaust known as the ‘satthantarakappa’. The human
population all killed one another excepting for a group a group who fled into the
forests, valleys or islands with the thought, “May we not kill others and may others
not kill us!” In the wilderness, they survived on roots and the fruits in the forest for
food. Once the seven day holocaust was over, they came out of hiding. When
they hugged one another, realizing that the deterioration had happened because
of the human deterioration into unwholesome behavior. Henceforth, they
persuaded each other to be established in wholesomeness and refrain from
killing. As they did more and more wholesome deeds, generation by generation
their lifespan and complexion improved. The offspring of that generation had a
lifespan of twenty years. The new generation did more wholesome deeds than
there forefathers, and their lifespan and complexion improved accordingly.
5.6 The Root of Human Deterioration

Since the deterioration in human society occurred progressively according to the
order described, and it was primarily human beings on the receiving end of the
suffering from the deterioration. All people had some degree of defilements in
their mind – but their ability to achieve success depended on their awareness of
their defilements – and if aware of them, whether they took action to get rid of
them or not. If they did not try to overcome their defilements, they would just be
puppets to the evil influences in their minds. If they were thick with defilements
they would succumb to the greed, hatred and delusion in their minds.
Since people were controlled by their defilements, they tended to do

unwholesome things. Their unwholesome behavior set in motion ever widening
circles of deterioration. From the chronology of deterioration that took place in the
Cakkavatti Sutta, the sequence of downturn in unwholesomeness is shown all the
way down to the time when both people and the environment suffered serious
consequences.
After the king did not perform the duties of a Univeral Monarch as his
predecessors had done, the first unwholesome behaviour people resorted to was
stealing [adinnadaana]. The next unwholesome behaviours they resorted to were
killing [paa.naatipaata], telling lies [musaavaada], divisive speech
[pisu.navaacaa], adultery [kaamesumicchacaara], harsh speech [pharusavaacaa]
and idle chatter [samphapplaapa], covetousness [abhijjhaa], vengefulness
[byaapaada] and False View [micchaa-di.t.thi].
Besides lapsing into the Tenfold Path of Unwholesomeness, the next thing that
the humans succumbed to grasping for the unvirtuous [adhamma-raaga], greed
without end [visama-lobha] and passion of unnatural intensity [micchaa-dhamma].
When three kinds of attitude became widespread, society degraded to the point
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where people no longer cherished their parents, teachers, elders, monks or

ascetics.
From that time onwards, down to the time when the lifespan was reduced to ten
years, the human no longer had any more respect for their parents, teachers,
elders, monks or ascetics. They mated indiscriminately like animals. Finally, they
became aggressive and cruel, hunting each other down like prey.
The particular human behaviors which led to the deterioration of the world are
referred to in Buddhism called the Tenfold Path of Unwholesomeness. This was
the karma which eventually led to deterioration, suffering and eventually the
Unfortunate realms. The Tenfold Path of Unwholesomeness can be categorized
according to the three modes of action – that of body, speech and mind:
Unwholesome bodily actions consists of:
1. Killing [paa.naatipaata] of the human beings, animals and even

committing suicide.
2. Stealing [adinnadaana] of taking things not given.
3. Sexual misconduct [kaamesumicchaacaara] namely committing adultery
and all other sorts of sexual relations outside marriage.
Unwholesome speech consists of:
1. Telling lies [musaavaada].

2. Divisive speech [pisu.naavaacaa].
3. Harsh speech [pharusavaacaa].
4. Idle chatter [samphaplaapa].
Unwholesome thought consists of:
1. Covetousness [abhijjhaa].
2. Vengefulness [byaapaada].
3. False View [micchaa di.t.thi].
False View consists of the following ten attitudes which conflict with reality
concerning life and the world, namely the understandings that:
1. Sharing is superfluous.
2. Welfare work is superfluous.
3. Virtue doesn’t need to be honored.
4. Good and bad deeds have no karmic results.
5. The ‘world’ doesn’t really exist.
6. There is no life after death.
7. We are not indebted to our mother.
8. We are not indebted to our father.
9. Spontaneous arising beings don’t exist.
10. Wise enlightened beings don’t exist.
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From the point when the human population succumbed to False View, they
closed themselves to all wholesomeness, everyone succumbed to grasping for
the unvirtuous [adhamma-raaga], greed without end [visama-lobha] and passion
of unnatural intensity [micchaa-dhamma]. Society degraded to the point where
people no longer cherished their parents, elders, monks or ascetics – and this
went further to the point where there was indiscriminate mating and eventually
indiscriminate killing.
The ten kinds of False View obscured any true knowledge or understanding to the
human population and as a result they covering not believing in sharing, welfare,
virtue, karmic retribution, the debt of gratitude to their parents or life after death.
They consequently lacked any conscience about their actions and became fully
puppet to the power of their defilements bringing the almost complete fall of the
human race.
Deterioration of Human Lifespan
Average Age (Years) Causes

From 80,000 to 40,000 Killing, stealing and telling lies
From 40,000 to 20,000 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately
From 20,000 to 10,000 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately and divisive
speech
From 10,000 to 5,000 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
and adultery
From 5,000 to 2,500- Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
2,000 and adultery, harsh speech and idle chatter
From 2,000-2,500 to Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
1,000 and adultery, harsh speech and idle chatter, covetousness
and vengefulness
From 1,000 to 500 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
and adultery, harsh speech and idle chatter, covetousness
and vengefulness and False View
From 500 to 200-250 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
and vengefulness and False View grasping for the
unvirtuous, greed without end and passion of unnatural
intensity.
From 200-250 to 100 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
intensity and no longer cherishing their parents, elders,
monks or ascetics.
From 100 to 10 Killing, stealing and telling lies deliberately, divisive speech
intensity and no longer cherishing their parents, elders,
monks or ascetics, complete disappearance of the Tenfold
Path of Wholesomeness and prospering of the Tenfold Path
of Unwholesomeness.
From 100 to 7 days Deterioration into indiscriminate mating and killing
[Migasa~n~nii Period].
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5.7 Protecting the World and Allowing it to Prosper

As already mentioned, when human lifespan was reduced to ten years, a seven
day long holocaust happened whereby people hunted each other down
indiscriminately -- treating each other no better than deer hunted for venison.
They used weapons against each other such as bricks, sticks, blades – inflicting
mortal wounds – until the majority of the human population were dead. However,
a certain minority fled the holocaust – surviving it. In the aftermath, they realized
the deterioration had derived from unwholesome human behaviour. Hence, they
persuaded one another to do only wholesome deeds from then on thereby
increasing human prosperity and lifespan. Wholesome behaviours increased now
with each new generation and lifespan increased correspondingly. Eventually
human beings worked their way up to a lifespan of an ‘incalculable’ year. The
environment also improved. The wholesome behaviour of the human population
consisted specifically of a Tenfold path of wholesomeness which can be divided
amongst the three modes of action as follows– that of body, speech and mind:
Wholesome bodily actions consist of:
1. Abstaining from killing [paa.naatipaata] of the human beings, animals and

even committing suicide.
2. Abstaining from stealing [adinnadaana] of taking things not given.
3. Abstaining from sexual misconduct [kaamesumicchaacaara] namely
committing adultery and all other sorts of sexual relations outside
marriage.
Wholesome speech consists of:
1. Abstaining from telling lies [musaavaada].

2. Abstaining from divisive speech [pisu.naavaacaa].
3. Abstaining from harsh speech [pharusavaacaa].
4. Abstaining from idle chatter [samphaplaapa].
Wholesome thought consists of:
1. Abstaining from covetousness [abhijjhaa].

2. Abstaining from vengefulness [byaapaada].
3. Right View [micchaa di.t.thi].
Right View consists of the following ten attitudes which confirm with reality
concerning life and the world, namely the understandings that:
1. Sharing is desirable.
2. Welfare work is necessary.
3. Virtue should be honored.
4. Good and bad deeds have karmic results.
5. The real existence of the ‘world’.
6. There is life after death.
7. We are indebted to our mother.
8. We are indebted to our father.
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9. Spontaneous arising beings exist.

