Indian Tradition Culture and Society

3
CONTENTS
KNC-502 / KNC-602 :
INDIAN TRADITION, CULTURE & SOCIETY
UNIT-1 : SOCIETY STATE & POLITY IN INDIA (1–1 Q to 1–18 Q)

State in Ancient India: Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical
Theory Contract Theory, Stages of State Formation in Ancient India,
Kingship, Council of Ministers Administration Political Ideals in
Ancient India, Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies, The Seven
Limbs of the State, Society in Ancient India, Purusartha, Varnashrama
System, Ashrama or the Stages of Life, Marriage, Understanding
Gender as a social category, The representation of Women in Historical
traditions, Challenges faced by Women, Four-class Classification,
Slavery.
UNIT-2 : INDIAN LITERATURE, CULTURE & TRADITION (2–1 Q to 2–24 Q)

Evolution of script and languages in India: Harappan Script and
Brahmi Script, The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit
and Sanskrit, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous Sanskrit Authors,
Telugu Literature, Kannada Literature, Malayalam Literature,
Sangama Literature, Northern Indian Languages & Literature,
Persian and Urdu, Hindi Literature.
UNIT-3 : INDIAN RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY (3–1 Q to 3–23 Q)

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian
Philosophy, Shankaracharya, Various Philosophical Doctrines, Other
Heterodox Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious
reform movement of 19th century, Modern religious practices.
UNIT-4 : SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT & INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

(4–1 Q to 4–15 Q)
Astronomy in India, Chemistry in India, Mathematics in India,
Physics in India, Agriculture in India, Medicine in India, Metallurgy
in India, Geography, Biology, Harappan Technologies, Water
Management in India, Textile Technology in India, Writing
Technology in India, Pyrotechnics in India Trade in Ancient India,
India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times.
4
UNIT-5 : CULTURAL HERITAGE & PERFORMING ARTS

(5–1 Q to 5–42 Q)
Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India,
Sculptures, Seals, Coins, Pottery, Puppetry, Dance, Music, Theatre,
Drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions, Fairs and Festivals, Current
developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s Cultural Contribution
to the World, Indian Cinema.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 Q to SQ-18 Q)

Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–1 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
1 Society State & Polity

in India
CONTENTS
Part-1 : State in Ancient India : .......................... 1–2Q to 1–4Q
Evolutionary Theory,
Force theory, Mystical
Theory, Contract Theory,
Stages of State Formation
in Ancient India
Part-2 : Kingship, Council of Ministers, ........... 1–5Q to 1–10Q

Administration, Political Ideals
in Ancient India, Conditions
of the Welfare of Societies, the
Seven Limbs of the State
Part-3 : Society in Ancient India, .................... 1–10Q to 1–18Q

Purusartha, Varnashrama
System, Ashrama or the
Stages of Life, Marriage,
Understanding Gender
as a Social Category, the
Representation of Women
in Historical Traditions,
Challenges Faced by Women,
Four-class Classification, Slavery
Society State & Polity in India 1–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
PART-1
State in Ancient India : Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical
Theory, Contract theory, Stages of state formation in ancient India.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Give an account into the origin and evolution of the
state in ancient India.
OR
Write a short note on : Evolutionary theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Force theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Mystical theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Contract theory.
Answer
1. To look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the
greatest issues in political science.
2. Ancient Indian thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya,
Kamandaka also have looked at the problem.
3. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect following 4
important theories regarding the origin of the state in ancient India :
A. Evolutionary theory :
1. This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been
mentioned in the Atharva Veda.
2. According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress
and it didn’t originate at a fixed time.
3. On the basis of Atharva Veda several stages of the evolution of the state
can be traced.
4. According to Atharva Veda the earliest phase of human life was the
stage of vairajya or stateless state. It was a state of complete anarchy.
5. Subsequently, with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became
possible.
6. To fulfill the needs of agricultural society the family emerged and the
head of the family became the first wielder of authority.
7. Further, the need of co-operation in the different realms of society led
to the emergence of sabha and samiti.
8. With the emergence of sabha and samiti organised political life began
which finally culminated in the emergence of the state.
B. Force theory :
1. Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory
in a systematic way, force was considered to be an important factor in
the evolution of the state in India.
2. Earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (especially
for the cow), pastureland, settlements and sources of drinking water.
3. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such wars. So he
was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him.
4. This tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the
leader became king.
C. Mystical theory :
1. This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India.
2. Kingship was given divine sanction and the king was considered not to
be the representative of God but himself a God.
3. It appears first in the epics and the law books of Manu, the king was
exalted far above ordinary mortals, through the magical powers of the
great royal sacrifices.
4. The magical power which pervaded the king at his consecration was
restored and strengthened in the course of his reign by further rites,
such as the ceremonial rejuvenation of the Vajapeya and the horse-
sacrifice (Asvamedha).
5. The viewpoint which supports the theory of divine origin of state in
ancient India has been widely criticised by Western as well as Indian
scholars.
D. Contract theory :
1. Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of
the state in ancient India.
2. The reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist and
brahmanical texts and Arthashastra of Kautilya.
3. Many scholars accept only the Buddhist sources as the authentic source
of contract theory.
4. According to them the brahmanical texts have a mixture of contract and
divine origin whereas Buddhist sources give a clear cut account of
contract theory.
5. Also in the Arthashastra contractual origin of kingship is not intended

to impose limitations on royal power. On the contrary, the obligation put
upon the people are burdensome and are designed to strengthen royal
authority.
6. This point is clearly brought out towards the close of the passage which
describes the contract theory of the origin of kingship.
7. It is argued that the king, who assures security and well-being to his
subjects by eliminating wrongful acts through coercion and taxes should
never be disregarded.
8. Hence Kautilya’s contract theory is purported to buttress royal power.
Que 1.2. Describe the stages of state formation in ancient India.
Answer
1. Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified.
2. The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal
assemblies, which had some place for women were mainly pre-occupied
with war. The age of Rig Veda was primarily a period of assemblies.
3. The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress
of constant conflicts between the rajanyakshatriya and the ordinary
businessman called the vis. The chiefs were helped by the priesthood
called the brahmins. This stage saw the beginning of taxes and classes or
varnas which came to be firmly established in the third stage.
4. The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged
state. There arose large territorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha
and tribal oligarchies in North-Western India and at the foot of the
Himalayas. For the first time large standing armies and organised
machinery were used for the collection of land revenue.
5. The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralisation
based on the expanding economic activities of the state. The state with
the help of its bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its
subjects.
6. The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralised
administration in which towns, feudatories and military elements came
to the forefront in both the Deccan and North India. This was partly
neutralised by the emphasis on the divinity of the king.
7. The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the
period of proto-feudal polity. Land grants now played an important
part in the formation of the political structure and those made by the
Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal and administrative privileges on
priestly beneficiaries.
PART-2
Kingship, Council of Ministers, Administration, Political Ideals in
Ancient India, Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies, the
Seven Limbs of the State.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.3. Describe Kingship in ancient India.
Answer
1. The king was the most important figure in the body politic.
2. In the Saptanga theory of the state, developed by Kautilya the king has
been described as the head or the most important organ of the state.
3. The king’s functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom
against external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional
custom against internal foes.
4. He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who
challenged the system were excommunicated.
5. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring the
fair inheritance of family property. He protected widows and orphans by
making them his wards.
6. He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he
protected the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and oppression.
7. Religion was protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples
and frequently to heterodox sects also.
8. The ideal set before the king was one of energetic beneficence.
9. The Arthashastra puts forward the kingly duty in simple and forceful
language, setting an ideal which few ancient civilizations can boast of.
10. The ideal before the king in ancient India was that of being a chakravarti
meaning a king who ruled over the united vast territory of the Indian
subcontinent.
11. With the Mauryas this possibility was substantially realised, and was
incorporated into the Buddhist tradition and blended with later Vedic
imperialist ideas, then taken over by orthodox Hinduism.
12. The concept of the universal emperor was also known to the Jainas, and
in the epics numerous kings of legend, such as Yudhisthira and Rama,
are said to have been digvijayins or conquerors of all the four quarters.
13. The universal emperor was a divinely ordained figure with a special
place in the cosmic scheme, and as such was exalted to semi-divine
status.
Que 1.4. Write a short note on : Council of Ministers.
Answer
1. Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient Indian
political thinkers as a very vital organ of the body politic.
2. The Ministerial Council was the chief administrative authority in the
kingdom. The king was supposed not to do anything without the consent
of the council.
3. Only men who possessed wisdom, purity of purpose, bravery and loyalty
were appointed as ministers. These ministers were no yes-men but
known for their integrity, leadership qualities and concern for the welfare
of the kingdom.
4. The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied in the
figures ranging from seven to thirty-seven.
5. The body was divided into two parts mantrina and mantriparishad.
6. Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of
ministers. It consisted of all the ministers.
7. Mantrina was a smaller body or a core organisation within the
mantriparishad largely resembling the modern cabinet.
8. It included the few most important ministers like the purohita (priest),
senapati (supreme commander of army) and yuvaraja (the crown prince).
9. During the Mauryan period, the council’s purpose was primarily to advise
the king, and not to govern, but it was no mere rubber stamping body.
10. In fact, the council often exerted great powers. It might transact business
in the king’s absence.
Que 1.5. Give an account on administration in ancient India.
Answer
1. With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India,
bureaucracy developed as a well organised, hierarchical, cadre-based
administrative system.
2. This establishment of a large and complex bureaucracy was a
remarkable feature of the Mauryan government.
3. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are probably

called mahamatras or high functionaries.
4. In addition to the 18 trithas Kautilya provides in some detail accounts
of 27 superintendents (adhyaksas) concerned mostly with economic
functions and some military duties.
5. The Mauryas developed a well organised bureaucracy. With the help
of this centralised bureaucratic structure not only did the government
regulate the economic life of the country, but it also took an important
part in it.
6. All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by
the state, and were either worked directly with the labour of criminals
or serfs, or let out to entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a
percentage of their output as royalty.
Que 1.6. Write a short note on : Political ideas in ancient India.
Answer
1. Though India had no formal political philosophy, the science of
statecraft was much cultivated and a number of important textbooks
on this topic have survived.
2. In ancient India the political science was known by several terms like
the Rajadharma, Rajyasastra, Dandniti, Nitisastra and Arthasastra.
3. Monarchy was the normal form of the state and the science of politics
and government was therefore naturally called Rajadharma (duties of
the king) or Rajyasastra (science of the state).
4. Dandaniti explain that the ultimate sanction behind the state is force.
If it is not used, the alternative is the law of the jungle (matsyanyaya).
5. It is Danda (physical force or physical punishment) which rules over all
the subjects, it is Danda which protects them; when all else are sleeping,
Danda keeps awake; law is nothing but Danda itself. But it should be
wielded with discretion.
6. In Nitishastra, the term Niti is derived from the root ni meaning to
lead; Niti therefore means proper guidance or direction.
7. It was held that this would become possible by following ethical course
of conduct. Therefore one connotation of the term Nitishastra was the
science of ethics.
8. Thus it can be said that in the early stages of the development of the
science of polity, it was known as Rajadharma; Dandaniti became a
more popular term later and Arthasastra was suggested as an
alternative to it.
9. In course of time, however, the word Rajniti-sastra, abridged into
Nitisastra and became most popular.
10. From the Gupta period and the Middle Ages a number of political texts
survive, the most important of which are the Nitisara of Kamandaka,
the Nitivakyamrta of Somadeva Suri, and the Nitisaraattributed to the
ancient sage Shukra, but evidently of later medieval origin.
11. Besides these sources, there is a tremendous amount of Brahmin,
Jaina and Buddhist literature which deals on occasions with the politics
of the time.
Que 1.7. Write a short note on : Conditions of the welfare of

societies.
Answer
1. According to the Hindu thought the purpose of government was not to
legislate, but only to administer the eternal law (sanatana dharma).
2. Buddha adapted the list of following conditions of the welfare of
republics to the circumstances of the Buddhist order :
i. Call frequent public assemblies.
ii. Meet in concord, conclude meetings in concord, and carry out
policies in concord.
iii. Make no laws not already promulgated, and set aside nothing
enacted in the past.
iv. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the elders, and look on it
as a duty to heed their words.
v. No women or girls should be held by force or abducted.
vi. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the shrines, whether in
town or country, and do not neglect the proper offerings and rites
laid down and practised in the past.
vii. Give due protection, deference, and support to the perfected beings
among them so that such perfected beings may come to the land
from afar and live comfortably.
Que 1.8. Write a short note on : Kautilya’s saptanga (The seven

limbs) theory of state.
OR
Write a short note on : The seven limbs of the state.
Answer
Kautilya’s saptanga (seven organs) theory of state illustrates a novel dimension
of state power that dialectically engages artha and dharma respectively.
Kautilya enumerated seven prakritis or essential organs of the state. They
are as follow :
i. Swami (The Ruler) :

1. Swami means the monarch. He should be a native of the soil and born in
a noble family. He should be brave and well learned.
2. He makes all the important appointments and supervises the
government.
3. He has to be virtuous and should treat his subjects like his own children.
4. Kautilya has given extensive powers to the monarch but those powers
are meant for the welfare of them subjects.
ii. Amatya (The Minister) :
1. It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials and
subordinate staffs.
2. They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the
state.
3. Amatya gives suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages
and cities, ensures defense of the state and all other tasks as assigned by
the king.
iii. Janpada (The Population) :
1. It refers to territory and people of the state.
2. The territory of the state should be fertile and should have abundance
of forest, rivers, mountains, minerals, wild life etc. It should have good
climate.
3. People should be loyal to their king, hard working, disciplined, religious,
ready to fight for their motherland, should pay taxes regularly and
happily.
iv. Durga (The Fortified Capital) :
1. The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at
strategic locations for ensuring defense against foreign invasions.
2. Forts should be built near hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and
big water bodies.
3. They garrison soldiers, store food grains for emergency and also serve
as a hideout for the king when his life in danger.
v. Kosha (The Treasury) :
1. Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost impossible to
run it.
2. Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc.
3. The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems.
4. It can be increased through taxation and plundering enemy states in
war.
vi. Danda (The Army) :

1. The state should have a regular, large, disciplined and well trained
military. It is crucial for the security of the state.
2. The soldiers should be recruited from those families which are
traditionally associated with military.
3. The soldiers should be paid well and their families should be taken care
of in most suitable way.
4. Proper training and equipment should be made available.
5. The king should take care of the soldiers and the soldiers will be ready
to sacrifice even their life for him.
vii. Mitra (Ally and Friend) :
1. The monarch should maintain friendly relationship with traditional
friends of his forefathers. He should also make new friendships.
2. He should send gifts and other pleasantries for his friends.
3. They should be helped in times of emergency. They should be loyal.
4. Friends add to the power of the state.
5. They are also important from foreign trade view point.
PART-3
Society in Ancient India, Purusartha, Varnashrama System,
Ashrama or the Stages of Life, Marriage, Understanding Gender
as a Social Category, the Representation of Women in Historical
Traditions, Challenges Faced by Women, Four-class
Classification, Slavery.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.9. Give a brief account on society in ancient India. Also

explain what do you mean by purusartha ?
Answer
1. Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features. It was
arranged in the form of four varnas.
2. The life of individual was divided into four stages or ashramas. There
were rules regarding marriage, family etc.
3. The purpose of life was to attain four goals called purusarthas.
4. The concept of purusarthas is the fundamental principle of Indian social
ethics.
5. The word purusartha means “attainments” or “life purposes”.
6. The aim of every person is to attain the four noble ends or purusartha.
These four purusarthas are :
A. Dharma :
1. Dharma or the principle of righteousness is considered to be the supreme
of the purusarthas.
2. Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, which connotes to sustain,
support or uphold. Dharma has a wide range of meaning.
3. It is the essential foundation of something or of things in general, and
thus signifies ‘truth’.
4. It is that which is established, customary, proper and therefore, means
‘traditional’ or ceremonial.
5. It is one’s duty, responsibility, imperative and thereby ‘moral obligation’.
6. It is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly ethical.
7. It is that which is required, precepted, or permitted through religious
authority, and thus legal.
8. Hence, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of
the society.
B. Artha :
1. Artha is the second purusartha.
2. The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth. It includes all the
material means of life.
3. Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and
that social well-being depends ultimately on material prosperity.
4. Indian thinkers had recognised the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate
human aspiration. But artha must be acquired by right means.
C. Kama :
1. Kama means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures.
2. It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in human beings.
3. In the narrow sense kama means sexual pleasure but in the wider
sense it involves sexual, emotional and aesthetic life all together.
D. Moksha :
1. It is the ultimate purusartha.
2. Moksha means salvation or liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
3. It is the summum bonum of human existence.
Que 1.10. Discuss the Varnashrama system of ancient India.
Answer
1. Various texts talk of varnashrmadharma or the dharma of different

classes and dharma in the different stages of life.
2. In ancient India there was a common dharma for all members of society
which must be followed by all equally.
3. At the same time there were different codes of conduct for different
classes or varnas called varna-dharma.
4. First reference of varna is seen in the Rig Veda. According to which
varnas originated from the different organs of the Prajapati or the
creator.
5. This varna hierarchy system was divided as follow :
A. Brahmins :
1. Brahmins were at the top of varna hierarchy.
2. They were believed to possess great spiritual powers. Thus they had a
divine existence.
3. In law, they claimed great privileges. Normally brahmins were exempt
from execution, torture and corporal punishment.
4. The main functions prescribed for brahmins were learning, teaching
and priesthood.
B. Kshatriya :
1. The second class was the ruling class described as kshatriya.
2. Kshatriyas represented heroism, courage and strength. They constituted
the warrior class.
3. The duty of kshatriyas was protection which had both internal and
external aspects.
4. External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion
where as internal protection meant governance in peace and protection
from anarchy.
5. Kshatriyas had the right to possess arms.

C. Vaishyas :
1. Vaishyas represented the trading and commercial class.
2. Though they were entitled to the services of the priesthood and to the
ceremony of yajñopavita, they were third in the social hierarchy.
3. The ideal vaishya possessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals,
cloth, threads, spices, perfumes etc.
4. In this sense vaishyas were the ancient Indian businessmen.
D. Shudras :
1. Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
2. They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas.
3. They were not twice born. They were deprived of various rights.
4. They were in fact second class citizens, on the fringes of Aryan society.
Que 1.11. Discuss ashrama or the stages of life according to

Indian philosophy.
Answer
1. The ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed

in Indian texts of the ancient and medieval eras.
2. The average life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and
it is divided into four stages each stage having a time span of 25 years.
These four ashramas are :
A. Brahmacharyashrama or the Stage of Studentship :
1. This is the first stage of life. It is meant for acquiring knowledge,
developing discipline and moulding character.
2. This stage starts with the ceremony called upanayanama or investiture
with the sacred thread.
3. Now the person became a brahmacharina, leading a celibate and
austere life as a student at the home of his teacher.
B. Grihasthashrama or the Stage of Householder :
1. This stage starts at marriage when the student has completed his
studentship and is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of
household life.
2. In this stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets
children.
3. The individual pursues wealth (artha) and pleasure (kama) within the
limits of the moral law (dharma).
C. Vanaprasthasharma or the Stage of Retirement from Active
Life :
1. After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the
individual enters into the Vanaprastha stage.
2. It consists of the third quarter of person’s life.
3. In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates
himself to a life of spiritual contemplation.
4. He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit.
D. Sanyasashrama or the Stage of Renunciation :
1. This is the last stage of life.
2. Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless
wanderer (sanyasin) with all his earthly ties broken.
3. The sanyasin aspires and acts to attain liberation only.
Que 1.12. Give a brief account on marriage in ancient India.
Answer
1. Marriage or vivaha was a very important samskara in ancient India.

2. Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes :
i. Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.
ii. Progency or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and
continuation of family line or kula.
iii. Rati or sexual pleasure.
3. Manu and other law givers have mentioned about eight forms of
marriage :
i. Brahma Vivaha : This is considered to be the purest form of
marriage. In this form of marriage the father offers his daughter
who is decked with ornaments and richly dressed as a gift to a man
of good character and high learning.
ii. Daiva Vivaha : In the daiva form of marriage the father offers her
daughter as a dakshina (sacrificial fee) to a young priest who
officiates the yajña which is arranged by him.
iii. Arsa Vivaha : In arsa vivaha father of the bride gives his daughter
to the bridegroom after receiving a cow and a bull or two pairs of
these animals from the bridegroom.
iv. Prajapatya Vivaha : In this type of marriage, the father offers

the girl to the bridegroom. But neither does he offer any dowry nor
does he demand bride-price.
v. Asura Vivaha : This is a form of marriage by purchase in which
the bridegroom has to give money to the father or kinsman of the
bride.
vi. Gandharva Vivaha : This was a marriage by consent of the boy
and the girl. Mutual love and consent of the bride and bridegroom
was the only condition required to bring about the union.
vii. Rakshasa Vivaha : This was marriage by capture in which the
girl was forcibly abducted from her home.
viii. Paishacha Vivaha : The abduction of a maiden while she is asleep
and in intoxication is called paishacha vivaha.
Que 1.13. Write a short note on : Understanding gender as a social

category.
Answer
1. Gender studies was very much part of ancient India.

2. The unique feature was the acknowledgement of the third sex: one that
is neither male nor female.
3. Charaka in his medical treatise speaks of ‘tritiya prakriti’ or the third
naturally occurring gender.
4. In the Mahabhasya composed in Sanskrit 2,300 years ago, everything is
seen in physical tangible terms: male is one who has hair all over body,
woman is one with breasts and long hair, and one who is neither the
‘napumsaka’.
5. In Buddhist literature, greater importance is given to behaviour, rather
than to biological markings.
6. In Jain scripture, we see a far more refined understanding of gender
and sexuality. One recognises that the body can be male (purusha),
female (stri) or queer (napunsaka).
7. Further, there is a classification based on the object of attraction: male,
female or queer. This can be seen in all three types of genders.
8. There is separation of physical body (dravya-purusha) from the
psychological body (bhava-purusha).
9. There is also reference to active (padisevati) and passive (padisevavati)
homosexual acts in Buddhist literature.
10. All these ideas emerged between 5th century BCE and 5th century CE,
and were explored in the following centuries.
11. Ancient Indian gender studies were designed to appreciate the diversity
of nature, as well as to identify those who could become monks, outgrow
sexual desire and liberate themselves from all karma.
Que 1.14. Write a short note on : The representation of women in

historical traditions & Challenges faced by Women.
Answer
1. Indian tradition has generally respected womanhood.

2. Of the several factors that justify the greatness of India’s ancient
culture, one of the greatest is the honoured place ascribed to women.
3. In ancient India women in many places occupied an equal position to
men. Many Hindu religious books like the Vedas; Ramayana, etc.,
have mentioned the names of several women who were great scholars,
poets and philosophers of the time.
4. According to ancient Hindu scriptures, a man without his wife cannot
participate in any essential religious rites. Wives are thus befittingly
called ‘Ardhangini’.
5. However, in the medieval period, the status of women went down
considerable. Women were considered to be inferior to men.
6. Customs of purdah, Sati, child marriage, restrictions on widow marriage,
and the prevalence of joint family systems have been the factors
responsible for the injustice done towards women.
Que 1.15. Write a short note on : Four-class classification.
Answer
1. The four-class classification is found in Abu’l Fazl, A’in-i-Akbari.

2. According to Abu’l Fazl the people of the world may be divided into
following four classes :
A. Warriors : Warriors who in the political body have the nature of fire.
Their flames; directed by understanding, consume the straw and rubbish
of rebellion and strife, but kindle also the lamp of rest in this world of
disturbances.
B. Artificers and merchants : Artificers and merchants, who hold the
place of air. From their labours and travels, God’s gifts become universal,
and the breeze of contentment nourishes the rose-tree of life.
C. The learned : The learned, such as the philosopher, the physician, the
arithmetician, the geometrician, the astronomer, who resemble water.
From their pen and their wisdom, a river rises in the drought of the
world, and the garden of the creation receives from their irrigating
powers, a peculiar freshness.
D. Husbandmen and labourers : Husbandmen and labourers, who
may be compared to earth. By their exertions, the staple of life is
brought to perfection, and strength and happiness flow from their
work.
3. It is obligatory for a king to put each of these in its proper place, and by
uniting personal ability with due respect for others, to cause the world
to flourish.
Que 1.16. Give a brief account on slavery in ancient India.
Answer
1. The term that is most often used to refer to a slave in ancient Indian
texts is dasa.
2. This term may have been derived from the word “das” which means to
finish or terminate something.
3. It was associated with slaves because their work was to finish various
jobs.
4. During the Rig Vedic Period, the word dasa did not have the same
connotation. However, the term was used to denote a slave by the Later
Vedic Age.
5. Slaves were considered to be some form of objects and there were
instances where they were listed as gift items.
6. Their work was primarily associated with domestic chores but they
could also be used as helpers for agriculture.
7. Since they were normally equated with other objects that were used
communally, they could have also been viewed as property of the whole
tribe.
8. Slaves are believed to have held a lower position than even the Shudras.
9. In the Mauryan Empire slavery was a well-established and accepted
institution.
10. It had approximately eight or nine categories of slaves.
11. Slaves brought from another country, children of women slaves, slaves
who were purchased, prisoners of war, slaves who were inherited, slaves
received as presents, those who sold themselves as slaves, those who
were mortgaged and criminals whose punishment for their offence was
to serve as a slave.
12. Debts continued to remain one of the reasons behind slavery.
13. Complexities in the types of slaves only grew with the Gupta Period.
There were fifteen types of slaves present.
14. However, the slaves were not exploited and there were chances for a
slave to get manumission.

2 Indian Literature,
Culture & Tradition
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Evolution of Script and .......................... 2–2Q to 2–7Q
Languages in India :
Harappan Script and
Brahmi Script
Part-2 : The Vedas, the Upanishads, ................ 2–7Q to 2–13Q

the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, Puranas
Part-3 : Buddhist and Jain .............................. 2–13Q to 2–16Q

Literature in Pali,
Prakrit and Sanskrit
Part-4 : Kautilya’s Arthashastra, .................... 2–16Q to 2–24Q

Famous Sanskrit Authors,
Telugu Literature, Kannada
Literature, Malayalam Literature,
Sangama Literature, Northern
Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian and
Urdu, Hindi Literature.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
PART-1
Evolution of Script and Languages in India : Harappan Script
and Brahmi Script.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Discuss the different language of India.
Answer
1. Language is a medium through which we express our thoughts.
2. To know any particular culture and its tradition it is very important that
we understand the evolution of its language.
Classification of Indian languages : The Indian people speaks languages
belonging to following four distinct speech families :
A. Aryan :
1. Of the ancient Indian linguistic and cultural groups, the Aryan is the
most important.
2. Indian civilization has found its expression primarily through the Aryan
speech as it developed over the centuries.
3. The hymns and poems collected in the four Vedas gives us the oldest
specimens of the speech.
4. Aryan speech developed over time through Vedic Sanskrit (old Indo-
Aryan), then Classical Sanskrit, then Early Middle Indo-Aryan dialects
like Pali and Old Ardha-Magadhi, then Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit and
after that the various Prakrits and Apabhramsas, and finally the different
Modern Indo-Aryan languages of the country.
B. Dravidian :
1. Dravidian is the second important language family of India and has
some special characteristics of its own.
2. After the Aryan speech, it has very largely functioned as the exponent
of Indian culture.
3. It forms a solid bloc in South India, embracing the four great literary
languages, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu.
4. The Dravidian speech in its antiquity in India is older than Aryan.
C. Sino-Tibetan :
1. Peoples of Mongoloid origin, speaking languages of the Sino-Tibetan
family, were present in India at least as early as the tenth century B.C.
2. The Sino-Tibetan languages do not have much numerical importance or
cultural significance in India, with the exception of Manipuri of Manipur.
3. Everywhere they are gradually receding before the Aryan languages
like Bengali and Assamese.
D. Austric :
1. The Austric languages represent the oldest speech family of India, but
they are spoken by a very small number of people, comparatively.
2. The Austric languages of India have a great interest for the student of
linguistics and human culture.
3. They are valuable relics of India's past, and they link up India with
Burma, with Indo-China, with Malaya, and with Indonesia, Melanesia,
and Polynesia.
4. Their solidarity is, however, broken by the more powerful Aryan
speeches.
5. Speakers of Austric know some Aryan language. In some cases they
have become very largely bilingual.
6. Speakers of Austric introduced some of their own speech habits and
their own words into Aryan. In this way, the Austrics peoples helped to
modify the character of the Aryan speech in India and even to build up
Classical Sanskrit as the great culture speech of India.
Que 2.2. Trace the evolution of writing in India.
Answer
1. Different people came to India at different times, each with its special
racial type, language, region and culture.
2. A great intermingling of races and cultures started from prehistoric
times, resulting in the emergence of a mixed Indian people with a
composite culture of its own.
3. In the evolution of development of languages in India we see this process
of miscegenation at work.
4. The Aryan speech, after it came to India, assimilated with the Dravidian,
the Austric and the Indo-Mangoloid speeches and a common speech,
gradually evolved.
5. Until the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1920, ancient India
seemingly had two main scripts in which languages were written, Brahmi
and Kharosti.
6. The Brahmi script developed under Semitic influence around 7th C. BC.
7. The Kharosti script came into being during the 5th C. BC in northwest
India which was under Persian rule.
8. In 1920 archaeologists announced the discovery of Indus Valley which
pre-dated the earliest literary sources.
9. This caused scholars working on ancient texts to re-examine their views
on the different phases of Indian culture.
10. The extensive excavations carried out at the two principal city sites,
Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro, both situated in the Indus basin, indicates
that Dravidian culture was well established by about 2500 B.C.
11. Every attempt to decipher the script used by these people has failed so
far.
12. Recent analyses of the order of the signs on the inscriptions have led
several scholars to the view that the language appears to be Dravidian
akin to Old Tamil.
13. What this points to is the existence of a system of writing far more
ancient than what was originally considered.
14. Thus, in the matter of writing, we find a long history from prehistoric
times before the coming of the Aryans down to recent years.
Que 2.3. Write an essay on the origin and development of Brahmi

script in India.
OR
Write short note on : Brahmi script.
Answer
Origin and development of Brahmi script in India :
1. Brahmi is the modern name given to the one of the oldest scripts used
on the Indian subcontinent during the final centuries BCE and the early
centuries CE.
2. The most disputed point about the origin of the Brahmi script is whether
it was a purely indigenous development or was inspired or derived from
scripts that originated outside India.
3. It is noted that the indigenous view is strongly preferred by Indian
scholars, whereas the idea of Semitic borrowing is preferred most often
by Western scholars.
4. Most scholars until recently thought that the Brahmi scripts was derived
from the ancient Phoenician script which itself is a derivative of the still
more ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, through the later Demotic
style.
5. Others thought that the South Arabian form of Phoenician was the
immediate source of Brahmi.
6. But there are some basic divergences between Phoenician writing on

the one hand and Brahmi on the other, which make this affiliation a
little difficult to accept.
7. On the other hand, the agreements between the Mohen-jo-Daro script
and Brahmi would suggest that Brahmi was derived from the Mohen-
jo-Daro script.
8. Of course, Brahmi could not be a perfect or full system of writing,
expressing in all its niceties the entire sound-system of the Aryan speech
of the time.
9. There was also a suggestion that the Brahmi letters originated
independently in India from pictures of objects.
10. The Brahmi letters have the great beauty of simplicity - they stand bold
and clear.
Que 2.4. What are the characteristics of Brahmi script ?
Answer
Characteristics of Brahmi script :
1. Brahmi is usually written from left to right.
2. Brahmi is an abugida, meaning that each letter represents a consonant,
while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called matras in
Sanskrit.
3. Vowels following a consonant are inherent or written by diacritics, but
initial vowels have dedicated letters.
4. Brahmi characters are joined vertically downwards.
5. In the early Brahmi period, the existence of punctuation marks is not
very well shown.
6. Each letter has been written independently with some space between
words and edicts occasionally.
7. In the middle period, the system seems to be in progress.
8. The use of a dash and a curved horizontal line is found.
9. A flower mark seems to mark the end, and a circular mark appears to
indicate the full stop. There seem to be varieties of full stop.
10. In the late period, the system of interpunctuation marks gets more
complicated.
Que 2.5. Give an account on the Harappan script of India.

OR
Write short note on : Harappan script.
Answer
1. The Harappan script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus valley
civilisation.
2. Most inscriptions are extremely short.
3. It is not clear if these symbols constitute a script used to record a language,
and the subject of whether the Indus symbols were a writing system is
controversial. 4. In spite of many attempts at decipherment, it is
undeciphered, and no underlying language has been identified.
5. There is no known bilingual inscription.
6. The script does not show any significant changes over time.
7. In the early 1970s, Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and
concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 3,700 seals and 417 distinct
signs in specific patterns.
8. The average inscription contains five signs, and the longest inscription
is only 17 signs long.
9. He also established the direction of writing as right to left.
Que 2.6. What factors are considered as the obstacles for a

successful decipherment of the Harappan script ?
Answer
The following factors are the biggest obstacles for a successful decipherment
of the Harappan script :
1. The underlying language has not been identified though some 300
loanwords in the Rigveda are a good starting point for comparison.
2. The average length of the inscriptions is less than five signs, the longest
being only 17 signs (and a sealing of combined inscriptions of just 27
signs).
3. No bilingual texts (like a Rosetta stone) have been found.
4. There have been various (mutually exclusive) decipherment claims.
None of these suggestions has found academic recognition.
Que 2.7. What are the characteristics of Harappan script ?
Answer
Characteristics of Harappan script :
1. The characters are largely pictorial, but include many abstract signs.
2. The inscriptions are thought to have been written mostly from right-to-
left.
3. The number of principal signs is about 400.
4. Since that is considered too large a number for each character to be a

phonogram, the script is generally believed to instead be logo-syllabic.
PART-2
The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
Puranas.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.8. Write an essay on the Vedic literature.

OR
Write shorts notes on : Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and
Atharva-Veda.
Answer
1. The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were
written in Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one generation
to the other.
2. The word 'Veda' literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are
considered as eternal and divine revelations.
3. They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
4. There are four Vedas, namely, the - Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda
and Atharva-Veda. Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the
Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
A. The Rig-Veda Samhita :
1. The oldest of the four samhitas mentioned is the Rig samhita.
2. It is the name given to that samhita in which the priest intones the
mantras as an invitation to the Gods to put in an appearance at a yagya.
3. It is the oldest and the most extensive of the samhitas, and many of its
mantras have been borrowed in the other samhitas.
4. Rig samhita has been divided into ten mandals or parts and the mantras
that are included in each mandal are given the prefix ‘sukta’.
5. There are 1028 suktas in the Rigveda. It took hundreds of years to
compose these suktas.
6. Rig veda provides almost complete information concerning the old Vedic
civilization. It contains picture of the oldest Aryan civilization and their
religion, way of life, thought and modes of behaviour.
7. This particular text also shows how philosophic thought, religion, ideas
and other related emotions and feelings came to be born in the mind of
man.
B. The Sama-Veda Samhita :
1. This is the second Veda. It contains some 1549 mantras of which only 72
are new, while the rest have all been derived from the Rigveda.
2. There are two parts to this veda. There are six kandas in the first and
nine in the latter part.
3. Each kanda has numerous smaller kandas which are also called ‘sukta’.
There are 459 such small kandas.
4. The collection of the samhita of the Samaveda was made keeping in
mind the requirements of the singer priest.
5. Sama means song or singing. In the Samaveda everything is sung.
6. When the yagya was organised, the singer priest called out to the deity
in question by singing the mantras in a loud and sweet voice.
7. The Samaveda samhita has been divided into two parts - the purvarchika
and the uttararchika.
C. The Yajur-Veda Samhita :
1. Yaju is the name given to poetry, for which reason much of this Veda is
in poetry.
2. Etymologically the term 'Yajur Veda' means knowledge concerning
yagya.
3. It contains 40 chapters in which there are 2000 couplets.
4. It contains poetical sentences which were employed at the time of the
yagya for this reason yajur-veda is particularly concerned with
anushthana.
5. This Veda has two forms - the Shukla Yajurveda and the Krishna
Yajurveda.
6. Each of the two forms has its own samhita, the samhita of the Shukla
Yajurveda being called the Vaajsaneyi sanhita.
7. The Shukla yajur-veda has two prominent branches of which each one
has a separate samhita.
8. There are many branches of the Krishna yajur-veda, of which only four
are existent.
9. Both the Krishna and the Shukla yajur-veda provide detailed description
of yagya rituals.
10. In the yajur-veda one finds graphic descriptions of the difference between
the caste and the varna systems.
11. There is mention of mixed castes also, along with descriptions of
handicrafts, science, trade, etc.
D. The Atharva-Veda Samhita :

1. In this Veda there are 20 kandas, 34 Prapathaka, 111 Anuvaka, 731
suktas and 1849 mantras.
2. In the Atharva-Veda little attention has been paid to the technique or
mode of yagya.
3. Rig-Veda derives its importance from its independent development and
from the fact that it is a record of ancient history. The same is true of the
Atharva-Veda also.
4. The chief difference between the two is that there was practically no
class distinction or brahmanic superiority in the Rig veda but it is clearly
in evidence in the Atharva veda.
5. Some of the mantras of the Atharva-Veda are concerned with such
occult activities as magic, curses, casting spells, ghosts, witches, causing
invisibility, and hypnotism.
6. The beginning of Ayurveda, medicine and pharmacology are to be found
in this Veda.
7. This Veda also provides some glimpses of the manner in which the
beliefs and ideas concerning life evolved in the Aryan period.
Que 2.9. What is Upanisad ? Discuss.
Answer
1. Literally speaking, the word, “Upanisad”, means “sitting down near”.
2. The sense most commonly signified by the word upanisad is the esoteric
teaching imparted by the teacher to the pupil who sits (sad), near him
(upa), in a closed select (ni), group.
3. The Upanisads are also called the Vedanta, because they represent the
concluding portion of the apauruseya Veda, or the ultimate end and aim
of the teachings of the Veda.
4. The Upanisads are the first recorded attempt at systematic, though not
systematized, philosophizing.
5. They are one of the most significant sources of the spiritual wisdom of
India, and are traditionally regarded as one of the three prasthanas
(source books) of Indian philosophy.
6. Upanisads are concerned with the contemplative-realizational rather
than with the ritualistic-ceremonial aspect of the spiritual life of the
people.
7. There are over 200 Upanisads. The ten chief ancient Upanisads are the
Isa, the Kena, the Katha, the Prasna, the Mundak, the Mandukya, the
Taittiriya, the Aitereya, the Chandogya and the Brhdaranyaka.
8. Apart from these principal Upanisads there are many others, but they
are essentially sectarian in character and pseudo-philosophical in
content.
9. They are usually divided into various classes, such as Slmanya-Vedanta,
Yoga, Sannyasa, Saiva, Vaisnava, and Sakta, in accordance with their
main tendencies.
10. The Upanisads gave the people a philosophy but not a religion.
Que 2.10. Describe the story of Ramayana.
Answer
The main story of the Ramayana is briefly this :
1. Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya, is about to install his eldest son, Rama, on
the throne.
2. Kaikeyi, Rama‘s step-mother, wants her own son Bharata to be crowned
king, and Rama to be sent into exile for fourteen years.
3. The old and infirm king, though reluctant, has to agree.
4. Rama goes to live in the forest, accompanied by his consort, Sita, and his
brother, Laksmana.
5. The demon-king of Lanka, Ravana, abducts Sita.
6. Rama, determined to rescue Sita, wages a dour war against Ravana
who is ultimately vanquished and killed.
7. Rama comes back to Ayodhya and assumes his position as king, with
Sita as queen.
Que 2.11. Write an account on the literary characteristics of