10. Wise enlightened beings exist.
As a result of the increased wholesomeness of human behavior, the environment

gradually improved. The world flourished and was peaceful. The human lifespan
extended, especially as the result of Right View allowing the people to understand
the reality of life and world which in turn encouraged them to do yet more good
deeds.
5.8 Benefits of Understanding Human Prosperity and

Deterioration
In recent years, material progress has been making more and more effect on our
lives. However, such material progress has been matched by a downturn in
spiritual and moral standards in the society. Serious forms of moral depravity
have become the norm – while people overtly encourage their friends to go out on
drinking binges, they have to be secretive about going to the temple or taking up
spiritual pursuits. Therefore, having an awareness of what it behind human
prosperity or deterioration can inevitably assist us to make the choices in our
behavior which will be for the prosperity of society:
1. We should restrict ourselves to wholesome behavior from this day forth

because any good fortune we experience at the present time must
come from meritorious deeds we did in the past – and that merit will
eventually run out. Thus, we should be quick to top up on meritorious
deeds, in the short time available, so that we can become habituated to
them in every future lifetime.
2. We should abstain definitively from any form of unwholesome behavior
realizing the many forms of disastrous retribution coming to oneself
one’s fellow man and the physical environment.
3. We cannot stand idle without doing additional good deeds, because
aside of not getting any further ‘interest’ on the good deeds we have
done in the past, we are eating into the ‘capital’.
4. We must use our body to the full whether we are physically healthy or
not – because unlike the body of an animal, the human body is adept
and able to cultivate all sorts of meritorious deeds for itself.
Thus a clear understanding about how our own behavior affects the prosperity
and the deterioration of humankind will help us to strive for prosperity which will
ultimately allow us to fulfill the supreme human goal of attaining Nirvana.
Because ignorance is at the heart of our human condition we tend to lack

answers to the eternal questions of life such as where we have come from, our
purpose in life and where we go when we die. Such a condition remains with us
for as long as we fail to meet up with someone possessed of the true knowledge
which will allow a person to break free of the cycle of existence. The best of such
Good Friends [kalyaa.namitta] is the Lord Buddha, through whom we can know
our real aim in life. Although the Lord Buddha himself may not be alive any
longer, but the legacy of his teachings are still alive in our era. Furthermore, still in
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existence is the community of monks who continue to propagate the Buddha’s

teachings to the world. The characteristics of a Good Friend such as the Buddha
who leads the world towards prosperity is compared below to the characteristics
of a fool who lead the world towards destruction:
A Comparison of the Fool and Good Friend’s Characteristics
The Characteristic of the Fool The Characteristic of the Good Friend

2
1. Immoral action . 1. Moral action.
2. Immoral speech. 2. Moral speech.
3. Immoral thought. 3. Moral thought.
1. Evil thought3. 1. Virtuous thought.
2. Evil speech. 2. Virtuous speech.
3. Evil action. 3. Virtuous action.
1. Not realizing one’s own errors4. 1. Realizing one’s own errors.
2. Not apologizing for one’s mistakes. 2. Apologizing for one’s mistakes.
3. Not forgiving others who apologize to 3. Forgiving others who apologize to one
one for their mistakes. for their mistakes.
1. Asking questions without skilful 1. Asking questions with skilful reflection.
reflection5. 2. Answering questions with skilful
2. Answering questions without skilful reflection
reflection. 3. Not harboring a dislike of others who
3. Harbor dislike of others who answer answer questions only after skilful
questions only after skilful reflection. reflection
1. Unwholesome action6 1. Wholesome action
2. Unwholesome speech 2. Wholesome speech
3. Unwholesome thought 3. Wholesome thought
1. Harmful action7 1. Harmless action
2. Harmful speech 2. Harmless speech
3. Harmful thought 3. Harmless thought
1. Aggressive action8 1. Non-aggressive action
2. Aggressive speech 2. Non-aggressive speech
3. Aggressive thought 3. Non-aggressive thought
From the table above, we can conclude that the world prospers or decays as a
result of human behavior. The quality of peoples’ behavior depends to a large
extent on the persuasive example of Good Friends in society who know the
proper aim in life to Pursue Perfection in order to attain Nirvana. Thus we should
strive in accordance with the four types of Right Effort exhorted by the Lord
2
Lakkha.na Sutta A.i.102
3
Cinta Sutta A.i.102
4
Accaya Sutta A.i.103
5
Ayoniso Sutta A.i.103
6
Akusala Sutta A.i.103
7
Saavajja Sutta A.i.104
8
Sabyaapajja Sutta A.i.104
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Buddha:9
1. Not doing evils which you never did before [sa.mvarapadhaana].

2. Overcoming evil habits you already possess [pahaanapadhaana].
3. Doing good deeds you never did before [bhaavanaapadhaana].
4. Maintaining the good habits you already possess
[anurakkhaapadhaana].
Since we may have to be reborn in many future lifetimes in order to accrue all
thirty forms of Perfection, it is necessary to learn profoundly about the nature of
life and the world. One world cycle is very long time – nonetheless, we are only
able to accrue merits during one quadrant of the world cycle – which again means
we have limited opportunity.
Conclusion
Our human aim in life is to pursue perfection in order to attain Nirvana – which
means doing only wholesome deeds to bring prosperity to life and the world.
However, whenever people forget their real aim in life, their behaviours succumb
to unwholesomeness and they amount an increasing toll of bad karma and
causing them to be stuck in the cycle of existence.
From a study of Buddhism we learn that the number of past Buddhas who have
entered Nirvana, are more numerous than all the grains of sand in the sea. It has
also been more than 2,500 years since our own Buddha entered Nirvana. Even
so, we personally seem no closer to breaking free of the cycle of existence! This
is because Right View in our own minds is still not steadfast. Also, there have
been many factors to make us overlook the suffering of birth, old-age, sickness
and death. When we erred into unwholesome behavior unaware of the
consequences, our human body has deteriorated, our complexion worsened and
our lifespan foreshortened.
After death, in the unfortunate realms one must undergo the retribution of all the
bad karma one had done while alive for a long time. It is very difficult to go back
to being born human again. Even when reborn in the human realm, the remnants
of one’s past retribution will still impede one’s efforts to do good deeds by forcing
on us impediments like poverty, dumbness, sickness and curtailed life. It is only
when one has the chance to meet up with a Good Friend and to instill Right View
firmly in the mind that one will have sufficiently strong mindfulness to continue
doing virtuous deeds in spite of circumstances that tempt one otherwise.
Thus, with a full awareness of the reality of life and the world, while have Good
Friends on hand it will start to occur to us that there is really nothing new in this
world. We have already been born here countless times without finding anything
either pleasurable or bringing true happiness. Thus it is only right that we should
not hesitate to cultivate the maximum of meritorious deeds in order to escape
completely from the uncertainty of rebirth in the cycle of existence.
9
Mahaa-satipa.t.thaana Sutta D.ii.290ff.
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CHAPTER 6
Eschatology of the Universe
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Chapter 6
Eschatology of the Universe
6.1 Cause of the Ending of the Universe

6.2 Agent of World Destruction Depends on the Human Mind
6.3 Scope of Destruction by Fire, Water and Wind
6.3.1 The Destruction by Fire
6.3.2 The Destruction by Water
6.3.3 The Destruction by Wind
6.4 Process Destruction of the universe
6.4.1 Process of Destruction by Fire
6.4.2 Process of Destruction by Water
6.4.3 Process of Destruction by Wind
6.5 Why the Buddha Taught Eschatology
Chapter at a Glance
1. The world will eventually be destroyed by fire, water or wind

depending on the predominant mental defilements of the human
community. If the human community possesses excessive anger, the
world will be destroyed by the fire. If a human community possesses
excessive desire, the world will be destroyed by water. If the human
community possesses excessive delusion, the world will be destroyed
by wind.
2. The extent of damage to the thirty-one realms varies at the end of the
world depending on whether the world is destroyed by water, fire or
wind. Also, there is an order to the type of destruction bringing the
world to an end. Normally, the world is destroyed by water, but every
eighth time, it will be destroyed by fire. Finally, in the last (64th) time, it
will be destroyed by wind.
3. The method of surviving the destruction of the world is to practice

meditation until attaining the absorptions in order to be born in a
realm outside the area of destruction. However, for complete security,
one would best rid oneself of all defilements to avoid any further
rebirth.
Chapter Objectives
Students will gain the knowledge and understanding to be able to:
1. Explain correctly the reason why the world is brought to an end by

fire, water or wind.
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2. Demonstrate the sequence with which fire, water or wind bring the
world to an end in successive world cycles and the extent of the
damage to the cosmos for each agent of destruction.
3. Explain methods of surviving the end of the world for themselves and
others.
Introduction
In the previous chapters, we have already learned about the structure and
location of the various realms – their nature and inhabitants. Also from chapter
5, we know about the origins of the universe, the earth, the stars, human beings
and all other things. We know how evolution took place, and how it affected the
lifespans of the world and the universe.
This chapter will explain the various kinds of way the earth and the universe can
come to an end (eschatology).
6.1 Causes of the Ending of the Universe

In our present day world, we have become used to the idea that if the world
ends, it will be because of weapons of mass destruction. However, from the
Buddhist point of view there are only three things which can end the world,
namely fire, water or wind.
We might be familiar with these three elements but, we might still not
understand how fire could burn up the whole world. Even when terrorists set fire
to several oil wells -- considered one of the world’s severest fires – still the
Earth is left intact. The world was not burned up by it. It is also hard for us to
understand how floods or gales could destroy the earth from what we have
seen of conventional floods or hurricanes.
This is because the fire, water and wind capable of destroying the world is of a
completely different magnitude to that we have experienced. The fire which
brings the world to an end at the end of the eon is bastioned by the retribution of
all the bad karma of the beings remaining on the world -- especially the human
beings -- because other animals could not perform much karma – most of them
are just using up the retribution that was the result of the karma they had done
while a human in the past. Similarly, the angels and the Brahmas in the
heavens don’t have much chance to make new karma because they are just
using up the fruits of the good deeds they had done as a human in the past.
Those born in the unfortunate realms – whether in the major hells, the
purgatories, as hungry ghosts, monster or animals are mostly using up the
retribution that was the result of the karma they had done while a human in the
past. Thus, there was no chance to do additional unwholesome karma. It is only
the humans who have the freewill to think, speak and act intentionally. Although
given ample opportunity and freedom to think, speak and act in a wholesome
way, many had chosen instead to do demeritorious acts. When the evil of their
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deeds accumulated more and more the collective retribution of the karma would
bring the world to an end.
6.2 Agent of World Destruction Depends on the Human Mind