Ramayana.
Answer
1. In the Ramayana the art of poetry appears to have made great progress.
2. The poet is an adept in characterization, and this is displayed in a series
of unparalleled portraits :
i. Rama’s supreme sacrifice for the sake of his father;
ii. Sita is the glowing example of chastity and high-mindedness;
iii. Laksmana’s obedience to his elder brother;
iv. The self-abnegation of Bharata in abjuring royal comforts during
the absence of Rama;
v. The unflinching loyalty of Hanuman to his master.
vi. Across the sea, in Lanka, we find Ravana, of tremendous physical
and mental vigour.
3. The author of the Ramayana has thus presented a magnificent life-

gallery throbbing with profound human appeal, and in the centre of this
gallery the character of Ram shines.
4. He is a model son, husband, brother, king, warrior, and man.
5. The Ramayana brings out the close relationship between external nature
and internal nature expressed in the minds and moods of people.
6. Unlike the other epic, the Ramayana creates an idyll out of nature and
produces a lyrical effect.
7. Various sentiments have been introduced, into the epic, but the main
sentiment is the heroic.
Que 2.12. Describe the story of Mahabharata.
Answer
The main story of the Mahabharata is briefly this :
1. The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by
Duryodhana, descended from common ancestors.
2. Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira
to a game of dice.
3. As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to
Duryodhana and is then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers
and Draupadi, the common consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years,
followed by one year during which they must live incognito.
4. But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to
give even a fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
5. A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the
Pandavas regain their lost kingdom.
Que 2.13. Write an account on the literary characteristics of

Mahabharata.
Answer
1. The Mahabharata has been characterized as a “whole literature”.
2. The nucleus of the epic is simple. Around this nucleus has gathered a
diverse mass of material dealing with innumerable topics-legendary,
didactic, ethical, heroic, aesthetic, philosophical, political, and so on.
3. Even a casual reader is struck by the wealth of characters in the epic,
and the way they have been so beautifully portrayed.
4. The composer knows the value of contrast, for he shows how a good
character shines brighter against a bad one.
5. Each of the five Pandava brothers has his own distinct traits of character.
Yudhisthira, the eldest, never departs from the age-old path of virtue.
Unflinching in his devotion to dharma, he has an unshaken faith that
Dharma must ultimately triumph.
6. Duryodhana is materialistic in outlook; he is concerned mainly with
artha (wealth) and kama (desire), and does not bother himself about
dharma. He thus serves as an excellent foil to Yudhisthira.
7. The suffering caused by their enemies rouses the righteousness of
Draupadi. Her speech to urge Yudhisthira to action is fiery and imbued
with the high Ksatriya spirit.
8. Similarly Gandhari, the mother of the Kauravas, condemns Dhritrashtra
as the one who is fully responsible for the rout and ruin of the Kauravas.
9. Thus clearly showing that she is not blinded by attachment to her husband
or by affection for her sons. Her judgment is impartial and sound.
10. The dominant sentiment in the Mahabharata is the heroic, but here too
the pathetic sentiment is equally noteworthy.
11. The epic reveals the poet’s mastery of the art of description. In general,
the style is effortless.
Que 2.14. What is Purana ?
Answer
1. The term purana means, “that which lives from ancient times”.
2. The Puranas are a very important branch, of the Hindu sacred literature.
3. They enable us to know the true import of the ethos, philosophy, and
religion of the Vedas.
4. The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths
taught in the Vedas by presenting them in relation to specific personages
and to the events of their lives.
5. The real function of the Puranas is to explain, illustrate, and amplify the
Vedas.
6. The main value of the Puranas consists in amplifying, enforcing, and
illustrating the spiritual truths stated in the Vedas in the form of
injunctions and commands.
7. The principal (Maha) Puranas are eighteen in number. There are also
eighteen secondary (Upa) Puranas. These contain about 4,00,000 verses
on the whole and relate to a vast variety of topics.
8. Purana is traditionally defined as comprising five main topics : sarga
(creation), pratisarga (dissolution and recreation), vamsa (divine
genealogies), manvantara (ages of Manus), and vasmanuchari
(genealogies of kings).
9. The eighteen Mahapuranas are classified either as sattvika, tamasa,

and rajas or in accordance with the divinity (such as Visnu, Siva, Brahma,
Devi) which they glorify.
PART-3
Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrity and Sanskrit.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.15. Give an account on the Buddhist literature.
Answer
1. The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in
Magadha and South Bihar.
2. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-
canonical.
3. The canonical literature is best represented by the Tripitaka, that is,
three baskets :
i. Vinaya Pitaka : It deals with rules and regulations of daily life.
ii. Sutta Pitaka : It contains dialogues and discourses on morality
and deals with Dharma.
iii. Abhidhamma Pitaka : It deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology,
theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.
4. The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas
are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha.
5. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC.
6. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the
Buddha.
7. The Buddhist literature, both Hinayana and Mahayana, is preserved
mainly in Pali, Buddhist Sanskrit, and Pure Sanskrit.
8. Pali Tripitaka represents the earliest and most complete collection of
the Buddhist literature.
Que 2.16. Write short note on : Pali language.
Answer
1. The word Pali simply means ‘a line’ and is regarded as a Middle Indo-
Aryan language that is native to India.
2. The earliest known origins of this language are unclear.
3. It was earlier known as Magadhi, named after its place of origin in
modern-day Bihar.
4. Buddha spent most of his time in Magadha and preached his doctrine
there in the dialect of that region.
5. It is but natural that the early Buddhist scriptures were composed in
Magadhi in which Buddha himself spoke.
6. The Tripitaka was committed to writing during the reign of Vattagamani
Abhaya in the first century B.C.
7. Apart from the canonical literature in Pali, there are also a large number
of post-canonical Pali works. They comprise mostly tikas and tippanis.
8. The extracanonical works can be divided in to the commentaries, then
the chronicles, manuals, poetical works, grammars, and works on
rhetoric and metrics, and lastly, the lexicons.
Que 2.17. Give an account on the Buddhist Sanskrit literature.
Answer
Like the Pali Tripitaka, there is also the Tripitaka in Buddhist Sanskrit
consisting of Agama, Vinaya, and Abhidharma.
A. Hinayana Buddhist Sanskrit texts :
1. The Agama is divided into four boo ks entitle d Dirghagama,
Madhyamagama, Samyuktagama and Ekottaragama.
2. The Vinaya Pitaka contains four divisions Vinayavibhanga, Vinayavastu,
Vinayaksudrakavastu and Vinaya-uttaragrantha.
3. The Abhidharma Pitaka of the Sarvastivada School has seven treatises:
the Jnana-prasthana, the Sangitiparyaya, the Prakaranapada, the
Vijnanakaya, the Dhatukaya, the Dharmaskandha, the Prajnaptisastra.
4. The Mahavastu is one of the most important works belonging to the
school of Hinayana. It is an encyclopedia of Buddhist legends and
doctrines.
5. Apart from those mentioned above, this school has to its credit a large
number of works under the caption Avadana literature.
B. Mahayana Buddhist Sanskrit texts :
1. The Mahayana school’s contribution to Indian thought is unique. It had
an extensive literature of its own.
2. Of the numerous Mahayana works, nine books (nine Dharmas) are

held in great reverence.
3. They are : Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, Saddharmapundarika-Sutra,
Lalitavistara, Lankavatara, Suvarnaprabhasa, Gandavyuha, Tathagata-
guhyaka, Samadhiraja and Dasabhumisvara.
4. They are also known as Vaipulya-Sutras.
C. Pure Sanskrit texts :
1. The Buddhist literature was further enriched by a galaxy of eminent
scholars.
2. Prominent among them were Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,
Vasubandhu, Sthiramati, Dinnaga, Vasumitra, Dharmapala,
Dharmakirti, Santideva and Santaraksita. 3. Their works were composed
in pure Sanskrit and mainly on Buddhist philosophy and logic.
Que 2.18. Write an account on the literature of Jainism.
Answer
1. The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were compiled in the sixth
century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat.
2. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,
Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
3. Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar.
4. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the
political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
5. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
6. Jaina literature begins with the last of the Tirthankaras, Mahavir, who
reorganized the old Nirgrantha sect and revitalized its moral and religious
zeal and activities.
7. He preached his faith of ahimsa (non-violence) and self-purification to
the people in their own language Prakrit.
8. The form of Prakrit which he is said to have used was Ardha-Magadhi.
Que 2.19. Write short note on : The Jaina Canon (a collection of

sacred books accepted as genuine).
Answer
1. The language of these texts is Ardha-Magadhi. But it is not uniform in
all the texts.
2. The subject-matter of this canonical literature is mainly the ascetic
practices of the followers of Mahavira.
3. As such, it is essentially didactic, dominated by the supreme ethical

principle of ahimsa.
4. Also there is a good deal of poetry and philosophy as well as valuable
information about contemporary thought and social history including
biographical details of Parsvanatha, Mahavira, and their contemporaries.
5. Many narrative pieces are interesting and instructive.
6. From the historical point of view, the life of Mahavira, information
about his predecessors and contemporaries, about his successors, and
about monachism practised in the days of Mahavira in eastern India are
all very valuable.
Que 2.20. Give an account on the Jaina sanskrit literature.
Answer
1. The language of Jaina literature was primarily the Prakrits. But Sanskrit
was not altogether shunned.
2. Amongst the Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious
writing is the Tattvarthadhigama-Sutra of Umasvamin which epitomizes
the whole Jaina creed in about 375 sutras arranged in ten chapters.
3. The work occupies a unique position in Jaina literature as it is recognized
as authoritative equally by the Digambaras and the Svetambaras with a
few variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both.
4. The next commentary on it is Tattvartha-raja-varttika of Akalanka (8th
century) which offers more detailed explanations of the sutras, as well
as of the important statements of Pujyapada.
5. The Tattvartha-sloka-varttika of Vidyanandin (9th century) gives
expositions in verse and makes valuable clarifications.
6. For yogic practices, the Jnanarnava and the Yogasastra are valuable
guides.
7. Jaina Sanskrit literature is considerably enriched by a series of works
on Nyaya (logic).
PART-4
Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous Sanskrit Authors, Telugu
Literature, Kannada Literature, Malayalam Literature,
Sangama Literature, Northern Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian and Urdu, Hindi Literature.
Questions-Answers

Que 2.21. Write short note on : Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
Answer
1. The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft,
economic policy and military strategy.
2. Kautilya is traditionally credited as the author of the text.
3. The title Arthashastra is often translated to “the science of wealth”, but
the book Arthashastra has a broader scope.
4. The Arthasastra is divided into 15 adhikaranas and 180 prakaranas and
embraces economics, sociology, politics, etc.
5. The major portion is devoted to the problems of administration. It deals
with the following elements of the kingdom :
i. training;
ii. duties and vices of the king;
iii. recruitment and duties of the amatyas and mantrins;
iv. civil and criminal administration; and
v. guilds and corporations.
6. Republics form the theme of one whole chapter. Further, the text
enunciates the principles of interstate relations and describes the military
organisation.
7. It suggests methods to win wars and acquire popularity in the conquered
territories.
8. A distinguishing feature of its contents is the exaltation of the central
authority and the assignment of many social and economic functions to
the king.
9. A good part of Kautilya's arthashastra is concerned with politics.
10. However, Kautilya makes a deliberate and conscious attempt to free
politics from the influence of religion and morality.
11. Thus the Arthasastra is not only a treatise on the science of wealth but
also a treatise on political science.
Que 2.22. Mention some of the famous Sanskrit authors and their
work.
Answer
Following are some of the famous Sanskrit authors :

1. Ashwaghosha :
i. Ashwaghosha is the greatest Indian poet prior to Kalidasa who
wrote Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and the
Saundaranandakavya, a poem with the theme of conversion of
Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.
ii. He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king
Kanishka and known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world.
iii. He was a born Brahmin, but later turned into a Buddhist Monk.
iv. He also wrote a Sanskrit Drama Sariputra Prakaran.
2. Bhasa :
i. Bhasa wrote important works like Swapnavasavadattam, Panch-
Ratra, Madhyama-Vyayoga, DutaGhattotkacha, Duta-Vakya,
Urubhanga, Karna-Bhara and Bal Charita.
ii. Svapnavasavadattam was lost and rediscovered in 1912 in Kerala.
iii. This play is around the Vatsa king Udayana and his queen
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti.
3. Kalidasa : Kalidasa is the immortal poet and playwright of India and a
peerless genius whose works became famous worldwide in modern
world.
4. Sudraka :
i. The real name of Sudraka was Indranigupta and he was an Abhira
King.
ii. Sudraka has composed three Sanskrit Plays :
a. Mricchakatika
b. Vinavasavadatta
c. Padmaprabhritaka
5. Vatsyayana :
i. Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya and
Kamasutra.
ii. Kamasutra is a treatise on human sexual behaviour and makes the
part of the Kamashashtra.
iii. As per the traditions, the first transmission of the Kamashashra is
attributed to Nandi.
6. Vishakhadatta :
i. Vishakhadatta was one of the famous Sanskrit poet and play writer
after Mahakavi Kalidas.
ii. We know about only two plays of Vishakhadatta viz. Mudrarakshasa
and the Devichandraguptam.
iii. Mudrarakshasa means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent

of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
7. Bharavi :
i. Bharavi is best known for Kiratarjuniya.
ii. Kirat is Shiva who speaks to Arjuna in the form of a mountain
dwelling hunter.
iii. This epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works
in Sanskrit which is known for complexity of the Sanskrit.
8. Magha :
i. Magha was a Sanskrit poet at King Varmalata's court at Shrimala,
the then-capital of Gujarat.
ii. Sisupala-Vadha was written by Magha in 7th Century AD and is
one of the six Sanskrit Mahakavyas.
iii. It was inspired by the works of Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin.
Que 2.23. Write short note on : Telugu literature.
Answer
1. Telugu is one of the classical languages of India. It is a language of the

Dravidian family.
2. The Indian Constitution recognises it as one of the 22 official languages
of India.
3. Telugu literature is the body of works written in the Telugu language. It
consists of poems, short stories, novels, plays, and song lyrics, among
others.
4. Early Telugu literature is predominantly religious in subject matter.
Poets and scholars drew most of their material from epics, such as the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and the Puranas.
5. From the 16th century onwards, rarely known episodes from the Puranas
would form the basis for the tradition of Telugu-language kavya.
6. Literary works drawn from episodes of the Puranas under the name
Akhyana or Khanda became popular along with depictions of the fortune
of a single hero under the title of Charitra, Vijaya, Vilasa and Abhyudaya.
7. In the eighteenth-century, marriages of heroes under the title Parinaya,
Kalyana and Vivaha became popular.
8. Religious literature consisted of biographies of the founders of religion,
their teachings (Sara) as well as commentaries (bhashya).
9. Traditional Hindu knowledge systems such as astrology, law, grammar,

ballets, moral aphorisms, and devotional psalms to deities within the
Hindu pantheon are characteristics of more popular works of Telugu
literature.
Que 2.24. Write short note on : Kannada literature.
Answer
1. Kannada literature is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada

language, a member of the Dravidian family.
2. The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases :
Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present).
3. Its literary characteristics are categorised as Jain, Veerashaiva and
Vaishnava — recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving
form to the classical expression of the language.
4. Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the
12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed
by the Jains.
5. The Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century created new literature
which flourished alongside the Jain works.
6. With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th century Vijayanagara
Empire, a new Vaishnava literature grew rapidly in the 15th century.
7. In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative,
the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature.
Que 2.25. Write short note on : Malayalam literature.
Answer
1. Malayalam literature comprises of literary texts written in Malayalam, a

South-Dravidian language spoken in Kerala.
2. The earliest known literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an
epic poem written by Cheeraman in 1198 CE.
3. In the subsequent centuries, besides a popular pattu literature, the
manipravalam poetry also flourished.
4. Manipravalam style consisted of poetry in an admixture of Malayalam
and Sanskrit.
5. Then came works such as champus and sandeshakavyas in which prose
and poetry were interspersed.
6. Later, poets like Cherusseri introduced poems on devotional themes.

7. Ezhuthachan, a strong proponent of Bhakti movement, is known as the
father of Malayalam. His poems are classified under the genre of
kilippattu.
8. Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late
19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting
of Kumaran Asan, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Vallathol Narayana
Menon.
9. Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic
life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards political
radicalism.
Que 2.26. Write short note on : Sangam literature.
Answer
1. In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned men of

the Tamil land was called ‘Sangam’ whose chief function was promotion
of literature.
2. Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies
(Sangams) at different periods.
3. The last academy is credited with the corpus of literature now known as
‘Sangam Works’.
4. Naturalism and romanticism were the salient features of the poems of
the Sangam bards.
5. Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or ‘the preserver of
ancient institutions’ was written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest
extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C.
6. It lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn
from the examples furnished by the best works then extant.
7. It contains about 1,610 suttirams (aphorisms). It is in three parts : ezhuttu
(orthography), sol (etymology), and porul (literary conventions and
usages) each with nine sections.
8. The principal works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the
shape of anthologies of poems.
9. The anthologies of the third Sangam consist of poems divided into two
broad categories : aham or interior and puram or exterior.
10. An allegory of the different stages through which the soul of man passes
from its manifestation in the body to its final unification with the Supreme
Being is seen in aham.
11. The puram covers varieties of distinctive poems, mostly relating to man's
social behaviour.
Que 2.27. Give an account on the northern Indian languages and

literature.
Answer
1. In early medieval period the old apabhramsha had taken new forms and
was in the process of evolving into other forms.
2. These languages were evolving at two levels : the spoken and the written
language.
3. The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change.
4. The alphabets during Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the
time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size.
5. All the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that of
Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi.
6. At present there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India.
Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular area.
7. A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include
Braj Bhasha, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Maithili, Rajasthani and Khadi
Boli.
8. The language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of
Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called
Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili.
9. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli.
10. Extensive use of Khadi Boli in literature began only in the nineteenth
century. It even shows some influence of Urdu.
Que 2.28. Write short note on : Persian and Urdu languages.
Answer
Persian language :
1. As Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced
in this period was written in Persian.
2. We find several historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied
literature in this language.
3. The Mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature.
4. Quite a fair amount of Persian literature has been produced by the
courtiers of the Mughals.
5. From there we get a good deal of information about Mughal period.

6. Several collections of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come
down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal history, they indicate
different styles of letter writing.
Urdu language :
1. Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the
Turks and the Mongols.
2. Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and
Persian.
3. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a
formal language when the authors started using Persian script.
4. Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People
even wrote accounts of later Mughals in Urdu.
5. Gradually it achieved a status where literature (both poetry and prose)
started being composed in it.
6. Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have
left inimitable poetry for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to
be Khusrau (1253 - 1325).
7. Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath
Sarshar, who wrote the famous Fasanah-i-Azad.
8. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that is called a nazm.
9. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums
in this language. Slowly it became quite popular.
Que 2.29. Write short note on : Hindi Literature.
Answer
1. In the 14th century the emergence of regional languages resulted in the

decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through
which the administrative machinery functioned.
2. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional languages
by the various saints helped in their growth and development.
3. The language went on changing as the area where it was used expanded.
New words to express new situations were either coined or taken from
areas coming under its influence.
4. The influence of Bhakti movement started affecting the prose and poetry
that were being composed in Hindi.
5. Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th
centuries A.D. and the 14th C.
6. Hindi poets expressed their sentiments essentially to satisfy their own
devotional instincts.
7. These poets influenced the Indian society in a manner that had never
happened earlier. As it is easier to remember poetry than prose, they
became immensely popular.
8. In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent.

3 Indian Religion &

Philosophy
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Pre-Vedic and Vedic ............................. 3–2Q to 3–13Q
Religion, Buddhism,
Jainism, Six System
Indian Philosophy,
Shankaracharya
Part-2 : Various Philosophical ........................ 3–13Q to 3–23Q

Doctrines, other Heterodox
Sects, Bhakti movement,
Sufi Movement, Socio
Religious Reform Movement
of 19th Century,
Modern Religious Practices
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
PART-1
Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System
Indian Philosophy, Shankaracharya.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Explain the meaning of religion.

OR
Write a short note on : Religion.
Answer
1. Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation
on religion.
2. Religion played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the
earliest times.
3. It assumed numerous forms in relation to different groups of people
associated with them.
4. Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an
inherent dynamic strength.
5. Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious
traditions of the land.
6. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and
existence.
7. Philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the
correct way of life.
8. Philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the
fulfillment.
9. Philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice.
10. Thus in ancient India, philosophy and religion complemented each other.
Que 3.2. Give a detail account on the religious traditions of pre-

Vedic (Harappan) period.
OR
Write a note on religious practices of the Harappans.
Answer
1. The Harappan civilization beginning can be traced in the preceding
rural cultures of Neolithic times which are known as Nal, Kulli, Zhob,
Quetta cultures.
2. This civilization dates back to about 3000 B.C.
3. The Harappan culture matured around 2600 B.C. and it declined around
1700 B.C.
4. From the archaeological findings, it may be presumed that the most
important feature of the pre-Vedic (Harappan) religion was the cult of
Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess.
5. Seals from Harappa show a female figure turned upside down, with
outstretched legs, and a plant emerging from her womb.
6. Another representation of a feroali figure standing in a bifurcated tree
may be interpreted to identify the Mother Goddess with the Nature
Goddess.
7. There are also a few female figures with a number of children which
may connect the Mother Goddess with fertility cult.
8. Among male deities Siva can be identified easily as a principal deity in
Harappan religion.
9. Most remarkable representation of this deity is a three-faced figure
wearing a three-horned head-dress, seated cross-legged on a throne,
the posture being very similar to padmasana, with eyes turned towards
the tip of his nose, as described in Yoga texts.
10. It also appears that Siva was worshipped both in icon and in linga.
11. The pre-Vedic (Harappan) people might have been worshipping animals.
Various types of animals are found depicted on the seals and sealings.
12. In all probability the pre-Vedic (Harappan) people also worshipped natural
objects like water, fire, trees, etc. Various trees, plants and foliage have
been depicted on a number of seals.
13. Some scholars consider the existence of ‘shamanism’ in Harappan
religion. Shamanism is a form of religious practice that exists among
preliterate prehistoric groups, including tribesmen and hunter-gatherers.
14. Being a highly developed urbanized civilization Harappan people also
had developed religious practices and symbolism.
Que 3.3. Give a brief account on Vedic religion.
Answer
1. The Vedic tradition at its early stage was primarily a tradition, by priests
and priest-craft, with a sizable pantheon of nature deities.
2. Sacrifice involving the specialized priests and slaughter of animals was

the chief form of religious practice.
3. Sacrifice was originally a rite of hospitality for the gods and this was
performed to obtain material rewards on earth and in heaven.
4. In the context of the Vedic religion sacrifice needs to be understood with
reference to the inner self of man.
5. Ancient seers have suggested two approaches with reference to the
Vedic religion : Pravrtti Lakshana (characterized by action) and nivrtti-
lakshana (characterized by renunciation).
6. The aim of religion is also twofold : Abhyudaya (prosperity in the life in
this world and enjoyment in heaven in the life after) and Nihsreyasa
(permanent freedom from all bondage and sufferings, state of eternal
bliss).
7. The Mantra and Brahmana parts of the Veda serve the purpose of
Abhyudaya, whereas the Aranyakas and the Upanishads teach the ways
and means for Nihsreyasa.
Que 3.4. What is the source of knowledge of the Vedic religion ?
Answer
1. The Vedic religion emanates from the Veda. The word ‘Veda’ is derived
from the root ‘vid’, ‘to know’ and hence means knowledge.
2. The knowledge contained in and imparted by the Veda is considered to
be the knowledge par excellence.
3. The source of knowledge of the Vedic religion is the corpus of the Vedic
literature which is composed of four great works, the Rig-Veda, the
Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda and the Atharva-Veda.
4. Each of these having fourfold subdivisions : the Samhitas or Mantras,
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
5. Brahmanas are the ritual textbooks intended to guide the priests through
the complicated web of sacrificial rites.
6. The Aranyakas, considered as appendices to the Brahmanas, contain
the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice.
7. The Upanishads deal with metaphysical speculations and spiritual
teachings.
8. These are the texts which help us in formulating our knowledge about
the Vedic religion.
Que 3.5. Give an account of rites and rituals performed in the

Vedic religion.
Answer
1. The formulation of the rites and rituals presupposes the existence of
deities who are to be propitiated, prayed through the rituals.
2. The Vedas mention quite a good number of deities. The principal deities
are classified as belonging to different regions :
i. terrestrial,
ii. aerial and
iii. celestial.
3. Ritual and prayer are two expressions in act and word of man’s sense of
dependence on divine powers.
4. Rituals were performed to enlist the goodwill of divine powers so that
they may fulfill the wish of the worshipper.
5. Sacrifice was considered as an inherent part of the cosmic order.
6. Sacrifice involved the yajamana, the patron of the offering, the god to
whom the offering is given, the Brahmana who performs the sacrifice
and acts as a link between the yajamana and the god and the bali or the
offering which is gifted to the gods.
7. Vedic rituals are broadly classified into two categories : public rites
(srauta) and domestic rites (grhya or smarta).
A. Public rites (Srauta) :
1. The Srauta sacrifices are primarily classified on the basis of the material
of the offerings, viz., havir-yajna in which ghee is offered as the main
oblation, and Soma-yajna in which the juice of the Soma plant is the
chief oblation.
2. The Srauta rituals require the participation of various types of officiating
priests.
3. Srauta sacrifices are many and varied. A vast literature, known as
Srauta sutras came into being to discuss the details of the performance
of the sacrifice.
4. The Srauta sacrifices may be classified as :
i. periodic or regularly recurring ones (nitya) and
ii. occasional or special (naimittika).
B. Domestic rites (Grhya or Smarta) :
1. A householder belonging to any of the three upper castes is required to
perform quite a good number of personal or family rites - as enjoined by
the ritualistic texts known as grhya karmans.
2. The most important distinction between the public and the domestic
rites is that while the public rites are performed in three sacred fires,
viz., Ahavaniya, Daksinga and Garhapatya, - the domestic rites are
performed only in the Garhapatya fire.
3. The householder is supposed to perform all the Grhya rites himself.

4. The materials used for the oblations in the Grhya rites are generally the
same as those for the srauta rituals, with the exception that Soma is
never offered and animals very rarely.
Que 3.6. Describe in brief the life of Gautama Buddha the founder
of Buddhism.
Answer
1. Siddhartha (Gautama Buddha) was born at Lumbini in present Nepal.
2. He was son of Shuddodana, the King of Shakya gana of Kapilvastu and
Mayadevi, princess of Koliya gana.
3. In his childhood he was taken care by Gautami, hence he is also known
as Gautama. After his enlightenment, he is called as Buddha.
4. Traditions inform us about the effects on Siddhartha of the sight of old
man, a sick man, a dead body and meditative sage.
5. He became restless to seek the cause of such agony and real meaning of
truth. Hence, at 29, he moved to forests to know the real meaning of
truth and reason of sorrow.
6. On the banks of Uruvela, at Gaya, he received enlightenment under
the pipal (bodhi) tree.
7. He became the Buddha-the enlightened one and Tathagath-who knew
the truth.
8. He decided to share his knowledge with the people, based on simple
code of conducts and in the languages of people, i.e., Pali.
9. His knowledgeable, simple and sacrificial character and his teaching in
simple tone impressed people.
10. Buddha organized his disciples into a specific monachism rested on
definite rules and codes of conduct. This is called the Sangha.
11. The Buddhists express their devotions by submitting themselves to
Buddha, his Sangha and his dhamma.
12. At the age of 80, Buddha rested at Kusinagar (Kasaya, dist. Devriya,
present Uttar Pradesh) in peace.
Que 3.7. What was the purpose of Sangha (Buddhist Monastery) ?

How can one obtain membership of Sangha ?
Answer
1. For the propagation of Buddhism, Buddha created a disciplined
mechanism of missionaries, called as Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.
2. He organized the missionaries and his disciples in a specific organization,
called as Sangha.
3. Any person (male or female) who is above 18 and left his possessions
could become member of Sangha based on equality.
4. Initially women were not permitted in Sangha, but later the doors were
opened for women.
5. After the permission of owner, slaves, soldiers and debtors could also
become member of Sangha.
6. However, criminals, lepers and contagious patients were not permitted
into Sangha.
7. At the outset, one has to take oath (loyalty towards Buddha-Dhamma-
Sangha), then shave his head (mundana) and wear yellow dress.
8. Then, after one month, he could take a diksha called as upasampada.
After upasampada he is taken as a member of Sangha.
9. The member is expected to follow the codes of conduct (dasha-shila).
10. The organizational base of Sangha was a democratic one. The monks
are expected to travel for eight months for the propagation of Buddhism.
11. Then, during the four months of rainy season, they gathered at one
place, called as varshavasa.
12. During varshavasa, they discuss, share their experiences, and gave
confessions, take prayashcita (expiation).
13. Due to such a disciplinary and chaste character of monks, they received
a great respect in the society.
14. It helped in increase of Buddhism in large population.
Que 3.8. Write a short note on : Buddhist Scriptures &

Dharmaparishadas.
Answer
1. Buddha’s preaching are collected and classified into three volumes,
collectively called as pitakas.
2. The three volumes are :
a. Sutta-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s preaching in dialogue form, which is
mainly made for common people.
ii. It has five nikayas, in which, the stories of Buddha’s rebirth (the
jatakas) are collected in the fifth nikaya.
b. Vinaya pitaka : It is a collection of rules and codes of conduct for
Buddhist monks and nuns.
c. Abhi-dhamma-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s philosophical thought in the form of
question and answers.
ii. It is mainly meant for scholars of Buddhism.

Dharmaparishadas :
1. After the mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Buddhism witnessed the crowd
of various versions of Buddha’s preaching.
2. Hence, to remove such discrepancy and reach to unanimous platform, a
need was felt to rearrange and compile Buddha’s original preaching and
codify them.
3. For this purpose, grand assemblies (dharmaparishadas) of Buddhist
followers were organized from time to time.
Que 3.9. What were the causes of decline in Buddhism ?
Answer
Following were the causes of decline in Buddhism :
1. Shift in king’s favour : The favour and support of rulers were one of
the causes for the spread of Buddhism. However, after the Mauryas,
India was mushroomed with those kings who favoured Vedic religion. It
hampered the support of Buddhism.
2. Introspection of Vedic religion :
i. The speedy growth of non-Vedic religions forced Vedic religion to
introspect within their own belief systems. Thus, they made some
reforms in the erstwhile rigid ritualistic Vedic religion. It became
people oriented.
ii. It introduced concepts like temples for mass-congregation, idol-
worships, devotional mode of prayers, simple code of conducts,
establishment of monasteries, pilgrimages etc.
iii. Hence, crowds of people were attracted to Vedic religion.
3. Dissensions in Buddhism : Immediately after the departure of
Buddha, Buddhism faced with dissensions. To curb such conflicts and
reach to unanimity, contemporary rulers organized grand assemblies
from time to time. However, they proved in vain.
4. Individualistic identity loss of individualistic identity : For the
people orientation, Buddhism also accepted the concepts like idol-worship,
Sanskrit-language, concept of heaven & hell, cycle of birth etc. Such
concepts marred the individualistic identity of Buddhism, which was
originally revolutionary and heterodox in nature.
5. Foreign invasion : Except Menander and Kanishka, almost all foreign
rulers were followers of the Vedic religion. Especially, the aggressive
Huna tribe was the follower of Shaiva cult. It destroyed Buddhist
monastery and learning centres.
Que 3.10. Give a brief account on Jainism.

Answer
1. By tradition, Jainism is an anadi religion, i.e., the all time/ever-existed
religion, and, through tirthankaras, it is retold from time to time.
2. Rishabhdeva was the first among 24 tirthankaras, in which, Neminath
was 22nd, whereas, Parshvanatha was 23rd.
3. Parshvanatha gave stress on four principles, like, Satya, Brahmacharya,
Asteya and Aparigraha.
4. The followers of Parshvanatha, wearing white cloth, consisted of 8 gana,
8 ganadhara and 1000 Shramanas.
5. Vardhaman Mahavir was the 24th tirthankara and most venerated
preacher of Jain religion.
6. Mahavira reinterpreted the then existed philosophy and code of conducts
of Jainism.
7. He contributed a new principle of non-violence (ahimsa) to the four
principles, told by Parshvanatha.
8. He, based on non-violence, framed a new set of philosophy and codes of
conduct.
9. He refreshed Jain monachism and put rules of hierarchy of Jain-
preachers or Shramanas.
10. For the propagation of his religion, he accepted ardha-magadhi, a
language of people, as a medium of preaching.
11. Due to his simple codes of conducts and use of people-language, Mahavira
could successfully propagated Jainism.
12. Hence, Mahavira is considered as an actual founder of Jainism.
Que 3.11. What are the basic principles of Jainism ? Also discuss
about different Vratas.
Answer
Basic Principles of Jainism : The basic principles of Jainism are as
follows :
1. Negations of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its concept of God.
2. To achieve moksha, one should control his own senses instead of
depending on the favours of God.
3. Universe is created due to jiva (soul) which is immortal.
4. To achieve moksha, jiva should be free from actions.
5. Belief in equality.
The Vratas :
A. Maha-vrata :
1. Ahimsa : It means to abstain from troubling any living thing with any
sort of violence, like, physical, verbal and mental.
2. Satya : To speak truth and create such a situation in which other would
speak truth.
3. Asteya : Not to possess the thing, which is not belonged to us.
4. Aparigraha : To possess only those things, which are most needed.
5. Brahmacharya : Abstain from sexual relations.
B. Anu-vrata : It is not possible for laymen to follow the strict codes of
conduct of maha-vrata. Hence, Jainism made provision of the same
principles for them but in a soft or limited form. They are called as anu-
vrata.
C. Guna-vrata : To inculcate patience and sacrifice among laymen
following three guna-vrata were provided for them :
1. Dig-vrata : While traveling one should limit his directions and maintain
that limitation.
2. Kal-vrata : While traveling one should limit the duration and maintain
that limitation.
3. Anarth-dandavat : While following ones occupation one should respect
the limits and values of that occupation.
D. Shiksha-vrata : To increase the tendency of detachment from worldly
pleasures and for the social-health, following principles are told :
1. Samayika : To follow habit of seating calmly at one place and meditate.
2. Proshadhopavasa : To observe fast on fifth (panchami), eighth
(ashtami), fourteenth (chaturdashi) day of every fortnight. On the day
of fast one should seat in Jain temples and recite scriptures and follow
meditation.
3. Bhogopabhoga parinama : Decide limitation on food consumption
and pleasure for each day and follow that limitation.
4. Atithi samvibhag : To give part of our cooked food to the truthful and
worthy guest.
Que 3.12. Write a short note on : The spread of Jainism in India.
Answer
1. By tradition, Jainism was existed before Mahavira. However, due to
tenuous efforts of Mahavira he was credited as an actual founder of
Jaina religion.
2. The basic reason of the spread of Jainism was the support and favours
of contemporary rulers. Great rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru,
Chandragupta Maurya accepted Jainism as their personal and royal
religion.
3. They extended their support to Jain for their propagation and consecutive
spread.
4. Apart from rulers, the trader and artisan’s class also accepted Jainism. It
spread on the financial base provided by these classes.
5. Due to the favour of rulers, Jaina literature and art also flourished.
6. Vast collections of Jaina literature was created in the public-language
like ardhamagadhi and then Sanskrit, too.
7. Caves-viharas-temples were constructed to accommodate the worshipers
for large congregations. These places also served as educational centres.
Que 3.13. What are the six systems of ancient Indian philosophy ?
Answer
1. Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and
teachings that emerged in ancient India.
2. Following are the summary on the six philosophical system (Shada
Darsan) of Indian philosophy :
A. Samkhaya :
1. It is one of the oldest Indian philosophies.
2. The term ‘Samkhaya’ means to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate,
deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to
number, rational.
3. It was propounded by an eminent, great sage Kapila.
4. It is a system of dualistic realism.
5. It recognised two ultimate eternal realities i.e., ‘Purusha (Spirit)’ and
‘Prakriti (Nature)’.
6. During embryonic stage, system was atheistic but after the influence of
the ‘Yoga System’ it became theistic.
7. It lost its relevance during the Gupta period because its theism was
absorbed by the epics and its categories of Prakrti, Purusa and Gunas
were taken over by Vedanta.
B. Yoga :
1. It is one of the six major ancient Indian philosophies and it was attributed
by ‘Patanjali’.
2. The eight-limbs of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali highlight how to connect
with the greater cosmic essence and enhance spirituality.
3. These eight-limbs include : Yama (moral conduct), Niyama (Disciple),

Asana (right posture), Pranayama (effective breathing), Pratyahara
(withdrawing the senses), Dharana (to concentrate on one object),
Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi (supreme bliss/salvation).
C. Vaisesika :
1. It was expounded by ‘Kanada’.
2. It was based on the concept that everything in the world is a combination
of atoms which remain after material object has been reduced to its
smallest part.
3. Initially, it was an atheistic system but after merger of Nayaya system,
it became theistic system.
D. Nyaya :
1. It was propounded by ‘Gautama’ rishi.
2. This philosophy believes that the existence of ideas, beliefs, emotions
and visions are all dependent on mind.
3. Its main objective is to help to eliminate ignorance of knowledge. It
enlists four valid (Pramana) and four invalid means of gaining knowledge.
E. Purva Mimansa :
1. The literal meaning of ‘Purva Minansa’ is ‘critical examination’ or ‘solution
of a problem by reflection’.
2. It was attributed by ‘Jaimini’.
3. It considers Veda as eternal and unchanging.
4. According to this philosophy, the world has always existed and is without
beginning or end.
5. It explains the Dharma as a ‘virtue’, ‘morality’ or ‘duty’.
F. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa :
1. It was expounded by ‘Badaryana’.
2. The term ‘Vedanta’ means the culmination of the Vedic speculation.
3. There are two basic text of this system – ‘Vedanta Sutra’ and Brahama
Sutra’.
Que 3.14. Write a short note on : Shankaracharya.
Answer
1. Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian who
consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
2. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of
thought in Hinduism.
3. Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads,
Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
4. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known

as Advaita Vedanta.
5. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
6. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the
Brahman.
7. According to Vedanta philosophy, Brahman is true, the world is false
and self and Brahman are not different.
8. Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging,
the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
9. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the
self.
10. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate
existence.
11. Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his
philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers.
12. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the
Upanishads and Brahma Sutra.
13. He is reputed to have founded four mathas (monasteries), which helped
in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of
which he is known as the greatest revivalist.
PART-2
Various philosophical doctrines, Other heterodox sects, Bhakti
Movement, Sufi Movement, Socio Religious Reform Movement of
19th Century, Modern Religious Practices.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.15. What are the various philosophical doctrines of ancient

India ?
Answer
1. Indian philosophy doctrines refer to philosophical traditions which
developed in the Indian subcontinent.
2. Modern scholars generally divide the field between Hindu philosophy
and non-Hindu traditions such as Buddhist philosophy and Jain
philosophy.
A. Hindu Philosophy (Vedic Philosophy) :

1. Religion of the Rig Vedic people consisted mainly of worship of numerous
deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
2. During the later Vedic period definite ideas and philosophies about the
true nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman were
developed.
3. These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different
schools of philosophies called shada darshana.
Six philosophical system (Shada Darsan) of Indian Philosophy :
Refer Q. 3.13, Page 3–11Q, Unit-3.
B. Charvaka School :
1. Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of
philosophy.
2. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses.
3. It is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical
knowledge.
4. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy.
5. According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end
of humans and pleasure the ultimate object in life.
6. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world. Since
God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by
Charvakas.
7. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas
do not recognise ether as it is not known through perception.
8. The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four elements.
C. Jain Philosophy :
1. The centre of Jainism is the concept of atman; the basic philosophic
approach is the stress on ahimsa, and its foundation is aneka-anta-vada.
2. The concept of Aneka-anta-vada is the foundation of Jaina philosophy,
at the same time; it is an inclusive approach to look at the world.
3. According to this concept, no single definite, decisive or conclusive aspect
(ek-anta) of anything is existed; on the contrary, various kinds of
possibilities or meanings (aneka-anta) were existed when we make a
statement about anything.
4. The Jainas believe that the natural and supernatural things of the
universe can be traced back to seven fundamental elements. They are :
i. Jiva : Jiva means soul, which is different from the body, which is
full of senses. The soul encourages one to engage in activities,
which are good or bad. It also suffers from the effects of its actions,
good or bad.
ii. A-jiva : A-jiva means unconscious and life-less.
iii. A-strava : Various kinds of actions/deeds (karma) flows (strava) to
the soul (jiva) and pollute it. Such flow of activities or pollution is
called as a-strava.
iv. Bandha : Due to the flow of activities or pollution, the soul became
bounded, called as Bandha.
v. Sanvara : To control and stop the flow of such activities which
pollutes and bound the soul is called as Sanvara.
vi. Nirjara : However, by stopping only the flow does not mean that
the soul is freed from any bondage. It should clear those actions,
which was already stored and bounded the soul. This is called as
nirjara. After a great penance, a nirjara can be achieved.
vii. Moksha : After clearing the stored pollution (nirjara) and stopping
the flow of activities or pollution (sanvara), the soul is freed from
the bondage. This stage is called as 'Moksha'.
D. Buddhist Philosophy :
1. Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people
could follow easily.
2. He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the
Vedas.
3. Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of
mind and ultimate liberation from this material world.
Four Noble Truths :
a. There is suffering in human life.
b. There is cause of suffering.
c. There is cessation of suffering.
d. Path of Liberation.
Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana) :
i. Right Vision
ii. Right Resolve
iii. Right Speech
iv. Right Conduct
v. Right Means of Livelihood
vi. Right Effort
vii. Right Mindfulness
Que 3.16. Give various causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults

(Heterodox Religious Order).
Answer
Causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults are as follows :

A. Proliferation of Sacrifices :
1. During Later Vedic period, the sacrifices became mandatory for receiving
favour of God or fulfilling any wish.
2. The scriptures suggested various types of sacrifices, which were time-
money consuming and filled with violence.
3. Besides, similar to the sacrifices, various types of specialized priests and
crowd of Gods also emerged in the society.
4. In all, the entire system became very complex and beyond the limits of
common person.
B. Discriminatory Institutions :
1. The later Vedic culture based on rigid caste-system.
2. The Vedic culture represented with the hierarchy of castes, proliferation
of castes and sub castes, humiliating condition of women and Shudras
etc.
3. The non-Kshatriya rulers and economical superior trader class, along
with common person, found no prestigious place or respect in this system.
C. Ambiguous Scriptures :
1. The Vedic literature was varied and specialized. However, it was written
in ambiguous Sanskrit language, which was known to only Brahmans.
2. Hence, it was necessary for the common person to know their religion
in understandable and clear language and literature.
D. Need of New Thoughts :
1. Even among Vedic people, many thinkers were dissatisfied by the ritual
extremity of Later Vedic period. Hence, they created Upanishads.
2. The Upanishads preferred meditation and introspection to the
extravagant sacrifices of Vedic scriptures.
3. However, the meditation of Upanishads was revolving around the
subjects like atman, Brahma, dvait-advait etc.; even more abstract than
the rituals themselves.
4. Hence, people were in need of a new, unambiguous, simple thought or
belief systems.
Que 3.17. What were the various heterodox sects in ancient India ?
Answer
Sects that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition unorthodox
(nastika) systems. The following sects belong to heterodox schools of Indian
philosophy :
A. Carvaka :
1. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses. Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School
of philosophy.
2. It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought.
3. Accepted direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of
anything.
4. Insists on joyful living.
B. Buddhism :
1. It is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautma.
2. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets are not especially
concerned with the existence or non-existence of God.
C. Jainism :
1. Already in existence by 6th century B.C, it was revived by Mahavira, the
24th Jain Tirthankara.
2. According to Jainism, Nirvana or liberation is obtained through three
jewels: Right Philosophy, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (Tri-
ratna).
3. In Jainism there is negation of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its
concept of God.
D. Ajivika :
1. During the birth of heterodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism, the
cult of Ajivakas was emerged in north India.
2. Ajivaka means one who disregards restrictions, has faith upon destiny,
live by his natural tendencies and thus follows free life.
Que 3.18. Write a short note on : The Bhakti movement.
Answer
1. The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between

7th and 12th centuries.
2. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of

Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).
3. These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a
loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
4. They wrote in local languages and were therefore able to reach out to
many people.
5. In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North.
6. Sanskrit was given a new form. Bhagavata Purana centered around
Krishna’s childhood and youth, uses Krishna's exploits to explain deep
philosophy in simple terms.
7. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite
movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement.
8. A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the
use of local languages.
9. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also
translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider
audience.
10. The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They
made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God.
11. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked
institutionalised religion.
12. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They
advocated social reforms too.
13. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to
join kirtans.
Que 3.19. Give an account of contribution made by Kabir in Bhakti

movement.
Answer
1. Kabir (1440-1518) believed that the way to God was through personally
experienced bhakti or devotion.
2. He believed that the Creator is One. His God was called by many names
- Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc.
3. Hence the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta
and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in the Adi Granth.
4. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by
him.
5. Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the
easiest way to attain God.
6. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior
reasoning.
7. For him, a man could not achieve success without hard work. He
advocated performance of action rather than renunciation of duty.
8. Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the
narrow thinking of society.
9. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of
it has passed into our everyday language.
10. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become
his disciples.
Que 3.20. Give an account of contribution made by Guru Nanak

in Bhakti movement.
Answer
1. Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib).

2. From an early age, he showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was
helpful to the poor and needy.
3. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya, disciple
or Pali sikkha, instruction).
4. Guru Nanak's objective was to remove the existing corruption and
degrading practices in society.
5. He showed a new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social
order.
6. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a
religious teacher. He called for an improvement in the status of women.
7. His vani (words) along with those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought
together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
Que 3.21. Write a short note on : The Sufi movement.
Answer
1. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the
degeneration in political and religious life.
2. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life.
3. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
4. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion.

5. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction.
6. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’
and service of humanity.
7. The Sufis are divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah
having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his
disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice).
8. A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his
work.
9. The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical
ecstasy.
10. The Sufi saints did not set up a new religion, but prepared a more liberal
movement within the framework of Islam.
11. The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the 11th and 12th centuries.
12. In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab.
By the 13th and 14th centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
Bengal and the Deccan.
13. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity
made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
Que 3.22. Give the importance of the Sufi movement in India.
Answer
1. The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society.

2. Like the Bhakti saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers
within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook within
Islam.
3. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation
for more liberal movements of the 15th century.
4. The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being)
which opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religions
were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in India.
5. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian
yogis.
6. A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and
downtrodden sections of society. The Sufi saints maintained close contact
with the common people.
7. The Sufi saints tried to bring about social reforms too.
8. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth
of a rich regional literature.
9. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages.
Que 3.23. Identify some of the common characteristics of religious

and social reform movement of 19th century.
Answer
1. From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars
started the study of ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions
and literature.
2. This growing knowledge of India’s past glory provided to the Indian
people a sense of pride in their civilization.
3. It also helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reform
for their struggle against all type of inhuman practices, superstitions
etc.
4. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most
of the movements of social reform were of a religious character.
5. These social and religious reform movements arose among all
communities of the Indian people.
6. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class.
7. They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system,
sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy.
8. Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the
British officials.
9. Some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations
framed by the British Government.
Que 3.24. Mention some of the famous personalities associated

with the religious and social reform movement of 19th century.
Answer
Following are some the famous personalities associated with the religious
and social reform movement :
1. Raja Rammohan Roy : Raja Rammohan Roy can be regarded as the
central figure of India’s awakening for championing the spread of modern
education, science and technology and for his relentless fight against
many social evils.
2. R.G Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade : R.G Bhandarkar and M.G.

Ranade carried out their work of religious reforms in Maharashtra
through the Prarthana Samaj by propagating inter-caste marriages,
freedom from priestly domination and improvement of the lot of women.
3. Swami Dayananda Saraswati : Swami Dayananda Saraswati
founded the Arya Samaj and pleaded for the right of individuals to
interpret Vedas and free themselves from the tyranny of priests. Besides
all this, the organisation fought against untouchability and caste rigidity
as well as worked for promoting modern education.
4. Swami Vivekananda : Swami Vivekananda, a great humanist, through
his Ramakrishna Mission condemned religious narrow mindedness,
advocated free thinking and emphasised on service for the poor.
5. The Theosophical Society : The Theosophical Society, under the
guidance of Annie Besant, promoted studies of ancient Indian religions,
philosophies and doctrines.
6. Sayyid Ahmad Khan : Religious reforms among the Muslims were
carried out by Sayyid Ahmad Khan who encouraged Muslims to adopt
modern education; denounced polygamy, purdah system and spoke
against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationlism.
Que 3.25. Mention the modern religious practices in India.
Answer
Throughout India’s history, religion has been an important part of the

country’s culture. According to the 2011 census, 79.8 % of the population of
India practices Hinduism, 14.2 % adheres to Islam, 1.72 % adheres to Sikhism,
2.3 % adheres to Christianity, 0.7 % adheres to Buddhism and 0.37 % adheres
to Jainism.
1. Hinduism in India : Hinduism – the most widely followed religion in
India – can be interpreted diversely. Pinpointing what constitutes
Hinduism is difficult, with some suggesting that it is an umbrella term
that encompasses various religions and traditions within it. Nonetheless,
Hinduism in all its forms has been particularly influential in Indian
society.
2. Islam in India : Islam is the second most followed religion in India,
influencing the country's society, culture, architecture and artistry.
3. Sikhism in India : Originating in India, Sikhism is a monotheistic
religion that promotes devotion to a formless God. The religion is centred
on a tenet of service, humility and equality, encouraging its followers to
seek to help those less fortunate or in need.
4. Buddhism in India : Buddhism originated as a countermovement to
early Hinduism by presenting a universal ethic rather than basing ethical
codes on an individual’s caste. The core doctrine of Buddhism, known as

the ‘Four Noble Truths’, teaches that one can be liberated from the
suffering that underpins the cycle of death and rebirth by practising the
‘Noble Eightfold Path’.
5. Jainism in India : Jainism also originated as a countermovement that
opposed some of the teachings and doctrines of early Hinduism. In
modern-day India, Jains usually uphold the ethical principle of ‘ahimsa’
(‘non-harm’ or ‘non-violence’). As such, Jains tend to promote
vegetarianism and animal welfare.
6. Christianity in India : Christianity is the third most followed religion
in India, mostly concentrated in the far south and Mumbai. The most
prominent denomination of Christianity in India is Roman Catholicism,
but there are also localised Christian churches.

4 Science, Management
& Indian Knowledge
System
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Astronomy in India, ............................... 4–2Q to 4–7Q
Chemistry in India,
Mathematics in India,
Physics in India,
Agriculture in India,
Medicine in India,
Metallurgy in India
Part-2 : Geography, Biology, .............................. 4–8Q to 4–13Q

Harappan Technologies,
Water Management in India,
Textile Technology in India,
Writing Technology in India,
Pyrotechnics in India
Part-3 : Trade in Ancient India, ....................... 4–13Q to 4–15Q

India’s Dominance up to
Pre-colonial Times
Science, Management & Indian Knowledge 4–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
PART-1
Astronomy in India, Chemistry in India, Mathematics in India,
Physics in India, Agriculture in India, Medicine in India,
Metallurgy in India.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Write a few sentences on the inception of astronomy in

India.
Answer
1. Indian astronomy has a long history stretching from pre-historic to
modern times.
2. The first ‘astronomical’ objects, found in the Andamans, belong to the
palaeolithic era, some 12,000 years ago.
3. They are calendar sticks noting the waxing and waning of the moon by
incising daily notches on a wooden stick.
4. Patterns of rock art found in Kashmir, such as a double sun or
concentric circles, were depictions of a supernova and meteor showers
respectively, witnessed some 7,000 years ago.
5. Ring-stones found at Mohenjo-daro (2600-1900 BCE), which exhibit
rows of small drilled holes, have been interpreted as calendrical devices
keeping track of the sunrise at different times of the year.
6. The Rig-Veda spoke of a year of 360 days divided into twelve equal
parts and used a five-year yuga (era) to reconcile the lunar and solar
years.
7. The Yajur-Veda considered a lunar year of 354 days and a solar year of
365 days, and divided the year into six ritus or seasons of two months
each.
8. The Yajur-Veda also gave the first list of 27 naksatras or lunar mansions,
i.e., constellations along the path of the moon on the celestial sphere.
9. Calendrical astronomy grew more sophisticated in the late Vedic period
because of the need to keep time for the proper conduct of rituals. The
Jyotish vedanga of Lagadha is considered as its representative text.
10. The Jyotish vedanga also discusses solstices and equinoxes and uses
two intercalary lunar months to catch up with the solar calendar.
Que 4.2. Spell out Aryabhata’s contribution to astronomy.

OR
What was the contribution of Aryabhatta in Astronomy ?
Answer
1. Jyotish vedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy.
2. Aryabhata ushered in this era with his Aryabhattiya, which dealt
concisely but systematically with developments in mathematics and
astronomy.
3. His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses.
4. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of
determining the true position of the planets, description of the
movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
5. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific
outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers.
6. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s
theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed
more on beliefs than scientific explorations.
Que 4.3. Describe Indian chemistry through the ages.
Answer
1. The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed
an elaborate urban system. They also had the means of mass production
of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So the early
chemistry in India begins from here.
2. Glass making, pottery, jewellery making, dyeing of clothes and tanning
of leather etc. were the major chemical arts and crafts in the later
periods. As a result of this expanded activity, the alchemical knowledge
increased. Following were the major chemical products that contributed
to the development of chemistry in India :
i. Glass : There is ample evidence to suggest that ancient India glass
making was quite wide spread and high degree of perfection was
achieved in this craft. There was a traditional glass factory at Kopia
in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. Glass slag was found at Kolhapur,
Nevasa, Paunar and Maheshwar. Glass furnaces of late medieval
period were found at Mysore.
ii. Paper : The process of paper making was simple and more or less
similar in all parts of the country. The main centers of paper making
in medieval India were Sialkot, Zafarbad, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad,
Mysore etc.
iii. Soap : For washing clothes ancient Indians used certain plants and
their fruits like the soap nuts of Ritha and Sikakai. Fruits like
Sriphala and Sarsapa were also used to wash different kinds of
clothes.
iv. Dyeing : A number of classical texts like Atharva-Veda (1000 BC)
mentioned some dye stuffs. Dyes were extracted from inorganic
substances by repeatedly soaking and mixing them in water and
allowing the materials to settle. Then the solution was taken out
and spread on a pot and evaporated to get the dry dye.
v. Cosmetics and Perfumes : A large number of references to
cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit literature were found like in
Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. Cosmetics and perfumes making
were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual
enjoyment.
vi. Ink : An ink pot was unearthed during the excavations at Taxila,
which suggests that ink was known and used in India from fourth
century BC. The recipe for ink was also given in Rasaratnakara of
Nityanatha.
vii. Alcoholic liquors : Somarasa, which was mentioned in the Vedas,
was probably the earliest evidence of the use of intoxicants in India.
Kautilya's Arthasastra also lists a variety of liquors. Alcoholic liquors
were classified into various categories depending on their
applications in alchemical operations.
Que 4.4. Write a short note on : Mathematics in ancient India.
Answer
1. The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good
knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD
mathematics developed as a separate stream of study.
2. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the
Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical
geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This
knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars.
3. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the
notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero.
4. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs.
These numerals replaced the Roman numerals.
5. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta's
Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned 'zero' as
a number. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers.
6. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a
triangle, which led to the origin of Trigonometry.
7. The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s

Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is another pioneering work in
the field of astronomy.
8. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the
cornerstones for further research and progress.
Que 4.5. Mention ancient India's contribution to physics.
Answer
1. From the Vedic times Indians had classified the material world into
five elements viz., earth (prithvi), fire (Agni), air (maya), water (apa)
and ether (akasha).
2. Since ancient times Indian philosophers believed that except akasha
(ether), all other elements were physically palpable and hence
comprised miniscule particles of matter. The last miniscule particle of
matter which could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu.
3. Thus the term Parmanu is suggestive of the possibility that, at least at
an abstract level Indian philosophers in ancient times had conceived
the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the
source of atomic energy.
4. In the Vaisesika, one of the six philosophical systems of ancient India,
the concept of Parmanu appeared.
5. The Vaisesika system identified nine types of substance (dravya) :
(1 to 5) the five elements, (6) time (kala), (7) space or direction (dik),
(8) the mind (manas), and (9) the spirit or knower (atman).
6. Besides, substance had twenty-four different qualities (gunas),
including fluidity, viscosity, elasticity and gravity. While fluidity was
related to water, earth and fire, viscosity was unique to water, and
gravity to earth.
7. Distinctive characteristics of sound, heat and light were also discussed,
which often came close to later discoveries of physics, although, lacking
a mathematical apparatus, they did not evolve into scientific theories.
Que 4.6. Write a short note on : Agriculture in India.
Answer
1. The history of agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley Civilization
and in some parts of Southern India, it was found to be practised even
before the Harappans.
2. India has one of the most extensive agricultural lands in the world.
3. India’s monsoon is nature’s abundant irrigating system.
4. India is also blessed with a large network of perennial rivers that over
ages have created vast stretches of highly productive soil.
5. India has been an agricultural economy and civilization and has evolved
a long, rich and diverse tradition of agricultural practices.
6. In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or
less the same as that in early ancient India.
7. Some important changes were brought about by the foreigners such as
the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural plants.
8. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds,
cotton, sugarcane and indigo.
9. Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple
were introduced in India during 16th and 17th centuries.
10. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success.
11. In the field of irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket
made of leather) and dhenkli, were used to lift water with the help of
yoked oxen, which continued to be the means of irrigation.
12. In the medieval period the system of land measurement and land
classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers, were
introduced.
Que 4.7. Give an account on medicine in ancient India.
Answer
1. Diseases cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the
Atharva-Veda. Fever, cough, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and
seizure are the diseases mentioned.
2. Takshila and Varanasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning.
The two important texts in this field are Craraksamhita by Charak and
Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. The plants and herbs used for medicinal
purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita.
3. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around 4th century
AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He mentions 121 surgical
instruments. Along with this he also mentions the methods of
operations, bone setting, cataract and so on.
4. Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the
predecessors of the development of Indian medicine in the later
centuries.
5. In the later centuries there was an attempt to develop specialised
treatises on different diseases.
6. The Sarangdhara Samhita recommends use of opium for medicines.
7. The rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral
medicines including metallic preparations.
8. The Tuhfat-ul-Muminin was a Persian treatise written by Muhammad

Munin in seventeenth century which discusses the opinions of
physicians.
9. The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in
India in the medieval period.
Que 4.8. Discuss the metallurgy capabilities of the people of the