Although the agents of world destruction, fire, water or wind are the most
destructive of all influences – only one of the three is responsible for the end of
the world on any one occasion, not all three – for example if the world ends by
fire, then it is by fire alone.
That any of these agents can destroy the world could only happen because the
human mind had become full of defilements. If the human mind had become full
of hatred, the world would be destroyed by the fire. If the human mind had
become overrun by desire, the earth would be destroyed by water. If the human
mind had been filled with delusion, the planet would be ended by wind.
With such knowledge we have a choice about how we wanted the world to end.
If we become preoccupied by desire, by being selfish, the earth will end by
flood. If we become preoccupied by hatred, indulge in aggression and anger,
the earth will end by fire. If we become preoccupied by delusion, ignoring the
law of karma, dismissing merit and demerit, the earth will end by wind.
However, if want the world to be safe and was not devastated by anything, we
ought to help all human beings throughout the world by not letting ourselves or
others be overcome by the three groups of defilements.
Chart 6.2
The Destruction of the World
Agents of destruction Predominant Defilement
Fire <---------------------------------------------- Hatred
Water <---------------------------------------------- Greed
Wind <---------------------------------------------- Delusion
The world will not be destroyed at the same time by all three elements – it can
be destroyed by only one at a time. There is a sequence to the elements
responsible for bringing the world to an end. Normally, the world is destroyed by
water, but every eighth time, it will be destroyed by fire. Finally, in the last (64th)
time, it will be destroyed by wind. After that, the world and the universe would
be reformed. And the earth would be devastated again without an end.
In conclusion, in one world cycle, that the world will be destroyed by fire fifty-six
times, the water seven times and the wind one final time.
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6.3 Scope of Destruction by Fire, Water and Wind

The extent of damage to the thirty-one realms varies at the end of the world
depending on whether the world is destroyed by water, fire or wind:
6.3.1 The Destruction by Fire: Destruction by fire results in the destruction of

fourteen realms, namely:
1. The four unfortunate realms: the major hells, the hungry ghost realm,
the monster realm and the animal realm.
2. The human realm.
3. The six heaven realms.
4. Three Brahma realms of the first absorption.
6.3.2 The Destruction by Water: Destruction by water results in the

destruction of seventeen realms, namely:
2. The human realm.
5. The three Brahma realms of the second absorption.
6.3.3 The Destruction by Wind: Destruction by water results in the

destruction of twenty realms, namely:
2. The human realm.
5. The three Brahma realms of the second absorption.
6. The three Brahma realms of the third absorption.
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Chart 6.3
Scope of Destruction by the Fire, the Water and the Wind
The Realm of neither Perception nor Non-Perception

The Realm of Nothingness
The Realm of Infinite Consciousness
The Realm of Infinite Space
The Realm of the Supreme Brahmas

The Realm of Brahmas Who are Clear-Sighted
The Realm of Beautiful Brahmas
The Realm of Serene Brahmas
The Realm of Brahmas Who Do Not Fall from Prosperity
Brahmas with Abundant Rewards Non-Percipient Beings
Brahmas with Limited Aura Brahmas with Infinite Aura Brahmas with Steady Aura
Brahmas of Limited Luster Brahmas of Infinite Luster Brahmas of Radiant Luster
Great Brahmas’ Attendants Brahmas’ Ministers Great Brahmas
The Heaven of the Gods who Lord over the Creation of Others
The Heaven of the Gods who Rejoice in Their Own Creations FIRE WATER WIND
The Heaven of the Satisfied Gods
The Heaven of the Yaamaa Gods
The Heaven of the Thirty-Three
The Heaven of the Four Great Kings
Human Realm
Major Hells Hungry Ghosts Monsters Animals
6.4 Process Destruction of the Universe
6.4.1 Process Destruction by Fire
When the world comes to an end by the fire, it begins with severe and extended
drought. The world becomes parched and the trees dry-up and die. Later, two
suns appear in the sky. There is no more day or night any more because the
world is illuminated from two sides at once.
The new sun is hotter than the original sun. Since the second sun arises
through the power of the collective negative karma of the human population,
there is no guardian angel of the sun – like Suriya who watches over the original
sun (which did not arise in retribution for human karma). Due to the
tremendously increase of temperature, the guardian angel for the original sun
could no longer fulfill his duty. He meditated urgently to attain the absorptions
and escaped to be born in the high Brahma realms beyond the extent of the
world’s destruction.
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With the appearance of two suns in the sky, the temperature on Earth increase
to the point that there would be neither cloud nor mist. The water in the pools
dried up. The only remaining water was to be found was in the five rivers of the
Ganges, the Yamunaa, the Aciravadii, the Mahii and the Sarabhuu. Survival in
human form was no longer possible. Those able to meditate before they burned
up were reborn in the Brahma realms.
The humans knew 100,000 years in advance that the world would be destroyed
because angels known as ‘Lokabyuha’ angels clad in red would announce that
in 100,000 years the human world, all beings, the six heaven realms and the
Brahma realms of the first absorption would all be destroyed. They warned all
humans not to be reckless but to be quick to accomplish meritorious deeds to
be born in realms beyond the extent of the destruction.
After the angelic announcement all humankind felt a sense of urgency. They
cultivated wholesomeness and meditated until attaining the absorptions –
allowing them to be born in the Brahma realms. The angels and Brahmas of the
lower realms also meditated with urgency in order to be reborn in safety realms.
When the animals in the unfortunate realms exhausted their retribution and
were able to be born as human beings, knowing of the angelic announcement,
they performed meritorious deeds and meditated with urgency. The remainder
were those of False View who did not rush to do good deeds. When the world
came to an end, these latter were reborn in an equivalent realm of another
universe which had not yet been destroyed.
After a long period of time, a third sun appeared in the sky. With the increased
heat, all the water remaining in the five rivers evaporated. Next, a fourth sun
appeared. The extreme temperature caused even the large pools of snow-melt
in the Himavanta Forest to dry up completely. The water in the cosmic ocean
started to evaporate.
After that, a fifth sun appeared in the sky. The water in the oceans dried up
completely. When a sixth sun appeared in the sky, the heat caused the water
element in the land and mountains to disappear completely. It could not
maintain its former condition and became dust wafting around the world.
Subsequently, a seventh sun appeared in the sky with a heat so infinite it set
fire to the whole of a large cluster of universes [tisahassiimahassii-lokadhaata]
at once. The tumult of the explosion echoed throughout the cosmos. The
summit of Mount Sumeru where the two lowest levels of heaven are located
broke off, crumbled and vanished in the air.
The flame that burned and destroyed this earth and universe emanated from
the human realm. It then spread quickly to successive levels of heaven and to
the Brahma realms of the first absorption. The fire would continue to burn for a
very long time until there was nothing left. Only then would the fire start to
extinguish in this Brahma realm. After the fire burned out, all that was left of the
rest of the universe was empty space and darkness engulfed the universe for a
very long time.
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6.4.2 Process Destruction by Water

When the universe is destroyed by water, there is no second sun appearing in
the sky. There is only one sun as before. The destruction begins with the
occurrence of an acid cloud. Acid rain falls from the cloud, so corrosive that it
melts all objects it touches – and it continues to rain in this way without cease.
Firstly, it rains in droplets. Later, the rain falls more heavily in larger and larger
drops until it is a torrent. The water level rises until it floods the land, the
mountains, and covers the whole world, the universe and the large cluster of
universes.
The water corrodes all the realms until there is nothing left of the things
submerged under it – leaving nothing of the heavens, the Brahma realms of the
first and second absorptions and stopping short only of the Brahma levels of the
third absorption.
Once everything had been eaten away to leave nothing, the acidic water would
recede and disappear leaving only empty space and darkness engulfing the
universe for a very long time.
6.4.3 Process Destruction by Wind
When the universe is destroyed by wind, there is no second sun appearing in

the sky. There is only one sun as before. The destruction is caused entirely by
wind. In the beginning it starts as a breeze but grows stronger. It starts just by
kicking up dust, but later blows away sand, pebbles eventually stones. It grows
stronger until it rips up trees, blows down houses and buildings which are
carried away in the air.
By the tremendous force of the wind the debris is smashed to pieces, is

dispersed and disappears.
Later, the wind starts to arise from beneath the land. The severity of the wind
flicks the land upside down and blows it away in the air. Whether it be the
mountains, rivers, seas and oceans, all things are carried away by the wind and
smashed up, and scattered by the strength of the wind strength which tears
everything down destructively.
Once the world has been torn to pieces, the objects in the universe start to
suffer. Even Mount Sumeru is torn up by the wind, crushed and dissipated
without trace. The different levels of the heavens and cosmoses collide with one
another until they are reduced to smithereens. The Brahma realms up to the
level of the third absorption are entirely destroyed by the wind.
When all things were completely ruined, the wind then abates. There remains
only empty space and darkness engulfing the universe for a very long time.
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6.5 Why the Buddha Taught Eschatology