Ancient India.
Answer
1. Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, alloying and
application of metals.
2. For over 7,000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical
skills.
3. The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the
Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy.
4. By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper,
silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze were taking place.
5. Metal artefacts produced by the Harappans were arrowheads, axes,
chisels, sickles, blades, needles, hooks, and vessels such as jars, pots
and pans.
6. Many bronze figurines have been unearthed from Harappan sites.
These figurines were cast by the lost-wax process.
7. Harappans also used gold and silver to produce a wide variety of
ornaments such as pendants, bangles, beads, rings or necklace parts.
8. The Ganges civilization, which emerged in the first millennium BCE,
belonged to the Iron Age.
9. Recent excavations in central parts of the Ganges valley and in the
eastern Vindhya hills have shown that iron was produced there possibly
as early as in 1800 BCE. 10. Its use appears to have become widespread
from about 1000 BCE, and we find mentions of it in late Vedic texts.
11. India was a major innovator in the field, producing two highly advanced
types of iron.
12. The first, wootz steel, produced in south India from about 300 BCE,
was iron carburized under controlled conditions.
13. The second advanced iron is the one used in the famous 1,600-year-old
Delhi Iron Pillar.
14. Indian metallurgists were familiar several other metals, of which zinc
deserves a special mention.
15. Pure zinc could be produced only after a sophisticated ‘downward’
distillation technique in which the vapour was captured and condensed
in a lower container.
PART-2
Geography, Biology, Harappan technologies, Water management
in India, Textile technology in India, Writing technology in India,
Pyrotechnics in India.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.9. Write a short note on : Geography.
Answer
1. The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to
study geography.
2. Though the people were clear about their own physical geography and
also the Western countries, they were unaware of their position on
the earth and the distances with other countries.
3. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding.
4. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation was not a familiar foray
for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of
a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea.
5. In the early medieval period with the development of the concept of
tirtha and tirtha yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was
accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas.
Que 4.10. Give a brief account of ancient Indian biology.
Answer
Medical Botany :
1. The bulk of the Ayurvedic medicines belong to the plant kingdom. And
all the Ayurvedic texts deal with botanical aspects, mainly the
identification and categorization of plants as source of drugs.
2. The Charaka Samhita has a chapter dealing with the classification of
plants.
3. The Susruta samhita also deals with several aspects of botany such as
morphology and taxonomy.
4. Susruta also provides classification of plants on the basis of medicinal
properties.
Plants in Vedas :
1. The most celebrated plant that finds frequent mention in the Rig-Veda
and later Samhitas is the Soma plant.
2. The second most mentioned plant was peepal or the Asvattha during
the Vedic period.
3. The Vedic Indians knew about many flower-bearing and fruit-bearing
plants.
4. Parasara’s Vrksayurveda is supposed to be the most ancient work in
actual botany to have been composed during first century BC and first
century AD.
Plant Pathology :
1. Many references to plant diseases and their treatment are also available
in the Vedic literature.
2. Vinaya, the famous Buddhist text describes the blight and mildew
diseases.
3. Sukraniti gives a detailed account of danger to grains from various
agents such as fire, snow, worm, insect, etc.
4. Gunaratna observes that plants are afflicted by diseases, displacement
or dislocation of flowers, fruits, leaves and barks in the same way as
the human body suffers from jaundice, dropsy, emaciation, etc., and
respond to treatment like human bodies.
Germination :
1. The technical term used for seed is vija.
2. Germination of a seed is called ankurodbheda.
3. According to Susruta, proper season, good soil, requisite supply of
water and good seeds are required for germination of the seed.
Que 4.11. Define the term ‘technology’ in relation to humanity’s

early stages. Mention Harappan technologies of ancient India.
Answer
When we deal with humanity’s early stages, the word ‘technology’ applies to
any made modification of the natural environment – from a stone tool to a
woven piece of clothing or a construction.
Harappan technologies of ancient India : One mainstay of the Indus or
Harappan civilization was agriculture. Along with it, ceramic technology
developed and produced fine fired bricks as well as pots.
Pots :
i. The pots were used to carry water, store seeds and grain, and to cook
food.
ii. Harappans produced wheel-turned pots in various shapes and sizes,

some of them glazed or painted.
iii. Their pottery was generally covered with a red slip; while floral, animal
or geometric designs were painted in black.
iv. The black pigment was the result of mixing iron oxide with black
manganese.
Bricks :
i. Harappan fired bricks had proportions of 1 × 2 × 4 (width equals two
heights; length equals two widths). There was a practical reason for this
proportion, as it permitted alternating courses and therefore stronger
walls with the least quantity of bricks.
ii. Along with baked or mud bricks stone was also used on a huge scale as
a building material.
iii. Harappan cities generally followed a grid plan and boasted a sanitation
system that collected used waters from individual bathrooms into
municipal drains.
Bead-making :
i. Harappan craftsmen took bead-making to a different level and perfected
techniques of polishing, colouring, glazing, drilling and bleaching.
ii. Their favourite semiprecious stones were carnelian, agate and jasper.
iii. The long perforated carnelian beads were highly prized in royal families
of Mesopotamia; their length-wise drilling with special drill bits
represented a technological feat.
Other crafts :
i. Other crafts include stone and ivory carving, carpet making and inlaid
woodwork.
ii. Harappans also manufacture bangles from gold, bronze, conch-shell,
and terracotta.
iii. Weavers used wheel-spun thread like cotton and silk.
Que 4.12. Write a short note on : Water management in India.
Answer
1. The great variety and sophistication of water structures in ancient
India testify to the care with which people harvested and conserved
water and managed its distribution.
2. To stop the collapse of wells inward under the pressure of underground
infiltrations; Harappans invented trapezoid bricks to construct wells.
3. In the Ganges valley (ancient Sringaverapura), we find simple but
effective series of interconnected reservoirs, some of them with a well
dug at the bottom.
4. The reservoirs were fed by a channel from the Ganges, and the level of
the last reservoir’s overflow was so adjusted that any excess water
would be returned to the Ganges.
5. Wells have been made in many shapes (circular, square, vertical or
horizontal) and sizes, and with bricks, stone or terracotta rings.
6. Ancient Indian also made various kinds of dams, the simplest being the
earthen embankment meant to contain a reservoir or divert a stream.
7. The more ambitious dam is the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on the Cauvery
river, downstream of the Srirangam island.
8. The most important water structure was the village pond or reservoir.
What made it important was not so much its ability to recharge ground
water, but also it’s being connected to many neighbouring ponds.
9. Such networks, which enabled water-rich areas to contribute to less
favoured ones, were maintained by village committees.
Que 4.13. Write a short note on : Textile technology in India.
Answer
1. The Vedas refer to various types of garments as well as fabrics such as
wool, silk and also to weaving and looms.
2. We get some information on weaving skills from Buddhist literature.
3. The Ajanta paintings are also a rich source of information on clothes
worn some 2,000 years ago and on the techniques of weaving, including
different dyes.
4. By the time trade with the Roman Empire reached its peak; India was
a major exporter of textiles, specially cotton and silk.
5. India exported cotton to China, silk to Indonesia and all the way to the
Far East. Until the colonial era, textile production was one of the chief
sources of India’s wealth.
6. Some of India’s specialties in the field of textile have been :
i. Muslin : This thin, loosely woven cotton fabric is highly suitable
for hot climates. It was introduced into Europe from Bengal.
ii. Calico : It is a plain-woven textile made from unbleached cotton;
it was originally from Kozhikode or Calicut (in Kerala).
iii. Chintz : It is a form of Calico printed with floral and other colour
patterns.
iv. India also produced large quantities of very useful fabrics from
fibres such as hemp, flax or linen and jute.
7. Two important technologies associated with textile are weaving

technology and dyeing technology.
8. Weaving technology saw the development of complex looms, with
different regional characteristics.
9. Dyes were extracted from both vegetal and mineral sources : blue
usually from indigo, red from various plants such as madder, yellow
from turmeric, pomegranate rind or mango bark and black from iron
acetate.
Que 4.14. Give a short account on writing technology in India.
Answer
1. In India traditionally the manuscripts were written on materials such
as birch bark and palm leaves.
2. Birch bark was mainly used for north Indian scripts, and the writing
was done with ink made of finely ground charcoal powder in a medium
of gum, or soot from oil lamps.
3. With palm leaves, a sharp point was used to tear the leaf’s surface film;
it would then be smeared with a paste of charcoal powder mixed in oil,
and wiped off, leaving the charcoal to adhere to the incised characters.
4. In both cases, considerable skills were developed to preserve
manuscripts from insects and fungi.
5. The art of paper-making was introduced into India by the eleventh
century CE, perhaps from China through Nepal.
6. The earliest extant Indian paper manuscript is datable to 1105 CE; it
was made from the fibres of a mountain plant.
7. By the latter half of the 15th century, Kashmir was producing paper of
attractive quality from the pulps of rags and hemp, with lime and soda
added to whiten the pulp.
8. Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and
Mysore were among the well-known centres of paper production.
9. Several European visitors from the 15th to the 18th century testify that
Indian paper was of high quality.
10. In the 19th century, production of hand-made paper declined with the
emergence of paper mills.
Que 4.15. Write a short note on : Pyrotechnics in India.

Answer
1. Pyrotechnic practices, or fireworks, appear in India in the 13th or 14th
century.
2. Gunpowder became an article of warfare at the beginning of the 16th
century. The Indian craftsmen learned the technique from the Mughals
and were able to evolve suitable explosive compositions.
3. A 16th or 17th century Sanskrit treatise contains a description of
preparation of the gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in
different ratios.
4. From 16th century onward, rockets too began being used in wars waged
in India.
5. The rockets consisted of a tube of soft hammered iron tube, closed at
one end and strapped to a shaft of bamboo, with a sword often fitted at
the other end.
6. The iron tube contained well-packed black powder propellant.
7. Though not very accurate, when fired en masse they could cause
damage as well as panic among the troops.
8. The British took a few rockets to England for study, which ended up
boosting rocket technology in European warfare.
PART-3
Trade in Ancient India, India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.16. Write a short note on : Trade in ancient India.
Answer
1. At Mehrgarh, in Baluchistan, archaeology has brought to light trade
networks as early as around 5000 BCE.
2. These trade networks expanded considerably in extent and diversity
before and during the Indus civilization.
3. During the 1st millennium BCE, many large cities emerged, such as
Taxila, Ujjain, Mathura, Patna, Rajgir, Varanasi, Bharuch,
Kanchipuram, Madurai and several more major trade centres.
4. These cities were generally located on some of the major trading routes.
5. That was also the time when well-structured states arose, which
provided the required infrastructure and a suitable environment for
the promotion of trade.
6. Kautilya’s Arthasastra mentions trade as one of the three major types
of economic activities.
7. This 3rd or 4th century BCE text shows Magadha trading in textiles,
gems, coral and pearls, metals and minerals, with many parts of north,
central and south India.
8. Between 6th and 5th century BCE punch marked coins of silver were
introduced in north and western India.
9. India had long been engaged in external trade too. The Harappans
were exporting timber, beads of semiprecious stone, shell bangles,
ivory items, pearls, etc., to Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia through
the Persian Gulf.
10. Around the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE, trade began with the
Phoenicians. Indian teak and cedar reached Babylonian builders.
11. Trade with the Roman Empire began gradually in the 3rd century
BCE, reached its peak in the 1st centuries BCE and CE, and slowly
followed the decline of the Roman Empire.
Que 4.17. Write a short note on : India’s dominance up to pre-

colonial times.
Answer
1. From the beginning of the historical period, India enjoyed a favourable
balance of trade, thereby accumulating stocks of gold.
2. India’s trade dominance continued in later times. In Mughal times,
Abu’l Fazl’s Aine Akbari records that 40,000 vessels were engaged in
trade in the Indus and its tributaries of Punjab.
3. While studying the Indian economy in the few centuries preceding
British rule, economic historians have pointed out India’s high trade
surplus with most of her trading partners in Europe, West Asia or
Africa.
4. This was the result of efficient low-cost products such as cotton or
spices, but also of well-organized communities of traders.
5. Indian merchants generally operated as guilds, a structure that provided

them with greater security, shared and reliable information, and
effective access to goods as well as markets.
6. India and China controlled nearly 60 % of the world’s GDP 2,000 years
ago.
7. They were the premier economic and trade powers from early times
until the colonial era.
8. The colonial rule coincided with a steep decline in India’s overseas
trade dominance and overall production, as the rules of trade and
industry began being dictated by the colonial master.

5 Cultural Heritage &

Performing Arts
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Indian Architect, Engineering ............. 5–2Q to 5–10Q
and Architecture in Ancient India
Part-2 : Sculptures, Seals, Coins, ................... 5–10Q to 5–17Q

Pottery, Puppetry
Part-3 : Dance, Music, Theatre, ...................... 5–17Q to 5–37Q

Drama, Painting, Martial
Arts traditions, Fairs and Festivals
Part-4 : Current Developments ...................... 5–37Q to 5–42Q

in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s
Cultural Contribution to the
World, Indian Cinema
Cultural Heritage & Performing Arts 5–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
PART-1
Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. What are the different types of architecture found in

India ? Describe them in brief.
Answer
Caves, stupas, pillars, temples and Indo-Islamic architecture are variety of
architecture found in India which is a very important part in Indian art and
architecture.
A. Cave architecture :
1. Cave architecture is often called as Rock-cut architecture.
2. Indian rock-cut architecture is one of the main forms of architecture
seen in caves.
3. It is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural
rock.
4. The earliest caves were natural caves used by people for a variety of
purposes such as shrines and shelters.
5. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.
6. There are more than 1,500 rock-cut structures in India.
7. Some of the famous caves are : Ajanta Caves, Ellora Cave, Elephanta
Cave, Sudama / Nyagodh Cave etc.
B. Stupa architecture :
1. A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was used
to house Buddha’s relics or to commemorate significant facts and events
related to Buddhism.
2. The term stupa comes from Sanskrit and it means heap.
3. Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone or
bricks. On this foundation, a hemispherical dome was raised.
4. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest
known stupas.
C. Pillar architecture :
1. Erection of pillars is an age-old tradition in India.
2. Development in the field of pillar architecture in a proper way commenced

during the Mauryan age.
3. The Mauryan pillars were rock-cut. These had proclamations inscribed
on them and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor
Ashoka.
4. The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal
figures like bull, lion, elephant, etc.
5. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
The abacuses are on the base which could be a stylised inverted lotus.
6. Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira,
Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-Nandangarh.
D. Temple architecture :
1. A temple can be defined as an enclosed place of worship having a roof or
a covered structure.
2. The word ‘temple’ is derived from the Latin word ‘templum’.
3. Temple is the dwelling place of God and is used for worship by devotees.
4. The basic elements that comprise a Hindu Temple are :
i. Garbhagriha : It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main
icon of the temple.
ii. Mandapa : The entrance to the temple.
iii. Shikhara/Vimana : It is a mountain-like spire on top.
iv. Amalaka : Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple.
v. Kalasha : It is the topmost part of the temple.
vi. Antarala : It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the
Mandapa.
vii. Jagati : This is a raised platform where devotees can sit and pray.
E. Indo-Islamic architecture :
1. After the Turkish conquest of North India in the 13th century building
activity on a large scale began.
2. Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions.
3. A mix of many techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations
evolved through a continuous amalgamation of architectural elements
from various styles.
4. Such architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known as
Indo-Islamic architecture.
5. Types of architectural buildings : mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids,
dargahs, tombs, hammams, minars, gardens, sarais or caravansarais,
madrasas, Kos minars, etc.
Que 5.2. What are the major cave architectures in India ?

Answer
Following are the major cave architecture in India :
A. Ellora Cave :
1. It is locally known as ‘Verul Leni’.
2. It is located in Maharashtra.
3. This also a rock-cut monastery by the Buddhists.
4. It is famous for the largest monolithic excavation in the world - the
great Kailasa.
5. The hills in which the caves are carved forms part of the Sahyadri
ranges of the Deccan.
6. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
B. Ajanta Cave :
1. This cave is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
2. It comprises about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments.
3. All three kinds of art: sculpture, architecture, and paintings (mural
paintings) are combined.
4. Famous fresco paintings of Ajanta are dying princess, flying apsara
and preaching Buddha.
5. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
C. Elephanta Cave :
1. It is located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai.
2. There are seven cave excavations in the Elephanta group.
3. There is Trimurti of Shiva.
4. The caves are carved from solid basalt rock.
D. Karla Cave :
1. Ancient India Buddhist early rock-cut architecture.
2. It is located in Maharashtra.
3. Related with the Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism.
4. There is a pillar of the Asokan type with a huge sixteen-sided shaft
rising over a platform.
5. It has a great chaitya hall.
E. Lomasa Rishi Cave :
1. It represents the earliest example of rock-cut architecture in India.
2. It belongs to Maurya period.
3. This cave was carved out of a gigantic rounded granite rock.
4. It has an arch-like shape frontage copying the contemporary timber
architecture.
5. It is located in Nagarjuni hills.
Que 5.3. What do you understand by the term Stupa ? Classify

stupa and explain different parts of stupa.
Answer
Stupa : A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was
used to house Buddha’s relics or to commemorate significant facts and events
related to Buddhism.
Classification of Stupa : The stupas are classified into 5 main categories
on the basis of the purpose or occasion associated with them. These are :
A. Relic Stupas :
1. These stupas were constructed on bodily remains of Buddha, his disciples
and Bodhisattvas.
2. These are the most sacred among all Buddhist stupas.
B. Object Stupas :
1. These stupas were built on personal belongings used by Buddha, his
disciples and Bodhisattvas.
2. Begging bowl, robes and Buddhist scriptures were kept in these stupas.
C. Commemorative Stupas :
1. These stupas were built in the memory of important events associated
with the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
D. Symbolic Stupas :
1. Stupas of this category were built to symbolize the invisible presence of
Mahatma Buddha.
2. These stupas reminded people that Buddha and his Dharma were there
with them always and everywhere.
3. Relics or objects were not used in these stupas.
E. Votive Stupas :
1. These stupas were built by devotees at important Buddhist centres and
monasteries near the main stupas where they went there for pilgrimage.
2. The construction of these stupas was carried out to earn merit, i.e., to
get the grace of God.
Parts of Stupa :
1. Anda : Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone
or bricks. On this foundation, a hemispherical dome (anda) was raised.
2. Medhi : It is the wider base of a stupa.
3. Harmika : It is the top portion of a stupa. On the truncated top of the
hemisphere, a harmika is placed, surrounded by a railing.
4. Vedika : It refers to the railing built around a stupa. The stupa is enclosed
by a vedika. The railing is provided with four gateways.
5. Pradakshina path : A path of circumambulation (pradakshina path)
runs around the stupa at the ground level within the railing.
6. Toranas : Toranas were ceremonial gateways around the stupas.
Que 5.4. Write a short note on structure of Ashokan pillars.
Answer
1. Erection of pillars is an age-old tradition in India.
2. Development in the field of pillar architecture in a proper way commenced
during the Mauryan age.
3. Mauryan pillars can be divided into following two categories :
i. Pillars which were part of palaces.
ii. Pillars which were erected by Ashoka independently.
4. A large number of stone pillars were erected by Ashoka throughout his
empire.
5. The height of Ashokan pillars was about 12 to 15 meters and their
weight was about 50 tons.
6. Ashokan pillars had following 4 parts :
A. Shaft :
i. The shaft of Ashokan pillars was generally monolithic.
ii. The shaft was round in shape. It tapered from bottom to top.
iii. This shaft was used to inscribe Ashoka’s royal orders.
iv. Contents of these orders deal with Dhamma (righteousness) and its
spread among the masses.
B. Bell-shaped portion :
i. A bell-shaped portion was the second component of Ashokan pillars and
was put over the shaft.
ii. This portion is often termed as 'inverted lotus'.
C. Abacus :
i. Abacus was the third component of Ashokan pillars.
ii. It was a platform on which the crowning animal was placed.
iii. In earlier pillars it was square or rectangular in shape. In later pillars it
was circular in shape.
D. Capital :
i. The uppermost element of a pillar is known as capital.
ii. The capital was carved with figures like a bull, lion, elephant, etc.
iii. Capital was the fourth component of Ashokan pillars.
Que 5.5. Describe the basic features of Indian temples.
Answer
1. The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple
are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man
and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth.
2. The basic features that comprise a Hindu Temple are :
i. Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum) :
1. It literally means womb-house and is a cave like sanctum.
2. In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single
entrance. Later it grew into larger chambers.
3. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity).
ii. Mandapa :
1. It is the entrance to the temple.
2. It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a
large number of worshippers.
3. Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes.
iii. Shikhara or Vimana :
1. They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple.
2. Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in
South Indian temples.
3. Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal like
structure.
iv. Vahana : It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along
with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the
sanctum.
v. Amalaka : It is a stone disc like structure crowning the top of the
North Indian style shikhara.
vi. Kalasha : Wide-mouthed pot or ornamental pot-design decorating
the shikhara in North Indian temples.
vii. Antarala (vestibule) : Antarala is a transition area between the
Garbhagriha and the temple's main hall (mandapa).
viii. Jagati : It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in
North Indian temples.
Que 5.6. Give the classification of structural/free standing

temple architecture.
Answer
Basically there are 3 kinds of structural/free standing temple architecture :
A. Nagara style temple architecture :
1. In Nagara style, it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone
platform with steps leading up to it.
2. It does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
3. The three main distinctive features of Nagar style is Shikhara
(Curvilinear tower), Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa
(Entrance Hall).
4. While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later temples
had multiple Shikharas.
5. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
6. Examples - Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple
(Khajuraho), Lakshman Temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple
(Puri).
7. Following are the main subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on
the shape of the shikhara :
i. Rekha-Prasada type or Latina type.
ii. Phamsana type.
iii. Valabhi type.
B. Dravida style temple architecture :
1. The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
2. The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known
as a gopuram.
3. The shape of the main temple tower known as Vimana is like a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically.
4. In the Dravida style temples, one will generally find sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple.
5. The Dravida temple consists of a large water reservoir, or a temple
tank, enclosed within the complex.
6. Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple
tower or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main
temple.
7. Examples - Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara temple
(Thanjavur), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai).
C. Vesara style temple architecture :
1. The Vesara style contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles.
2. The height of these temples was reduced compared to its Nagara and
Dravida counterparts.
3. The height of the temple tower over the sanctum is usually shorter
than the Vimanas in Dravida temples. The shape of these towers was
pyramidal in profile.
4. Vimana was crowned by a circular shikhara above the neck.
5. Examples - Badami temple, Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksha Temple
(Pattadkal), Keshava Temple (Somnathpur).
Que 5.7. Write a short note on Indo-Islamic architecture.
Answer
1. After the Turkish conquest of North India in the 13th century building
activity on a large scale began.
2. Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions.
3. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural techniques,
stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about.
4. These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
5. Indo-Islamic architecture across India includes various types of the
structure constructed over a period of time.
6. Major Indo-Islamic architectural forms are :
A. Forts :
1. Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular feature
in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power of a king.
2. Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to construct
forts.
3. Use of concentric circles of outer walls.
B. Minar :
1. Another important Indo-Islamic architectural form was the minar,
similar to Stambha or tower.
2. They were typically built adjacent to mosques.
3. The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer.
4. The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery.
C. Tomb :
1. The tomb architecture is an important feature of the Islamic
architecture.
2. The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true
believer on the Day of Judgment.
3. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction, beginning
with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, subsequently
under the Mughals, the tomb was placed within paradisiacal elements
such as a garden or near a body of water or both.
D. Sarais :
1. A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which
ringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian subcontinent.
2. Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan.
3. They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and
foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
4. Sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied
cultural backgrounds. This led to cross-cultural interaction amongst
the people.
Que 5.8. Compare the Indo-Islamic and early Indian architecture.
Answer
S. No. Indo-Islamic Indian Architecture

1. Ornamental decoration was Orname ntal de co ration was
geometrical and arabesque largely naturalistic showing
patterns and representation human and animal forms.
of plant and floral life.
2. Extensive use of lime as Very limited use of lime.
mortar.
3. Arcuate style of Trabeate style of construction
construction using arches using pillars and beams and
and beams. lintels.
4. The mosque was light and The temple was dark and closed.
open.
5. The Islamic form of worship, A cell to house the image of the
with its emphasis o n deity (garbhagriha) and often
co ngre gational praye r, small halls in front for the
re quire s a spacio us worshippers, as Hindu form of
co urtyard with a large wo rship e mphasize s on
prayer hall. individual prayer.
PART-2
Sculptures, Seals, Coins, Pottery, Puppetry.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.9. Write a short note on sculptures in India.
Answer
1. Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent essentially consists of sculpture of
stone, metal or terracotta.
2. The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus
Valley civilization, when small items of bronze sculpture and terracotta
sculpture were produced.
3. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of
sculpture until the Buddhist era.
4. Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears
to begin relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE,
and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India.
5. Besides religious, secular elements were also present in Indian
sculptures.
6. Figures of gods and goddesses, kings, queens, birds, animals and trees
were made by Indian artists.
Que 5.10. Write a short note on seals.
Answer
1. Seals were used for authentication of transactions by state as well as
private individuals and organizations.
2. Seals can be compared with stamps of present times.
3. The earliest seals found in Indian sub-continent belong to pre-Harappan
phase.
4. Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from the
Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of steatite. A few of them
were also made of terracotta, gold, agate, chert, ivory and faience.
5. The dimension of Harappan seals varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch.
6. Most Harappan seals were quadrilateral in shape. Square and rectangular
shaped seals have been found most commonly.
7. Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script (which is yet to be
deciphered).
8. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The writings are in
the Kharosthi style (right to left).
9. The seals throw light on relationship and interaction of the people of

Harappan civilization with outside world.
10. The seals throw light on the language and script of the Harappan
civilization.
Que 5.11. Write a short note on coinage of India.
Answer
1. Coins issued by Indian rulers through the ages are important example
of human art belonging to the ancient age because these coins have
different types of symbols on them.
2. The coins throw light on the socio-economic, political and cultural life of
people belonging to that period.
3. Coinage of India began anywhere between early 1st millennium BC to
the 6th century BC.
4. These coins were popularly known as punch marked coins because
different symbols were inscribed on them using punches.
5. The earliest punch marked coins were irregular pieces of metal.
6. Die-cast coins were issued in India in the Saurashtra region in the 5th
century BC.
7. These coins were called Karshapana because their weight was one
karsha (unit of measurement) each.
8. The English word ‘Cash’ has originated from the word karsha only.
9. Punched mark coins were generally made of silver, while some were
made of copper too.
10. Some of the most common symbols used on punch marked coins were
as follows :
i. Sun mark ii. Crescent
iii. Chakra iv. Swastika
v. Lingam vi. Snake
11. During the post-Mauryan period, the most remarkable progress was
witnessed in the field of coinage. Indo-Greeks and Kushana rulers made
immense contribution to the development of coinage.
12. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
Que 5.12. Give the significance of coinage as source of history.
Answer
1. A study of Indian coins enlightens us with a great deal about the history
of ancient India.
2. Coins give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in
different parts of the country.
3. Information provided by coins helps in corroborating the evidence from
other sources such as the Puranas, etc.
4. Coins help us in determining chronology. Coins mention the year in
which they are issued. The existence of a large number of coins issued
during the different years of the reign of a king helps us to place the
exact dates for the accession and the death of the king.
5. The place of discovery of coins helps us determine the extent of the
territory of a king.
6. Coins also throw light on trade and commercial relations. The discovery
of a large number of Roman coins in India confirms that there was trade
between India and Roman Empire.
7. Purity of coins indicates economic prosperity of people and the state.
Discovery of large number of gold and silver coins with high level of
purity indicate that level of prosperity was high.
8. The figures of the various kings appear on coins and from them we can
have an idea regarding the head-dress of those kings.
9. Coins give us genuine information regarding the history of ancient
India as there is no possibility of them being tampered with.
Que 5.13. What do you understand by pottery ? Explain.
Answer
1. Pottery refers to the creation of objects that are made up of hard brittle
material produced from non-metallic minerals by moulding them while
the material is wet and then firing them at high temperatures.
2. Pottery is often made up of clay, porcelain, steatite, etc.
3. Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and reconstructing
the past.
4. It reflects the social, economic and environmental conditions a culture
thrived in, which helps the archaeologists and historians in understanding
our past.
5. It holds significant value in understanding cultures where script was
either absent or remains undeciphered.
6. Pottery is majorly of following two types :
i. Handmade
ii. Wheel turned
Que 5.14. Write a short note on evolution of pottery.

Answer
A. Neolithic Age : The origins of pottery date back to the Neolithic Era.
We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is hand-
made pottery but during the later period footwheel is also used.
Features of pottery in Neolithic age :
1. Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface.
2. Handmade coarse grey pottery.
3. Material - clay mixed with mica and sand.
4. Pottery is devoid of any painting.
5. In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into wet clay for
decoration.
6. Found throughout India.
B. Chalcolithic Age : Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by
the occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our country.
People of this age used following kinds of pottery :
i. Black and Red Ware (BRW) Pottery :
1. BRWs were among the oldest pottery forms used in India during the
ancient age.
2. These pots were black from inside and near the rim, and their outer
body was red in colour.
3. This typical colour combination was attained through the inverted
firing method.
4. These pots were mostly made by wheel turn.
ii. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) :
1. This pottery was ochre or brownish red in colour.
2. These pots are quite weak.
3. The cultural phase associated with this type of pottery has been named
as the ochre coloured pottery culture.
4. OCP was used in Punjab, Haryana, UP and Rajasthan.
iii. Harappan Civilization :
1. Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed.
2. Pottery generally has a red surface and is wheel turned although
handmade ones too exist.
3. Polished wares were well fired.
4. Most of the pottery is polychrome meaning more than two colours are
used to colour the pottery.
5. Most of the pottery is utilitarian.
iv. Vedic Era - Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :

1. The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture.
2. Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric
patterns in black.
3. Are confined to few geographical locations, namely - Punjab, Haryana
and upper Ganga Valley.
4. This culture is associated with village and town settlements (but without
large cities).
v. End of Vedic Era - Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) :
1. This era marked the beginning of the Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW).
2. Glossy, shining type pottery.
3. Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class.
4. Found in UP and Madhya Pradesh.
5. Classified into two groups - bichrome and monochrome.
6. Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on fast wheel
and have a strikingly lustrous surface. 90 % of this type is jet black,
brownish black and bluish black and 10 % have colours like pink,
golden, brown among others.
7. Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome
except that it shows combination of two colours.
Que 5.15. What do you mean by puppet ? What is puppetry ? Why

puppetry is art dying ?
Answer
Puppet :
1. A doll or a figure controlled by a person so that it appears to be moving
on its own is called a puppet.
2. The word ‘puppet’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘pupa’ whose
literal meaning is doll.
Puppetry : Puppetry is a performing art or a form of theatre that involves
manipulation of puppets.
Puppetry a dying art : Following are the various reasons for it :
1. Lack of patronage in the modern age.
2. Competition from Electronic media which is a preferred mode of
entertainment.
3. Puppetry Art is usually confined to only devotional and mythological
stories.
4. With changing times, Puppetry does not take up modern social issues.
5. Puppetry lacks modernization in terms of script, lighting, sound and

other stage effects.
Que 5.16. Give the classification of puppetry.
Answer
Puppetry has been classified as :
A. String Puppets :
1. It has jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
2. Puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or
saw dust.
3. The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings that are
attached to different parts of the puppet’s body.
4. The puppet is manipulated by operating the control as well as by loosening
or pulling the relevant string(s).
5. For the convenience of manipulation and support, two rods are attached
to the hands of the puppets.
Examples :
i. Kathputli (Rajasthan)
ii. Kundhei (Orissa)
B. Glove Puppets :
1. The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove.
2. The middle finger and thumb act as hands of the puppet and the index
finger acts as the head.
3. Head is made of either cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from
just below the neck.
Examples :
i. Pava-kathakali (Kerala)
ii. Kundhei nach (Orissa)
C. Rod Puppets :
1. These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the
main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are
joined at the shoulders.
2. The main holding rod that supports the puppet may be hidden by a robe
or costume of the puppet.
3. The action rods are usually connected to the hands of the puppet and
manipulated by the puppeteer to show action.
4. The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and plastered with hay
and rice husk mixed and moulded into required shape.
5. Due to the absence of legs the puppets are draped in a sari or dhoti as
per the character.
Examples :
i. Putul Nautch (WB)
ii. Yampuri (Bihar)
D. Shadow Puppets :
1. Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a
tightly stretched white cloth screen.
2. They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it
translucent.
3. Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen with a strong source of
light behind it.
4. The manipulation between the light and the screen make colourful
shadows for the viewers who sit in front of the screen.
5. The puppet shapes or cutouts are perforated and split bamboo or cane
sticks are attached vertically to the puppet for handling and manipulation.
Examples :
i. Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
ii. Tholu Bommalata (AP)
PART-3
Dance, Music, Theatre, Drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions,
Fairs and Festivals.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.17. What are the various dance forms in India ?
Answer
1. The two major dance forms in India are classical and folk dance. The
major difference between classical and folk dance is the origin.
2. Classical dance has a deep-rooted relationship with the Natya Shastra

where the specific features of each of the classical dance forms have
been mentioned.
3. Folk dance, on the other hand, emerged from the local tradition of the
respective state, ethnic or geographic regions.
Que 5.18. What are the aspects and basic elements of classical
dance ? What are the basic technicalities that are expressed in the
classical dance ?
Answer
1. The Natya Shastra written by Bharat Muni is the most prominent source
for establishing the characteristics of the dances.
2. There are two basic aspects of classical dance :
i. Lasya : It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya. It is symbolic to
the feminine features of dance as an art form.
ii. Tandava : This is symbolic to the male aspects of dance and has
more emphasis on rhythm and movement.
3. There are three basic elements classical dance :
i. Nritta : These are the basic dance steps and are performed
rhythmically but devoid of any expression or mood.
ii. Natya : It means dramatic representations and refers to the story
that is elaborated through the dance recital.
iii. Nritya : It refers to the sentiment and the emotions evoked through
dance. It includes the mime and the different methods of expression
including mudras in the dance.
4. The Guru-Shishya paramapara forms the core of the Indian classical
dance forms. The basic meaning is that each dance form is related to a
Guru (Teacher) and he/she transfers that knowledge of dance to a
Shishya (Student.)
5. The 8 basic technicalities that are expressed in the classical dance are
given below :
i. Shringar : Love
ii. Hasya : Humorous
iii. Karuna : Sorrow
iv. Raudra : Anger
v. Veer : Heroism
vi. Bhayanak : Fear
vii. Bibhats : Disgust
viii. Adbhoot : Wonder
Que 5.19. What are the classical dances of India ?
Answer
The classical dances in India are given below :
A. Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu) :
1. Bharatanatyam is an important classical dance form in India. It originated
in the temples of South India, particularly, Tamil Nadu.
2. Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes
on many roles in a single performance.
3. This dance form is performed by both men and women.
4. The costumes worn are bright coloured. Women wear saris and men
wear dhotis.
5. There is a lot of make-up and bright ornaments used, which accentuate
the facial expressions and gestures of the performers.
6. The music used is Carnatic classical music, accompanied by instruments
such as flute, violin and the Mridangam.
7. Gestures used in Bharatanatyam are called Hastas or Mudras.
B. Kathak (Uttar Pradesh) :
1. The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means
a story.
2. It was primarily a temple or village performance wherein the dancers
narrated stories from ancient scriptures.
3. Usually a solo performance, the dancer often pauses to recite verses
followed by their execution through movement.
4. The focus is more on footwork; the movements are skillfully controlled
and performed straight legged by dancers wearing ankle-bells.
5. Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the
North Indian music.
C. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) :
1. Kuchipudi was originally performed by the group of actors going from
village to village known as ‘Kusselavas’.
2. Lasya and tandava elements are important in Kuchipudi dance form.
3. The dance style is a manifestation of earthly elements in the human
body.
4. The dancer may undertake the role of the singer as well becoming a
dance-drama performance.
5. The music of dance is Carnatic.
D. Odissi (Odisha) :
1. Odissi is a classical India dance form and it originates from the state of
Odisha. It is a sensuous and lyrical dance form.
2. It touches on the human and the divine aspects of life. It also touches on
the subtleties of life, as well as the mundane.
3. It is a soft dance backed by soothing lyrics and is similar to Bharatanatyam
in terms of the mudras and expressions.
4. It incorporates two major postures - Tribhanga and Chowk.
E. Kathakali (Kerala) :
1. Kathakali is the most popular dance form of Kerala. The word translates
as Story-Play. It is popular for its make-up and costumes.
2. Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories,
which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics.
3. The dancers enact the roles of the stories with particular make-up and
costume.
4. Different facial colours indicate different mental stages and character,
e.g., green - nobility, black - wicked, red patches - combining royalty and
evil.
5. Hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are important.
F. Sattriya (Assam) :
1. The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the
Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for
propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
2. The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance
later on.
3. Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras
(Vaishnava monasteries), this dance style has been named Sattriya.
4. Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in
respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc.
G. Manipuri (Manipur) :
1. The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go
beyond recorded history.
2. The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals,
there are legendary references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and
other gods and goddesses who created the universe.
3. Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms
are the Ras, the Sankirtana.
4. There are essentially two divisions in the classical Manipuri dance :
i. Jagoi : Predominant in Ras Leela, this steam represents the Lasya
element described in Bharata's Natya Shastra.
ii. Cholom : This represents the Tandava form of classical dance.

5. Chief instruments used are the drum and the flute.
H. Mohiniyattam (Kerala) :
1. Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini is the classical solo dance form of
Kerala.
2. Mohiniyattam is based on Natya Shastra’s lasya style.
3. It has delicate movements and more feminine facial expressions.
4. The movements are gentle and glide-like. They do not have terse
rhythmic steps.
5. More emphasis is on the facial expressions and hand gestures.
6. It is traditionally performed only by women.
Que 5.20. Describe the fundamental elements of Indian Music.
Answer
Following are the fundamental elements of Indian Music :
A. Sruti :
1. Commonly refers to musical pitch.
2. It is the shortest interval of pitch that human ears can detect and a
musical instrument or a singer can produce.
3. According to Natya Shastra, there are 22 srutis.
B. Swara :
1. It refers to type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a
relative position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.
2. There are 7 swaras in the form of Sa, Ri or Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.
3. These 7 swaras are related to sounds of certain birds and animals.
C. Raga :
1. A raga prescribes a set of rules for building a melody.
2. It is characterized by a combination of notes picked out of the total 22
srutis.
3. Ragas involve arrangement of swaras in different sequences.
4. All the ragas are categorized in such a way that there will be an increasing
and decreasing order of swaras.
5. Following are some important ragas :
i. Raga Bhairav : It is a morning raga.
ii. Raga Marwa : It is sung during late afternoon hours till sunset.
iii. Raga Pahadi : It is an evening raga.
iv. Raga Yaman : It is an evening raga. It is sung from sunset till late
evening.
v. Raga Jog : It is sung after midnight in the wee hours of morning.