The reason that the Buddha illustrated the world destruction was not his
purpose to frighten anyone, or to predict the end of the world, or even to show
his knowledge about eschatology. However, his goal in explaining the
destruction of the world was to foster our disenchantment with the world and
with being reborn in the cycle of existence for which it is hard to find a beginning
or an end.
Although the realms may seem pleasurable, nothing is certain. Nobody is able
to possess anything for ever. No one can hang on to their dearest thing without
eventually being separated from it. In time, everything decays or dies. It is
impermanent. Whether we like something or not, eventually we have to be
separated from it. Consequently, if we have to die and be reborn again, we face
suffering without end.
That’s why the Buddha explained the world destruction to bring us

disenchantment with the world and inspire us to seek the liberation:1
“O! Monks! The body is impermanent, unstable and unpleasant. This is

its nature. One should be disenchanted with it. One should reach
dispassion concerning it. One should liberate oneself from being
enamored with looks. O! Monks! Mount Sineru is 84,000 leagues in
length and 84,000 leagues in width. It is rooted 84,000 leagues into the
ocean and rises 84,000 leagues above it. At a certain time, there will be
no rain for many years, hundred of years, thousand of years and hundred
thousand of years. When it does not rain, the plants, trees and grass –
even the huge forest dries up. Even so is the body destroyed, because it
is of a nature of impermanence, instability and unpleasantness. One
should be disenchanted with it. One should reach dispassion concerning
it. One should liberate oneself.
O! Monks! After a certain time a second sun appears. All rivers and
canals will dry up. As there is no water . . . even so is the body destroyed
. . . one should liberate oneself.
O! Monks! After a certain time a third sun appeared. When the third sun
appeared, the great rivers, such as the Ganges, the Yamunaa, the
Aciravadii, the Mahii and the Sarabhuu dried up. When there was no
water. O! Monks! . . . even so is the body destroyed . . . one should
liberate oneself.”
The Buddha disclosed that the nature of the world, the universe and all beings
is to be completely destroyed when the seventh sun appears in the sky and in
order that we be disenchanted, dispassionate and liberate ourselves. He also
said that even if were born as a the king of heaven, a Brahma or an emperor,
one cannot go beyond suffering for as long as we have not become
enlightened, do not understand noble self-discipline, noble concentration, noble
1
Suriya Sutta A.iv.100
102
wisdom and noble liberation clearly. If anyone comprehended all four of these
accomplishments, would be as good as enlightened because they can
overcome craving and thereby break free of rebirth – achieving true safety.
_______________________
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CHAPTER 7
Case Studies of Rebirth in
the Cycle of Existence
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Chapter 7
Case Studies of Rebirth in

the Cycle of Existence
7.1 The Repeated Cycles of Rebirth of All Beings

7.2 Case Studies: True Stories about Life after Death
7.2.1 From the Human Realm to the Brahma Realm
7.2.2 From the Human Realm to the Heaven Realm
7.2.3 From the Human Realm Back to the Human Realm
7.2.4 From the Human Realm to the Animal Realm
7.2.5 From the Human Realm to the Realm of the Hungry Ghosts
7.2.6 From the Human Realm to the Hell Realms
Chapter at a Glance
The Triple World [tribhava] is the substrate to all forms of life and living beings
condemned to be reborn from one realm to another inside this cosmic system
according to the merit or demerit, wholesomeness or unwholesomeness they
have accrued. Rebirth in the cycle of existence has been going on so long it is
hard to find a beginning or an end to it. Only by uprooting all the remaining
defilements in one’s mind can one manage to break free of the cycle of
existence completely.
Chapter Objectives
Students will have the knowledge and understanding to be able to appropriately

compare and reason the working of the Law of Karma which has led to present
day and afterlife situations.
Introduction
Learning cosmology has opened up a new world for many of us. It deals with
issues that we probably have never heard of or thought about before. We have
grown up in a world of science and technology. Life-long education in the fast-
growing subjects of science and technology has shaped our thought processes.
This, together with the prevailing materialism of society, has made us devote
less and less attention to subjects like cosmology.
Scientific knowledge is developed by testing assumed hypotheses made up on

the basis of preexisting theories. Many well-established theories have been
proved wrong at a later date when science and technology have advanced. It is
105
possible that in the next millennium, our understanding of nature might be

drastically different from that we know today. So what sort of ‘absolute’
knowledge can we trust never to go out of date? Knowledge gleaned from
science and technology undeniably benefits us in many aspects of life. Where
science starts from observation, experiment hypothesis, analysis and
establishment of theories, the study of cosmology starts with the cause, known
to the Lord Buddha not by hypothesis but through enlightenment. His wisdom
came from his insight into the true nature of all matters and therefore was
absolute and timeless. His enlightenment allowed him to see all aspects of the
universe as clearly and simply as we might look at an object and turn it over in
our hands.
In fact, none of the things the Buddha found were invented by him. On the
contrary, he observed existing truths that no-one else had made sense of. More
than 2,500 years ago, the Lord Buddha attained the enlightenment and
presented the wisdom he had discovered to the world. These teachings, as
recorded in the Buddhist scriptures, have stood up to the test of time benefiting
us all, generation after generation.
7.1 The Repeated Cycles of Rebirth of All Beings.

Previous chapters have described the structure and characteristics of the
universe and the nature of elements constituting it. Additionally, they have
addressed the origin of human beings including how we were born, what we
were in previous lives and where we are likely to go in the future. We also learn
that our traverse of the different realms is governed by the degree of merit and
demerit which we have accumulated for ourselves.
The human realm is rather like a ‘common market’ offering merit or demerit
instead of merchandise. When a being is in human form, it is able to accrue the
maximum of merit or demerit for itself by its actions. Beings may have come into
the human realm from different places including the human realm, heaven, the
form-brahma realms, the formless-brahma realms and the unfortunate realms
whether it be the major hells, the hungry ghosts, monsters or animals. However,
no matter where we are from, as soon as we are born, in human physical form,
although we may be of different nationalities, we will find ourselves endowed
with the full physical strength, wisdom and capability, social status and standard
of living to make choices about how to live our lives – either by making merits or
burdening ourselves with bad karma.
Our human realm is similar to a place where we can choose how we invest our
gifts -- in merits or in demerits. The merit or demerit which we accure will not
disappear but accumulate and result in happiness or suffering in our lives. It is
us who dictate our own life. Our future, extending to the next life, is in fact in our
control and will reflect what we have done today while we are alive.
For a better understanding of how rebirth in the cycle of existence hinges on

behavior in the human realm as compared to a ‘common market’, see Figure 1.
The figure shows rebirth to and from the human realm from other realms.
106
Figure 1. Possible Paths of Rebirth to and from the Human Realm
From the diagram, it is clear that beings can come to the human realm from
many other realms. Where they go to after the human realm depends primarily
on the merits and demerits they have cultivated while human beings. At the end
of their lives each go to different realms, some to better ones, some to worse
ones, all depending on nothing but their merits and demerits.
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7.2 Case Studies: Real-Life Scenarios of Life after Death

The merits and demerits done in our human life dictate our afterlife destination
and our quality of life there. For a better understanding of this subject, some
illustrative case studies based on true stories of life after death from the Dream
Kindergarten program are reproduced here by way if illustrative example.
7.2.1 From the Human Realm to the Brahma-Realm
Rebirth in the Brahma realm through attaining the absorptions1
Once in Thailand, there was a farmer, who was generous, loved to

practice meditation and kept the precepts regularly. He attended the
temple every Buddhist quarter moon day and was a head of the temple’s
lay congregation. He had asthma, the symptoms of which subsided when
he practiced meditation – making seeing a doctor or medication
unnecessary.
He died of old age at seventy-five after being bedridden for two months.
During that time, he had taught his daughter about the nature of life by
using his body as an example.2 Eventually, he informed his daughter that
he would die the next day. He asked his daughter to buy robes and
monastic requisites with his money to make a meritorious gift to the
monks for one last time at his home.
After he had requested the Five Precepts he offered the gifts to the
monastic community [sa”ngadaana] poured water to dedicate the merit
and received the monks blessing. He then meditated for over two hours
before inviting the monks claim picked-up robes and meditated further for
another two hours before bidding his children farewell and passing away
peacefully.
After his spirit left his body he arose as a Brahma, in the realm of the
great Brahma’s ministers with a crystal heavenly mansion as a result of
having practiced meditation regularly and attaining the initial stage sof
the first absorption. His mind was very bright. Although he had not yet
attained the sphere of Dhamma inside, his mind was bright inside the
whole of the time.
He had suffered from asthma because in this human life and previous
lives he had overworked his beasts of burden. However, his meditation
practice in this life managed to suppress the retribution of this karma and
allowed him to be reborn in the Brahma realms.
1
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: August 27, 2003
2
That his body was breaking down, because it is of a nature of body is impermanent, unstable
and unpleasant. One should be disenchanted with it. One should reach dispassion concerning it.
One should liberate oneself.
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7.2.2 From the Human Realm to the Heaven Realms

3
Born in the sixth level of heaven due practicing generosity out of faith
There was once a sweet tempered old Thai lady who loved the Buddha’s
teachings and was devoted to them. She ordained as a nun, practiced
meditation and resided at Wat Lam-mangka. A month before she passed
away, she requested her niece, who had nursed her in the last days of
her life, to invite monks to come to her house. She had offered food to
monks and received a blessing from them every day for a month. It is
interesting that during this one-month period, she had not eaten anything.
She was not ill and looked healthy. She passed away in her sleep so
peacefully that the niece asleep beside her didn’t realize until the
morning.
The lady had died of old age. Her spirit left her body and saw a heavenly
chariot that looked like a gold-crystal mansion with a very large heavenly
retinue. They all came to welcome her into heaven and brought her to
the sixth level of heaven. Her heavenly mansion was very refined and
beautiful and was made of gold-crystal, as clear as a diamond, encrusted
with many different types of gems. This was a consequence of her
practicing generosity with a mind endowed with faith in the power of
generosity and the Triple Gem, while observing the Eight Precepts during
the final period of her life.
4
Born in the fourth level of heaven after a short but meritorious life
There was once a young Thai man who had behaved virtuously
throughout his life. He didn’t smoke or drink and was loved by his family
members and relatives. He had had a difficult childhood. As an oldest
son, he had to help his mother with work and taking care of his younger
siblings. He had to undergo an operation on a heart valve when he was
twenty-two. He had been married with three children. He owned a
business selling construction supplies. He was a hard working person
and had done very well in business.
His whole family came to the temple every first Sunday of the month and
had joined long courses of meditation during the holidays. On the night of
May 6, 2002, his wife found him lying unconscious on the restroom floor.
She knew he was dead because his body had turned blue and had no
pulse. She rushed him to the hospital but was told that her husband had
already died of a heart attack. He was only thirty-seven years old.
After he died, his spirit left his dead body but did not go far. He still had
worries about his family and so his spirit lingered around them at their
home without realizing he was already dead. In this case, the man had a
sudden death, so the images [gatinimitta] that flashed before him before
3
4
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: September 13, 2003.
109
he died were not clear and his mind was neither clouded nor radiant. He
tried unsuccessfully to communicate with his family. No one could see or
hear him because he was in a different dimension. He only realized that
he was dead when he witnessed his own funeral.
After seven days, when his attachment and worry about his family had
diminished, he was able to recall all the merit he had done during his life.
Together with the merits his family had dedicated for him, his mind
became clear and his spirit started to become radiant. His astral body
transformed into a celestial body. A golden heavenly chariot of medium
size, encrusted with precious stones together with a retinue of angels
appeared to him and took him to circumambulate the Dhammakaya
Cetiya clockwise. He was filled with joy and went to the fourth level of
heaven by the power of his merits.
He lived a short life due to bad karma in his past life. He had been a
soldier and had killed a lot of enemies -- the main cause of his untimely
death. His heart failure was a consequence of animal abuse, in this case,
a horseback messenger in the army in another lifetime. He rode many
horses to death in order to get his messages to their recipients on time.
This bad karma would continue to follow him for many more lives to
come.
Falling from heaven to human realm because of resentment, later to

5
return
There once was a kind Thai lady who always had a smile on her face.
She never cursed anyone – she was never irritated or mad at anyone.
She never spanked her children. She cared for her mother out of
gratitude until her mother passed away. When she no longer needed to
care for her mother, she dedicated more time to practice meditation. She
attended the temple for every major meritorious ceremony and every first
Sunday of the month. She donated two Buddha images for the Maha
Dhammakaya Cetiya and was a major donor for the Kathina ceremony in
1991, offered gold for the casting of golden image of the Great Abbot of
Wat Paknam together with many other merits.
One day when she was lying reading a Dhamma book and was
recollecting in joy all the good things she had done throughout her life,
she sat up and extended her two arms as if she was expecting to receive
something. She then lowered her arms, closed her eyes, smiled and
passed away at the age of 72. She was a healthy lady without ailments.
What made her act in that way was quite interesting. She had heard
someone calling her name, so she sat up. In front of her, she saw many
beautifully dressed female angels whom were her own retinue. They
brought her a garland which she happily extended her arms to receive.
Then she passed away because her time had come. Her spirit left her
5
Dream Kindergarten Case Study June 16, 2003
110
body as a beautiful celestial body. Afterwards, she and her retinue got
onto a two-wheeled heavenly chariot of medium size made of gold and
encrusted with gems. This took her to a big heavenly mansion in the
second level of heaven.
Before she had been born as a human being in this life, she had been a
female angel in the second level of heaven living with her partner, a
good-looking male angel who had a bright aura. Her partner was an
eloquent speaker and popular amongst the host of angels. His popularity
made her resentful, causing her to come to an end of her angelic life and
be reborn in the human realm. Before she passed away from the heaven
realm, she made a garland and resolved that if her husband still loved
her, he should bring it to her. Her husband saw the garland when he
came back to their heavenly mansion. He understood what was going on
immediately and kept watching over her on the planet earth until her time
as a human came. Afterwards, he send a retinue with that garland to
invite her back to the second level of heaven.
6
Born in the third level of heaven
There was once a Thai Buddhist monk who had ordained for thirty-one
years before passing away on March 19, 2003 at the age of 57. At the
age of eleven, he had ordained as a novice at a temple in Nongkhai
province. He went to different Buddhist schools and was able to
complete all the courses successfully, then moved to Wat Naklang in
Bangkok. Later he went to India for four years and graduated with a
masters degree. However, he felt tempted to leave the monkhood after
he got back to Thailand. He told his plan to the abbot of Wat Naklang,
who then took him on a dhuta”nga pilgrimage in the jungle for more than
ten years. There he had studied meditation and traditional medicine. He
became skilled in these subjects and had helped the abbot curing the
sick for many years.
In 2001, he was elected abbot of his own temple. He built four monastic
dwellings, paved the road surrounding the temple, renovated the bell
tower and pavilion. His last uncompleted project was to build a school for
Buddhist study. He passed away while he was taking a nap after lunch. A
month before he passed away, he often suffered from pustules. He had
had an operation to get rid of the pustules just two weeks before his
death.
The temple’s M.C. brought his body to the hospital. The doctor tried to
revive him but stopped after being certain that the monk was already
dead. He was about to inject the corpse with formalin when suddenly
there was a power cut. The reserve power cut in instead, but this soon
fused too. The monks’ followers asked the doctor to inject the body at the
temple instead. They moved the body and this time the injection was
6
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: April 22, 2003.
111
successfully given -- but soon afterwards, the power went down for the
whole province, and there were strong gales and heavy rain.
All the unexpected incidents were caused by the strong wish of this dead
monk who was not yet ready to die. He wanted to carry on his work for
Buddhism. He unsuccessfully tried to get back into his dead body and
thus did not want the doctor to inject him. He understood that if his body
were injected with formalin he would have no further chance of revival.
He had recollected all his merits and made the wish that no one could
give him an injection. The power of his merit caused the power cut and
the unusual incidents at the hospital.
Afterwards, he followed his dead body back to the temple and eventually
accepted his death. He thought about his merits and his body changed
into an astral body and eventually a celestial body with all the trappings
of heaven. The heavenly chariot and his retinue appeared to him and
escorted him to the third level of heaven.
The heavy rain and gales at the temple, however, was caused by the
power of tree-, air- and earth-sprites, who were in deep sadness at the
death of the monk. When the monk was alive, he had always spread
loving kindness to them whenever he made merits. Now without the
monk, they had no merit to rejoice in.
The monk often had pustules as a consequence of his hard working in

the present life and also false words in his past life. When he was a
novice in his past life, he had been stubborn and answered his monk
master back, causing his master to be irritated and feel resentment. The
surgery he had on his chest was because of his disobedience to his
parents and seniors. He had been too self-confident and often argued
and threatened his elders and betters, upsetting them. He lived quite a
short life because of having killed in previous lives.
7.2.3 From the Human Realm to the Human Realm

7
Born as a woman because of having been adulterous
There was once a Laotian man who had emigrated to Chicago. He was
handsome and often messed around with other men’s wives. After he
had listened to teachings on the Ma”ngala Sutta especially about the
consequence of sexual misconduct, he understood the law of karma and
stopped his adulterous behavior. He became a better person and
regularly went to the temple, practicing generosity, keeping the Five
Precepts, meditating and doing chanting morning and night. He donated
Buddha images on the Dhammakaya Cetiya for himself and everyone
else in his family. Later, He had kidney failure and passed away soon
afterwards. With his attachment and love for his family, his mind was
7
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: February 15, 2003.
112
neither clouded nor radiant and his spirit lingered around them at their
home. On the seventh day, denizens of purgatory appeared to him and
brought him to purgatory. The judge in the purgatory revealed his
unwholesome behavior and the scenes of him committing adultery were
brought up on the screen in front of the judge’s throne. He watched those
pictures with sadness and guilt until images of his good karma were
displayed. This delighted him and allowed his mind to become clear and
radiant.
The judge’s verdict was that he should be given another chance in the
human realm. He requested to be born in his own ex-family again due to
his close ties with them. At that time, his ex-daughter got married and
became pregnant. His spirit was then drawn to her and born as her child.
He was born female since he had been adulterous in his most recent life.
He had a short life and again died of kidney failure because in a previous
life he had been a soldier who had fought and killed many enemies
particularly by stabbing them in the kidneys.
8
Short life from the bad karma of killing
Once there was a Thai boy who was brought up by his mother after his
parents got divorced. His mother loved him very much and he loved her
too – always doing what she said. When he was sixteen, he and his
friend had a car accident; he was killed but his friend survived. After he
died, his spirit parted from his body not realizing that he was dead until
he saw his own corpse being carried away. He thought of his mother and
returned home to see her. He tried unsuccessfully to communicate her.
On the seventh day, the denizens of purgatory escorted him away to
purgatory. The judge there weighed up his merits and demerits and
decided to send him back to the human realm. He was born again in a
family of high standing as a consequence of his past merits.
He had lived only a short life because he had killed two people in a
previous life. He had been in love with a women who already had a
boyfriend. He was jealous of them and hired a hit man to kill them both.
After he passed away from that life, he was sentenced to serve his time
respectively in the major hells, the satellite hells, purgatory, the hungry
ghosts, the monsters, the animal realm and then as human beings who
either faced tragic accidents or were murdered.
7.2.4 From the Human to the Animal Realm.

9
Born as a gecko in retribution for killing geckos
8
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: December 19, 2002.
9
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: August 15th, 2003
113
There was a Thai non-Buddhist who married a Buddhist lady. He had a

broad mind and never forbade his wife from Buddhist merit-making. He
even participated in some meritorious events himself, including the
offering of Kathina robes or picked-up robes.
Every Friday, he took his duty of killing geckos seriously. The prophet of
his religion was captured by the enemy while hiding in a cave due to
noise- geckos made. He considered geckos his enemy since he had a
great faith in his prophet. He performed this duty even though his wife
warned him otherwise. In addition to killing geckos, he drank, gambled
and smoked. He suffered from asthma and other diseases. He eventually
died of a brain hemorrhage. After his death, his relatives made a
donation to build a Buddha image on the Maha Dhammakaya Cetiya in
his name and transferred merit to him.
He was confused and not completely conscious while he was dying. The
last thing he saw before he died was darkness and geckos appearing to
him. His spirit was drawn into an egg of a pregnant gecko – a
consequence of his habitual practice of killing geckos. Considering his
bad karma from habitual killing, smoking, gambling and drinking, he
would have normally have been drawn to the major hell realms. However,
he went to the animal realm because the merit he had done in Buddhism
postponed the retribution of that bad karma.
In the animal realm, he could not receive any merit dedicated to him by
his relatives. He would have to be reborn as a gecko for many life times
to come. When the karma from his killing was exhausted, other karma,
meritorious or otherwise, would gain the upper hand. If merit gained the
upper hand, he would be born again in human realm. If demerit were to
gain the upper hand he would find himself either in the major or the
satellite hells. His brain hemorrhage was caused by karma he had built
up for himself in the present lifetime by killing geckos, drinking alcohol,
smoking and gambling.
10
The karma of an owner of a duck farm
There was once a man who originally came from China and made a
living by operating a duck farm. He bought ducklings and raised them to
egg-laying age. He collected and sold their eggs. If ducks did not lay
enough eggs, he would sell them to the slaughter house. He fed them on
shellfish, boiled and minced with fish to get red-yolked eggs.
He was a kind person – always helpful and generous to his friends – but
smoked and drank a small cup of alcohol-based medicine every day. He
occasionally made merit at a local Chinese shrine and practiced giving to
the poor.
10
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: June 26, 2003
114
Every evening, he went to see Chinese friends and had cups of tea with
them at the fresh market. One day he told his wife that he was sick and
about to die after he got back from the market. His wife and children tried
to give him first aid but he had a heart attack and died at the age of
seventy-six.
Before his death he was upset because he was insulted by his debtor’s
daughter. His mind was very clouded, allowing demerit to gain control of
the images [gatinimitta] flashing before him as he died. He saw and
heard the ducks he had raised both for eggs and slaughter. Those
images led him to be reborn in the animal realm as a duck that was
slaughtered over and over again until this retribution be exhausted.
7.2.5 From the Human Realm to the Realm of Hungry Ghosts

11
Born as a hungry ghost because of stinginess and insulting monks
There once was a Chinese man who immigrated to Thailand from

Shantou in China. He passed away at the age of seventy-two.
When he was a young man, he struggled to raise his family because he

had ten children. He had a better financial situation when he reached the
middle age. He was not very close to his children because he also had a
mistress and spent most of his time with her. Generally, he did the sort of
charitable good works Chinese people like to do, but he refused to give
support to Buddhist monks. He considered them lazy because they did
not work. He passed this prejudice on to all his sons. He had five sons
and five daughters. All his daughters, however, loved to support
Buddhism like their mother (his wife).
He maintained strong health until the last period of his life when he
developed symptoms of diabetes and high blood pressure. He passed
away peacefully in his sleep, while lying on his side hugging his bolster
looking as if he was still alive.
His spirit left his body and lingered around his own home for seven days.
On the seventh day, the denizens of purgatory and brought him before
the courthouse of purgatory. They dragged him there against his will,
filling him with fear. In front of the courthouse, there were lines of newly
deceased, naked and of many different nationalities, both men and
women. He was brought before the judge in the purgatory [yamaraaja]
The judge in the purgatory questioned him about his past life and asked
him, “Do you know why you are here?”
He answered humbly that he didn’t know, saying, “Don’t hurt me! Please
let me go!”
11
115
“You will be allowed to go only after your merits and demerits have been
reviewed.” The judge ordered the prosecutor (representing the bad
deeds the victim had done) [suvaanalekhaa] to check on the man’s
record of unwholesome deeds. His bad karma showed up scene after
scene on a screen in front of the judge’s throne, especially his infidelity to
his wife and his negative attitude towards monks and having insulted
them.
The man felt sad and guilty looking at his past, his body turned dull. The
judge ordered the defence (representing the good deeds the victim had
done) [suva.n.nalekhaa] to check on the man’s record of wholesome
deeds. Scenes of him making merit, although not very numerous,
appeared on the screen including the donations he had made for social
work. Consequently, he was led from purgatory through an exit into the
realm of the hungry ghosts. His body was now black, thin and tall with
maggots filling his mouth. He had bad breath and body odor, which came
as a consequence of having looked down on monks. His genitals were
huge and heavy due to the bad karma he had accrued by his infidelity. In
this realm, luckily he was able to receive merits from his relatives, which
helped reduce the time he would have to spend undergoing retribution
there.
Being reborn as a hungry ghost with a heavenly mansion because of

insulting monks12
Once there was a poor Thai farmer who struggled to raise his seven
children. None of his children completed their schooling, because they
had to help him in the fields. Their diet consisted of mere vegetables and
fish caught from a nearby river.
He was a family man who was faithful, trustworthy, persistent and hard-
working. He was good at his work and subsequently enjoyed a more
comfortable quality of life. However, he did not believe that one’s deeds
earned merit or demerit and consequently performed no significant
deeds of merit or demerit. Once in a while, he offered food to monks,
raised funds for Kathina or robe-offering ceremonies or helped with
ordination ceremonies. It was not until the last period of his life, that he
cultivated more merit at the persuasion of his daughter. Behind his
daughter’s back however, he told other people that he did not believe in
heaven or hell and insulted the monks.
He lost his appetite and memory with age during the last period of his life
– but would let no doctors tend him.
Before he died, negative images flashed before him of shrimps, shellfish,

crabs and fish he had killed and of himself insulting monks. These
12
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: February 22, 2003.
116
negative images alternated with positive images of himself occasionally

doing meritorious deeds. His mind was neither radiant nor clouded. On
death, his spirit lingered around his home for seven days. On the seventh
day, the air-sprites responsible for his area brought him to the village of
hungry ghosts possessing heavenly mansions [vemaanikapeta].13 These
hungry ghosts spent their nights as hungry ghosts and their days as tree-
sprites. He had a silver palace of moderate size floating at the level of
the treetops.
During the day, at the time he was a sprite, he had plenty of food from
the merit he had done. However, at dusk, he felt anguish and was
compelled (by his karma) to bolt out of the mansion and turn into a
hungry ghost. This was a consequence of his not believing in heaven,
hell or the law of karma. He had a big, tall body which was festering and
wiry. His mouth was filled with maggots from the bad karma of insulting
monks. He found himself in great pain and kept shouting “Now I believe it!
Now I believe in heaven and hell!” With his mouth full of maggots, he was
unable to say anything very clearly. His suffering led him to believe he
was already in hell. Nonetheless, he was not in hell and had no idea that
the torture in hell was more intense still.
He could not wait for dawn and to be free of pain and to transform back
into a sprite. The suffering made him feel that the night was never-ending.
14
Saved from a major hell by merit his son transferred
There was once a Thai man who worked hard to support his family by
opening a small shop selling alcohol while slaughtering fish, ducks and
pigs. He was a big man weighing 125 kilograms but suffered from
diabetes. He was addicted to gambling especially with dice and managed
an underground lottery.
Nonetheless, he was a kind person, loving to help his community and

volunteered as a committee member at a nearby temple. The community
and all the monks loved him. When he was sick, his son – also a temple
volunteer – attempted to remind his father of the merit he had done as he
died. His son knew how the images flashing before one as one dies
[gatinimitta] dictate a dying person’s afterlife destination. His son
informed him regularly of opportunities for meritorious deeds and
persuaded him to make merit.
13
People are reborn as hungry ghosts possessing heavenly mansions because of having done
a mixture of good and bad deeds. Some are hungry ghosts at night and angels during the day.
They can have a lifespan of anything from a hundred years to a million. At the time they are
able to enjoy their own heavenly mansion they know that these are the fruits of merits they have
done during their human life and they dread the time when they will have to return to being a
hungry ghost. Hungry ghosts with heavenly mansions come in three types: 1. earth-sprites with
heavenly mansions [bhumadevaa-vemaanikapeta] which have their own villages of many types
located on land, on water or beneath the water; 2. tree-sprites with heavenly mansions in the
treetops [rukkhadevaa-vemaanikapeta] and; 3. air-sprites which have heavenly mansions in the
air at a height of about one league above the earth [aakaasadevaa-vemaanikapeta]
14
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: November 11, 2002
117
The father died at the age of forty-eight. Before he died, images flashed
before him of himself doing both wholesome and unwholesome deeds.
The images of killing pigs, fish and ducks, gambling, selling alcohol and
drugs and running the underground lottery flashed before him as he died,
but also pictures of him helping the community and volunteering as a
committee member at the temple. His dying mind alternated between
being radiant and clouded.
In the end, when his mind was more radiant than clouded, his spirit broke
free from his body and wandered around in his home. His spirit attended
his own funeral. He lingered in his own home for seven days but was
unable to communicate with anyone. The earth-sprites responsible for
his area approached and informed him, “You have a mixture of both
merit and demerit therefore you will be sent to the realm of hungry ghosts
with a heavenly mansion [vemaanika-peta] – the mansion being located
in a mountain crevice near to your earthly home.” He was then brought to
his mansion, which was silvery-white with slight gold trim. As soon as he
went through the entrance, his large body slimmed down to around
seventy kilograms as a result of his merit -- merit from his son’s
ordination, merit transferred to him from his family and merit from his
having built a Buddha image on the Maha Dhammakaya Cetiya. Without
these merits he would have found himself one of the Major Hell Realms.
His mansion was situated in a mountain crevice. He was completely

alone with no retinue, but had some angelic ambrosia to feed off as a
result of the merits he had done. He was an angel during the day, but at
night he felt anguish and was compelled to bolt out of the heavenly
mansion. As soon as he left his mansion, his body turns into a hungry
ghost which floated in the air as a result of bad karma he had committed
by killing animals, gambling and selling alcohol. He had the body, head
and trotters of pig, feet and wings of a duck and tail of a fish.
His head was on fire because of the bad karma of selling alcohol and
running an underground lottery. Many metal dice engulfed in flame and a
lesser number of metal playing cards rained down on his head. While
undergoing this retribution, he was surrounded by a retinue of those who
had committed similar bad karma and who had no shelter or place to live.
Members of this retinue were brought to him by the head of the earth-
sprites responsible for the area.
7.2.6 From the Human to the Hell Realm

15
Falling into the hell realms despite expecting to go to heaven
There was once a Thai non-Buddhist man who loved eating chicken.
Everything he ate had chicken in it. He slaughtered a chicken in honor of
every major ceremony in his religion,
15
118
Before passing away, he was severely ill and paralyzed. He curled

himself up when sleeping like a headless chicken. He died oblivious,
therefore the final images [kammanimitta] flashing before him were not
clear. The spirit left his corpse and lingered around his home for seven
days until the denizens of purgatory came and took him away for
judgment.
He was very startled to find himself in the unfamiliar surroundings of

purgatory because he had always been taught that he would be
automatically entitled to join his god in heaven when he died. In front of
the courthouse, there were lines of newly deceased, naked and of many
different nationalities, both male and female. They all looked somber and
afraid, waiting to be brought for trial.
The announcer called out his name and he was taken into the
courthouse. The judge there questioned him about his life, name and
address. He answered all the questions and insisted that he had a strong
faith in God. The judge told him that he would be considered only on the
basis of good and bad karma. The images of him slitting chicken’s
throats and ordering other people to do so, appeared on the screen at
the front of the judge’s throne. His mind became clouded when he saw
those images.
The judge told him that killing and torturing animals was a grave demerit
and sentenced him to be tortured by being cast into a deep abyss (in the
first level of hell). The hole was filled with denizens of hell, which used
huge swords to cut the throats of the victims. They died in extreme pain,
only to be reborn in the same predicament and going through this sort of
death over and over again.
A distillery manager forced to inflict molten copper on others in

16
purgatory
Once there was a Thai man who had become manager of a distillery at
the age of twenty. He was very able despite having been educated only
to the fourth grade of elementary school. He could speak many
languages. At the age of twenty-five, he assumed the position of
manager at factories manufacturing sugar, flour, alcohol and ice. He was
lively, talkative and outspoken by habit and was involved in meritorious
activities especially at a local Chinese shrine according to traditional
Chinese beliefs.
Every Buddhist quarter moon day he would ask all his children to help
their mother preparing offerings to be put them on the shrine as an
offering to the Buddha in his home’s shrine room. He also brought his
whole family to a nearby temple. He gave donations whenever he was
16
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: June 16, 2003.
119
asked and had donated a Buddha image on the Maha Dhammakaya

Cetiya. He only drank to be social.
He passed away at the age of fifty-nine on April 21, 1998, because of

complications from ultrasound treatment to his gall bladder. His spirit left
his body and lingered around his family for a further seven days until
denizens of purgatory took him away for judgment. The judge there
weighed up his merit and demerit and sentenced him to serve as a
denizen [kumbha.n.da] inflicting suffering on others in purgatory.
In any heaven year he would serve nine months as a denizen in

purgatory and have three months off (to enjoy a standard angelic
existence). Later, when his family transferred merit to him, his sentence
was reduced to only three months serving in purgatory. His duty in
purgatory was to pour molten copper liquid down the throats of victims
who had the karma of drinking alcohol.
Reborn in the first level of major hell due to the bad karma of killing
animals17
There were once two Chinese immigrants who settled in Thailand as

market gardeners. The wife died in childbirth and subsequently, he took
a Thai woman as his wife.
As a young man he often went out hunting in the woods -- especially to

catch wild roosters for food. His neighbors often requested he slaughter
chickens, ducks and pigs on their behalf, when there were local festivities.
He also liked to drink and gambled on the underground lottery.
When he reached the age of sixty-six, he started to develop a pain in his

leg and a swollen knee. His symptoms were so severe that he could no
longer walk. His family admitted him to the hospital where the symptoms
were alleviated. After about a year, he developed a similar pain and went
back into hospital. After taking medication for two weeks he started to
observe a rash on his back. His illness worsened and he finally passed
away at the age of sixty-eight.
Just before he died, images [gatinimitta] flashed before his eyes of all the
animals he had killed including ducks, chickens and pigs. These scenes
filled his mind with sorrow and darkened it. The final thing on his mind
before he died was therefore darkness. When he died, the power of the
demerit he had done drew him directly to the first level of the major hell
[Sañjiiva]. Reborn in that hell, his body was huge and was half human,
half animal. At first he had the head of chicken and the body of a human.
The denizens of hell which had spontaneously arisen to inflict suffering
on him through the power of his own bad karma, slashed or stabbed his
throat, leaving him to die a painful death. As soon as he was dead he
would be reborn in the same predicament dying again and again in the
17
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: July 30, 2003.
120
same way in the form of a half human, half animal of different

combinations -- sometimes half human, half pig, sometimes half human,
half duck, sometimes half human, half goose. He was decapitated
innumerable times and always in extreme pain and suffering.
Born in the third level of major hell due to sexual misconduct18
There was once a Chinaman who emigrated to Thailand. He was

employed in a drugstore. He was a womanizer and had affairs with four
other women besides his wife. He had never been successful in his
career and hardly lent his wife or family a helping hand. He was more
involved with his other women and their families. He even asked his wife
to help taking care of his latest mistress and her two children for eight
years, even though his wife already had six children of her own. His wife
was a very kind lady and bore the mistress no resentment.
He usually helped out with the chores at the Chinese shrine especially
when there was a Chinese Opera. He was generally disinterested in
meritorious deeds, although during one period he brought a tiffin set of
food for the abbot of a certain temple out of faith.
During the last period of his life he suffered from heart disease and
passed away in his wife’s home. Before he died, images [kammanimitta]
flashed before his eyes of all his sexual misconduct, causing his mind to
be clouded. His spirit was drawn to be reborn in the third level of major
hell [Sa”nghaata]. His body was huge with abnormally large genitals.
Denizens of hell which had arisen through the strength of the victim’s bad
karma, cut open his chest, pulled out his heart and squeezed it, as
retribution for hurting the feelings of his wife and children. He would die
in great pain and reborn again. This time round, the denizen of hell
hacked off his genitals with a sharp knife. Although barely alive he would
be in excruciating pain for a long time to come.
His heart disease was a consequence of karma from a previous life when
he had been a farmer who hunted animals for a living. The heart disease
was the sum of the karma of killing in that life and the sexual misconduct
in this life.
Set free from hell by recalling merits19
There was once a Thai lady who always made merits and practiced
generosity whenever any temple appealed. In 1997, she heard of the
construction of the Maha Dhammakaya Cetiya and attended the pile
driving ceremony for laying its foundations. Along with many others, she
joyfully participated in a ceremony for driving model piles. Later, she
opened a seafood restaurant which served fresh seafood. She kept live
18
Dream Kindergarten Case Study: May 19, 2003.
19
121
fish and shellfish in tanks for customers to select. All her time was taken
up by her restaurant and she had no opportunity to attend ceremonies at
the temple any more. She had her restaurant business for only a few
years before she fell ill and died.
Before she died the images of all the fish and shellfish she had killed
flashed before her. This caused her mind to be clouded and the last thing
on her mind before she died was darkness. She was reborn immediately
in a satellite hell of the first level of hell. In this realm, the victims had
different physical forms, some with the body of human and the head of
shrimp, a crab or a fish. They all lined up before a hot cutting platform
made of steel. Denizens of hell waited at the platform with a huge meat
cleaver that was used to decapitate them one by one.
The remains of the victims were cut into little pieces. The denizens of hell
gathered the pieces together in a hot steel net and set them aside. In this
realm, dead victims would be brought back to life by being blown upon by
a special kind of wind. Once reborn they would find themselves in the
same predicament as before, being killed and reborn over and over
again in excruciating pain and suffering.
She had taken the form with a fish’s head and was waiting in line. On her
way down to the cutting platform, she saw one victim on the floor with a
metal stake being driven through its chest. A denizen of hell drove the
stake in with a big mallet. The ringing sound of the metal stake as it was
driven in reminded her of the sound she had made when driving the
model piles at the ceremony for the establishment of the Maha
Dhammakaya Cetiya. It was only now that she could recollect that merit
and remembering one merit, all the other good things she had done
came back to her. Suddenly her body became radiant. Her time as a
victim in hell had ended and her good karma drew her to the heaven
realms. She had a new celestial body and a small heavenly mansion in
the second level of heaven.
7.3 Conclusions
The case studies related here are only a small sample of those broadcast on
the Dream Kindergarten program. It is obvious that the retribution which differs
from person to person can be attributed to the wide variety of karmic deeds
different people have done in the past and also the order in which karmic deeds
give their fruits. The lifetimes covered in the case study are but a snapshot of
the journey each being has made in the course of the cycle of existence. Each
being, human or otherwise has already died and been reborn so many times
that it is difficult to find a beginning or an end to it.
122
There are many occasions on which the Buddha taught about the extent of
rebirth in the cycle of existence as have been recorded in the Buddhist
scriptures:20
“O! Monks! You should understand my teachings as follows. The tears

each one of us has cried in the course of rebirth because of encountering
unpleasant things or being separated from loved ones and treasured
things is more than the water in the four (cosmic) oceans – whether it be
mourning the death of one’s mother . . . elder brothers and sisters . . .
younger brothers and sisters . . . sons . . . daughters . . . diminishing of
one’s extended family . . . diminishing of wealth . . . the decay due to ill
health . . . the tears each one of us had cried in the course of rebirth
because of encountering unpleasant things or being separated from
loved ones and treasured things over the course of ages is more than the
water in the four (cosmic) oceans – because it is hard to find a beginning
or an ending to this cycle of existence [sa.msaara]. O! Monks! This fact is
sufficient reason in itself to become dispassionate concerning this body,
to become disenchanted so that one may gain liberation.”
The Lord Buddha also indicated the incalculable length of cycle of

existence by comparing the amount of milk we have suckled during our
journey through cycle of existence to the amount of water in the ocean:21
“O! Monks! You should understand my teachings as follows. The

milk which we have suckled at your mother’s breast in the course of
rebirth in the cycle of existence is more than the water in the four
(cosmic) oceans – because it is hard to find a beginning or an
ending to this cycle of existence . . .”
The Lord Buddha also indicated the incalculable length of cycle of existence by
comparing the amount of bones one has left behind in the course of the cycle of
existence:22
“O! Monks! The cycle of existence is so long it is hard to find a

beginning or an end to it. After being reborn again and again for an
eon the if all the bones and skeletons they had left behind were
collected together, it would make a pile as high as Mount Vepulla –
because it is hard to find a beginning or an ending to this cycle of
existence . . .”
The Lord Buddha also indicated the incalculable length of cycle of

existence by comparing the amount of blood that has bled from our body
in the course of the cycle of existence:23
20
Assuu Sutta S.ii.179
21
Khiira Sutta S.ii.180
22
Puggala Sutta S.ii.185
23
Ti.msamattaa Sutta S.ii.187
123
“O! Monks! You should understand my teachings as follows. The

amount of our blood that has bled, is more than the water in the
four (cosmic) oceans, in births when you have been a cow . . . a
sheep . . . a goat . . . a deer . . . a pig . . . a chicken . . . or as a
murderer sentenced to beheading . . . the amount of our heads that
have been chopped off, is more than the water in the four (cosmic)
oceans in births when you have been a cow . . . a sheep . . . a
goat . . . a deer . . . a pig . . . a chicken . . . or as a murderer
sentenced to beheading . . . because it is hard to find a beginning
or an ending to this cycle of existence . . .”
The Lord Buddha also indicated the incalculable length of cycle of existence by
saying that there is no-one who has never been our relatives:24
“O! Monks! It is hard to find a beginning or an ending to this cycle of

existence . . . it is hard to find a being who has never been our
mother, father, big brother, little brother, big sister, little sister, son,
daughter in the course of the cycle of existence . . . because it is
hard to find a beginning or an ending to this cycle of existence . . .”
From the quoted teachings of the Lord Buddha given to monks during his time,
it becomes clear that the length of cycle of rebirth is incalculable. It is hard to
find a beginning or an end to it. Nonetheless, we can comprehend that we have
been reborn uncountable times in different realms and as different beings
depending on our karma.
Putting the understanding of the cycle of rebirth in perspective, no life

experience is really new to us since we have arisen in every life-form during our
traverse of the cycle of existence. There is nothing new. There is nothing
permanent. We should not cling to anything and neither can we go against the
turning of the cycle. Therefore, the stronger we cling to ever-changing elements
of the cycle of existence, the more severely we will suffer. Without the
understanding the truth about life, we will be inundated with sadness in the
infinite cycle of rebirth.
The wise ones see the change and impermanence of all elements. They feel no
attachment towards those delusions and seek a path out of this maze of
suffering. However, those still unable to see the truth, who still yearn for
ephemeral pleasures, who are still caught up with what they used to be, need to
prepare themselves to face the inevitable uncertainty coming to them.
24
Maatu etc. Suttas S.ii.189ff.
124

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www.kalyanamitra.

Chapter 2 The Building Blocks of Life & the World 17

Chapter 3 Structure of the Universe 31

Chapter 4 The Origins of the Earth and Mankind 63

Chapter 5 Universal Deterioration Caused by Lack of Morality 79

Chapter 7 Case Studies of Rebirth in the Cycle of Existence 103

Chapter 8 Conclusions 125

Units in this Chapter

1.1 Important Terminologies To Be Studied

1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and The Next

1.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge

1.1 Important Terminologies to be Studied

1.1.1 Cosmology Defined

This definition helps us understand the oft-studied science-based meaning of the

There is a difference between the definitions of cosmology in science and Buddhism,

1.1.2 Defining the Term ‘This World’

1. World of Formations [sa”nkhaara-loka] meaning the bodies of humans

2. World of Beings [satta-loka] meaning all living beings apart from

3. World of Location [okaasa-loka] which means the location in which the

1.1.3 Defining ‘This World’ and the ‘World to Come’

1. Life after Death

2. The Realms of Existence of Beings in Their Life after Death

1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and the Next

1. The Logical Argument

In summary, each individual is born different because of the karmic retribution

1.2.2 Essential Things to Understand about This World

1.2.3 Benefits of Having a Correct Understanding of This World

1.2 .4 Preparing Correctly for the World to Come

1.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge

1.3.1 Searching for Knowledge in Buddhism

1.3.2 Cosmology as Part of the Lord Buddha’s Knowledge

2. Biological Laws [biijaniyaama] are natural laws which are particular to

Once equipped with the dhammas allowing us to become enlightened, we will be

1.3.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge

1. Knowledge of one’s own previous lifetimes [pubbenivaasanussatiñaa.na]. This

2. Knowledge of the previous lifetimes of others [cutuupapaatañaa.na]. This is

3. Knowledge of an end of all defilements [asavakkhayañaa.na].

1.3.4 Buddhist Cosmology Is Unfathomable by Conceptual Thought

As previously mentioned, Buddhism is a religion based on reasoning. However, there

1. The powers of the Buddha [buddhavisaaya] -- i.e., the range of powers a

2. The powers developed through the absorptions [~naa.navisaaya] -- i.e., the

1.3.5 The Purpose of Studying Cosmology

The initial stages of Buddhist teachings focuses on encouraging people to cultivate

At the time, Malu"nkya became a monk in Buddhism. He wanted clear answers

Cosmology is amongst the issues unfathomable by conceptual thought. The Buddha

Units in this Chapter

1.1 Important Terminologies To Be Studied

1.2 Beliefs Concerning This World and the Next

1.3 Sources of Buddhist Cosmological Knowledge

1.1 Important Terminologies to be Studied

1.1.1 Cosmology Defined

This definition helps us understand the oft-studied science-based meaning of the

There is a difference between the definitions of cosmology in science and Buddhism,

1.1.2 Defining the Term ‘This World’

1. World of Formations [sa”nkhaara-loka] meaning the bodies of humans

2. World of Beings [satta-loka] meaning all living beings apart from

3. World of Location [okaasa-loka] which means the location in which the

1.1.3 Defining ‘This World’ and the ‘World to Come’

1. Life after Death

2. The Realms of Existence of Beings in Their Life after Death