vi. Raga Malhar : It is associated with rain.
vii. Raga Deepak : It is associated with fire.
D. Tala :
1. Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of
time).
2. It is a sequence of beats performed by singers using hands and fingers at
fixed time cycles.
3. These rhythmical cycles vary from 3 to 128 beats.
4. Tala is intricately related to ‘Laya’ which refers to repetitive nature of
any activity.
Que 5.21. Write a short note on Indian Classical Music.
Answer
1. The Indian classical music has two distinct varieties : Hindustani music
and Carnatic music.
2. Hindustani music belongs to the Northern part of the country, and the
Carnatic music is south Indian.
3. Hindustani music became popular during the Mughal Empire. Some
Persian and Arabic elements have been assimilated in this music system.
4. Following are the styles of singing and composition in Hindustani music :
i. Dhrupad :
1. This is the oldest and grandest form of Hindustani music.
2. It is essentially poetic and it is presented in a style marked with precise
and orderly elaboration of Raga.
3. Its rhythm is mostly of 12 beats.
4. Greater significance is given to music rather than words.
ii. Khayal :
1. Khayal means imagination.
2. This is the most prominent style in Hindustani depicting romantic style
of singing.
3. It largely depends on the imagination and improvisation of the performer.
4. It is also composed of particular raga and tala.
5. It ranges from praise of kings description of seasons and pranks of Lord
Sri Krishna.
iii. Thumri :
1. Thumri originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh.
2. It is influenced by hori, kajri, Dadra.
3. Tumhri is supposed to be romantic and erotic style of singing and is also

called “lyric of Indian classical music”.
4. The song composition mainly on love and devotion.
iv. Tarana :
1. Tarana are medium to fast paced songs that are usually performed
towards the end of the concert.
2. They consist of a few lines of poetry with rhythmic syllables.
3. It is characterized by the use of meaningless syllables in a very fast
rendition.
v. Tappa :
1. Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music.
2. Tappa developed around the 18th century. It means jump in Persian.
3. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was
developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori.
vi. Ghazal :
1. Ghazal is an originally Persian form of Poetry.
2. In India, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the Urdu
language.
vii. Qawwali :
1. Qawwali is a fusion of Persian and Indian musical traditions.
2. It is devotional in nature.
3. It is sung in a group with a solo voice against a chorus.
viii. Kirtan/Bhajan :
1. Kirtan was originated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
2. Kirtan involves chanting hymns or mantras.
3. Musical instruments such as Harmonium, Tablas, Mridang and Cymbals
are used.
ix. Carnatic Music :
1. Carnatic sangeet is the South Indian system of classical music.
2. Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
3. Purandardas is considered as the father of Carnatic Music.
4. Carnatic music is based upon a system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal).
5. Musical instruments used are veena (vina), violin, mridangam,
nadaswaram, and the tavil.
Que 5.22. What are traditional theatre forms in India ? List the
main elements of theatre. Name some of the traditional art forms of
India.
Answer
1. Traditional theatre is a combination of acting, singing, dance, music,
dialogue, narration.
2. It started as a narrative form of art where recitations, dance, and music
played a central role in depicting the local history, societal ethos etc.
3. It is based on spontaneous creativity emerging from circumstances.
4. Traditional theatre is often a key feature of cultural promotion.
5. The main elements of theatre are :
i. Plot
ii. Character
iii. Thought
iv. Diction
v. Music
vi. Spectacle
Following are the traditional art forms of India :
i. Bhavai :
1. It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
2. It is a synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
3. It consists of dance to narrate series of small plays known as Vesha or
Swanga.
4. It is accompanied by semi-classical music.
ii. Nautanki :
1. Nautanki is popular in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
2. The theme is based on historical, social and folk tales, delivered through
dance and music.
3. Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion accompanied by drum beats
called Nagara.
iii. Rasleela :
1. It is a theatre form popular in Uttar Pradesh.
2. It depicts the legends of Lord Krishna.
3. In this theatre form, dialogues are in pros combined with songs and
scenes from the pranks of Krishna.
iv. Bhand Pather :
1. It is a traditional theatre form of Kashmir.
2. It consists of unique combinations of dance, drama, and acting.
3. Surnai, Nagara, and dhol are the instruments used in this theatre form.
4. It is mainly performed by the farming community, reflecting their ideas

and way of living.
v. Swang :
1. It is a popular theatre form of Punjab and Haryana.
2. It is mainly a musical drama sung through verses.
3. Ektara, Harmonium, Sarangi, Dholak, and Kharta are the instruments
used in it.
vi. Maach :
1. Maach is a theatre form of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.
2. The term Maach is used for the stage as well as the play.
3. It is based on mythological themes and later romantic folk tales were
also included.
4. Songs are given importance between the dialogues in this theatre form.
5. Dialogues in this form are called Bol.
vii. Ankia Naat :
1. It is a theatre form present in the state of Assam.
2. Cultural glimpses of Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Mathura, and
Brindavan can be seen this theatre form.
3. The narration begins with a story in Sanskrit and later switch to Brajboli
or Assamese.
4. Use of Masks to depict special expression is one of the unique features
of this theatre form.
viii. Dashavatar :
1. It is the most developed theatre form of Konkan and Goa.
2. The ten incarnation of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity
are personified by the performers.
3. Apart from makeup, performers wear a mask of wood and papier mache.
Que 5.23. Write a short note on modern theatre in India ?
Answer
1. The medieval period witnessed the emergence of regional language
literatures. But it did not produce dramatic works comparable to ancient
classics.
2. Some innovations happened in religious drama due to socio-religious
reform.
3. Indian drama was reborn during British colonial interregnum in 18th
and 19th centuries.
4. The impetus came from two sources : the rich heritage of Indian drama
and the exposure to Western dramatic classics through English.
5. Translations started appearing simultaneously of Sanskrit classics and
Western classics, particularly Shakespeare.
7. An unprecedented development in theatre was the rise of urban
entertainment theatre.
8. This arose in order to provide entertainment to the increasing population
of big cities consequent upon industrialization.
9. The new urban theatre is popularly known as Parsi theatre.
10. This genre was an interesting mixture of Western Naturalistic drama,
opera and several local elements.
Que 5.24. Write a short note on drama ?
Answer
1. Bharata’s Natya Shastra was the earliest and most elaborate treatise on
drama written anywhere in the world.
2. India has the longest and richest tradition in theatre going back to at
least 5000 years.
3. The origin of drama in India is closely related to ancient rituals and
seasonal festivities.
4. The growth in drama took place with the introduction of “curtain” in the
kushanas era.
5. Traditionally the theatre consisted of the auditorium, stage and the
backstage which is behind the stage. Curtain separates the stage and
backstage.
6. The drama was performed without scenery and decorations. It was
more of acting and gestures by the actors.
7. Costume and make-up was regulated by convention so that roles were
immediately recognizable.
8. Most type of drama had a hero, a heroine, a villain and a “vidushaka” as
a comedian. Themes were mainly based on love.
9. The drama generally opened with a benediction song followed by a
prologue in the form of a dialogue/discussion between the chief actor
and his actress giving the title, nature and occasion of the play.
10. Violence and death were forbidden to be performed in the stage.
11. At the end of the play came a concluding verse - a virtual vote of thanks.
Que 5.25. Explain the evolution of Indian paintings . Give

classification of Indian paintings.
Answer
Evolution of Indian paintings :
1. The tradition of paintings has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent
since the ancient times.
2. With time, Indian classical paintings evolved to become a sort of blend of
the various traditions influencing them.
3. Indian paintings provide on aesthetic continuum that extends from the
early civilization to the present day.
4. In the beginning Indian painting was essentially religious in purpose.
5. But as year passed by Indian painting became a fusion of various culture
and traditions.
6. During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact
on Indian art.
7. By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India
provided access to modern techniques and ideas.
8. Galleries were established to showcase these artists.
9. Indian art got a boost with the economic liberalization of the country
since early 1990s.
10. Artists from various fields started bringing in varied styles of work post
liberalization.
11. Indian art thus works not only within the confines to academic traditions
but also outside it.
Classification of Indian paintings :
1. Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures.
2. Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly.
3. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or
albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth.
Que 5.26. Describe mural paintings with some examples.
Answer
1. Mural is inherently different from all other forms of pictorial art and is
organically connected with architecture.
2. Mural is the only form of painting that is three-dimensional, since it
modifies and partakes of a given space.
3. Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with the major use of egg yolk,
oil, etc.
4. A mural artist must conceive pictorially a theme on the appropriate
scale with reference to the structural exigencies of the wall and to the
idea expressed.
5. The history of Indian murals starts from 2nd century BC to 8th - 10th
century AD.
Notable examples of mural paintings :
i. Ajanta Murals Paintings :
1. Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka
Tales).
2. Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and
the pillars.
3. Prominent feature => Half closed drooping eyes.
ii. Ellora Murals Paintings :
1. Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders.
2. Prominent features => Sharp twist of the head + painted angular bents
of the arms + sharp projected nose + long drawn open eyes + concave
curve of the close limbs.
iii. Badami Mural Paintings :
1. A cave site in Karnataka, patronized by chalukya king, Manglesha.
2. Depictions in the caves show Vaishnava affiliation, therefore, the cave
is popularly known as Vishnu cave.
3. Only a fragment of painting has survived on the vaulted roof of the
front mandapa.
4. Badami cave painting represents an extension of the tradition of mural
painting from Ajanta to Badami in south India.
Que 5.27. Describe miniature paintings with some examples.
Answer
1. In these paintings, very fine details were portrayed by the painter.
2. If a miniature painting is observed under a magnifying glass, more
details become visible.
3. In a miniature painting the objects are depicted at the most 1/6th of their
original size.
4. The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India.
5. The art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period.
Notable examples of miniature paintings :

i. The Pala School (11th - 12th century) :
1. Earliest examples of miniature painting in India.
2. Exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism.
3. A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist
themes were written, illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at
the center.
4. The Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of
colour.
ii. Western Indian School of Painting (12th - 16th century) :
1. Also called Jain Painting, largely devoted to the illustration of Jain
religious texts.
2. Notable sites => Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Central India & Orissa.
3. Characterized by simple, bright colours, highly conventionalized figures,
and wiry, angular drawing.
4. The earliest manuscripts are on palm leaves with the figures shown
from a frontal view.
5. The facial type, with its pointed nose, resembles to wall paintings at
Ellora.
6. Prominent feature => Projecting “further eye,” which extends beyond
the outline of the face in profile.
iii. Mughal Paintings (16th - 19th century) :
1. Mainly confined to miniature illustrations on the books or as single
works to be kept in an album.
2. Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic
styles.
3. Marked by supple naturalism => Primarily aristocratic and secular.
4. Tried to paint the classical ragas and Seasons or baramasa.
5. Akbar’s reign ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting.
iv. Rajput Painting (16th - 19th century) :
1. Unlike Mughal paintings which were contemporary in style, Rajput
paintings were traditional & romantic.
2. Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthani painting and Pahari
painting (art of the Himalayan kingdom’s).
Que 5.28. Explain the term ‘martial art’. Also mention different
martial art forms of India.
Answer
1. India is famous for its martial arts that have developed since ancient
times.
2. The term ‘martial art’ refers to creativity exhibited by warriors while
fighting against their opponents.
3. These warriors use different gestures, postures and techniques to
overcome their opponents.
4. Nowadays these art forms are used in rituals, celebrations, in sports,
means of physical fitness, as a self defence.
5. Many of the arts are related to dance, yoga etc.
Different martial art forms of India :
i. Kalaripayattu (Kerala specially) & rest of south :
1. Weapon based type.
2. “Kalari” means arena. “Payattu” means combat/fighting.
3. Involves strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry and healing
methods, the footwork movement.
4. Kerala’s “Kathakali” incorporates greatly of this in their routines.
ii. Silambam (Tamil Nadu) :
1. Weapon based type.
2. Variety of weapons used.
3. Majorly used “Silambam staff” as a weapon.
4. Foot movements play a key role.
5. Movements of animals like snake, tiger, elephant and eagle used.
iii. Gatka (Punjab) :
1. Weapon based.
2. Used by Sikhs mainly.
3. Gatka means - “One whose freedom belongs to grace”.
4. Stick, Sword, kirpan or kataar used as weapon.
iv. Musti Yuddha (Varanasi) :
1. Unarmed type.
2. Punches, kicks, knees and elbow strikes used.
v. Thang Ta (Manipur) :
1. Weapon Based.
2. “Thang” means sword. “Ta” means spear.
3. Anything from sword or spear can be used.
4. Other weapons used are shield and axe.
5. Used in three different ways: as ritual, as spectacular performance and
as fighting technique.
vi. Lathi (Punjab & Bengal) :
1. Weapon Based.
2. Cane Sticks used.
3. Popular more in villages.
vii. Mardani Khel (Kolhapur, Maharashtra) :
1. Weapon Based.
2. Created by Marathas.
3. Suitable for hilly regions.
4. Uses sword mainly & needs rapid movements.
viii. Pari-Khanda (Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha) :
1. Weapon Based.
2. Created by Rajputs.
3. “Pari” means shield & “Khanda” means sword.
ix. Inbuan Wrestling (Mizoram) :
1. Unarmed Type.
2. Has strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and bending
of the knees.
3. Aim is to lift the opponent off his feet while strictly adhering to the rules.
4. Catching hold of the belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist; it has
to remain tight all through the game.
x. Thoda (Himachal Pradesh) :
1. Weapon Based.
2. Originated from the times of Mahabharata.
3. Generally based on archery skills.
4. “Thoda” is the round piece of wood fixed to the head of the arrow.
Que 5.29. Write a short note on fairs and festivals.
Answer
1. People in India celebrate their religious and cultural occasions by
organizing cultural activities in the form of fairs and festivals.
2. Every Indian state and socio-cultural group has its unique traditions
which reflect in their celebrations.
3. People use folk music, dances and other forms of entertainment to
enjoy these important occasions.
4. Vibrant, fascinating and beautiful Indian fairs and festivals reflect the
cultural strength and diversity of India.
5. Indian festivals can be broadly divided into 3 categories, namely national
or political, religious and economic.
6. Most Indian festivals are connected to seasons and economic activities.
7. Fairs and festivals help in breaking the monotony of life.
8. Cultural activities organized on these occasions invigorate everyone.
9. Economic activities get a boost because artisans and craftsmen set up
their stalls to sell their products at fairs.
10. These occasions also give boost to tourism because they attract millions
of tourists every year.
11. The voice of Indian heritage and culture is carried by these celebrations
beyond Indian boundaries.
12. Festivals are secular as well as religious in nature.
13. Festivals such as Independence Day and Republic Day are examples of
secular festivals.
14. Holi, Diwali, Chhath, and Onam, etc. are examples of religious festivals.
Que 5.30. Discuss the major religious festivals of India.
Answer
Following are major religious festivals celebrated in India :
1. Holi :
i. Holi is celebrated at the end of the winter season on the last full
moon day of the lunar month phalguna which usually falls in the
later part of February or March.
ii. Holi is celebrated by people throwing coloured powder and coloured

water at each other.
iii. The bonfires are lit in memory of the escape of Prahlad when
Demoness Holika, sister of Hiranyakashipu carried him into the
fire.
2. Maha Shivaratri :
i. Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the
13th night in the Krishna Paksha of the month of Phalguna.
ii. The festival is celebrated by going to Shiva Temple, all day fasting
and all night long vigil.
3. Diwali :
i. Diwali popularly known as the festival of lights.
ii. Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps to signify the triumph
of good over evil.
iii. Diwali commemorates the return of Lord Rama along with Sita
and Lakshmana from his fourteen year long exile and vanquishing
the demon King Ravana.
4. Navaratri :
i. Navaratri is a Hindu festival of worship of Shakti and dance and
festivities.
ii. The word Navaratri means nine nights. During these nine nights,
nine forms of Shakti or Devi are worshipped.
5. Vinayaka Chaturthi :
i. Vinayaka Chaturthi is the Hindu festival of Ganesha, who is
believed to bestow his presence on earth for all his devotees in the
duration of this festival.
ii. It is the birthday of Ganesha who is widely worshipped as the God
of wisdom, prosperity and good fortune.
6. Guru Purnima :
i. Guru Purnima is a festival traditionally celebrated by Hindus and
Buddhists.
ii. Traditionally the festival is celebrated by Buddhists in the honor of
the lord Buddha who gave his first sermon on this day at Sarnath,
Uttar Pradesh, while Hindus on this day offer Puja or pay respect to
their Guru.
7. Thai Pongal :
i. Thai Pongal is harvest festival celebrated in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry
and Sri Lanka.
ii. Thai Pongal is celebrated at harvest time to thank the Sun God and
farmstead livestock that helped to create the material abundance.
iii. The boiling over of milk in the clay pot symbolizes material
abundance for the household.
8. Raksha Bandhan or Rakhi :
i. Raksha Bandhan or Rakhi is a festival primarily observed in North
India by Hindus and Sikhs.
ii. The central ceremony involves the tying of rakhi by a sister on her
brother’s wrist.
iii. This symbolizes the sister's love and prayers for her brother’s well
being, and the brother’s lifelong vow to protect her.
9. Vasant Panchami :
i. Vasant Panchami is a Hindu festival celebrating Saraswati, the
goddess of knowledge, music and art.
ii. Traditionally during this festival children are taught to write their
first words; Brahmins are fed; ancestor worship is performed.
iii. The colour yellow plays an important role in this festival, in that
people usually wear yellow garments.
10. Karva Chauth :
i. Karva Chauth is an annual one-day festival celebrated by Hindu
and Sikh women in North India in which married women fast from
sunrise to moonrise for the safety and longevity of their husbands.
ii. Sometimes unmarried women observe the fast for their fiancés or
desire one.
11. Buddha Poornima :
i. Commemorates the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha.
ii. Pilgrims come from all over the world to Bodh Gaya to attend the
Buddha Poornima celebrations.
iii. The day is marked with prayer meets, sermons on the life of Gautam
Buddha, religious discourses, continuous recitation of Buddhist
scriptures, group meditation, processions, worship of the statue of
Buddha.
iv. The Mahabodhi Temple wears a festive look and is decorated with
colourful flags and flowers.
12. Janmashtami :
i. Krishna Janmashtami is an annual Hindu festival.
ii. It is celebrated to mark birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, the 8th
incarnation of Vishnu.
iii. It is celebrated with greatest devotion and fervor in Mathura and
Vrindavan and throughout India.
iv. People keep fast and sing devotional songs of Krishna on the day of
Janmashtami.
13. Christmas :
i. Christmas is observed on December 25 to commemorate the birth
of Jesus.
ii. On this day gifts are given, Christmas cards are exchanged,
Christmas trees are decorated.
iii. There are special prayer and celebrations in Church on this day.
iv. Santa Claus brings gifts to children on Christmas.
14. Ramzan :
i. It is the Islamic month of fasting in which participating Muslims
refrain from, eating drinking and sexual relations from dawn until
sunset.
ii. Fasting is intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility and
spirituality.
iii. It is a time for Muslims to fast for the sake of God and to offer more
prayer than usual.
15. Muharram :
i. Muharram is the first month of the Islamic calendar.
ii. The pre-Islamic period in the Arabian Peninsula was the era of
warring tribes. In the absence of a strong leadership, there were
conflicts and battles on minor issues.
iii. But fighting was prohibited in four months of the year.
iv. These months, of which Muharram was one, were considered
sacred.
16. Easter :
i. Easter is the oldest and holiest Christian festival.
ii. Easter is the day when Jesus Christ was crucified and the Christians
offer prayers and services in the Churches.
iii. On this day Jesus Christ rose from the dead and ascended into
heaven.
iv. Easter eggs and Easter bunnies are a major attraction during Easter,
the festival of rejuvenation of life and living.
Que 5.31. Give a brief account of the important fairs of India.
Answer
1. Kumbha Mela :
i. Kumbha mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage.
ii. Kumbh mela is unique in the respect that it does not exhibit the
features associated with a traditional Indian fair.
iii. It is basically a religious congregation which is held once every 12
years (Maha Kumbha) at one of the four holy places (Allahabad,
Ujjain, Nasik, Haridwar) in turn.
iv. An “ardha” or half Kumbha occurs every 6 years.
2. Pushkar Mela :
i. Pushkar, near Ajmer, in Rajasthan is famous place of Hindu
pilgrimage.
ii. Pushkar is famous for its large natural lake and its temple dedicated
to Lord Brahma.
iii. On Kartik poornima, or any of the four days preceding it, an annual
festival is held here.
iv. During this fair animal from all parts of North India are brought
here for sale.
3. Kulu Mela :
i. To the north, Dussehra, brings with it a fair in Kulu Valley.
ii. It is time for gods and goddess to forsake their temples and adore
the fields amidst the sun.
iii. Each village has its god. They are led in a noisy procession by
musicians and minstrels from their various high perches in the
hills to the fields of Kulu below.
4. Rath Yatra of Puri :
i. Puri, which is the abode of Lord Jagannath is one of the seven most
sacred places of Hindu Pilgrimage.
ii. During Shravan (July/August) the presiding deities Krishna, his
brother Balabhadra and Sister Subhadra are taken in three colossal
chariots, built in the shape of temple to Gundichi Bati, near Puri.
iii. Every year thousands of devotees come to Puri to tug the ropes of
the Chariot, to take Jagannath from the temple at Puri to his
suburban home at Gundichi Bari.
5. Hola Mohalla :
i. It is a Sikh festival held every year on Holi at Anandpur Sahib.
ii. This festival is held in the form of a fair to commemorate the
militarisation of the Sikhs into the order of Nihangs (Warrior-
mendicants) by the last Sikh Guru Shri Govind Singh.
iii. The main focus of this fair is the display of martial arts like archery,
sword fencing, horse-riding etc.
6. Urs at Ajmer Sharif :
i. Urs is the birth or death anniversary celebrations at a dargah. Urs
are held annually at the dargah of famous Sufi saints.
ii. Unique character of these celebrations is that people visit in large
number to take the blessings of the revered saints irrespective of
caste and creed.
iii. Ajmer Sharif is the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti, the
founder of Chishti sufi order in India.
iv. Annual Urs celebrations continue here for seven days. The chief
attraction here are the sessions of qawwali.
7. Goa Carnival :
i. In the month of February the residents of Goa, especially of Panaji,
celebrate a carnival that lasts for a week.
ii. This carnival, rivals the best in the world.
iii. A beautiful street parade or procession, with decorated horse-drawn
carriages and bullock cart and balloons is held.
PART-4
Current developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s Cultural
Contribution to the World, Indian Cinema.
Questions-Answers

Que 5.32. Explain various modes through which Indian culture

spread abroad.
Answer
A. Spread of Indian culture through traders :
1. In ancient times, traders from India went to distant lands in search of
new opportunities in business.
2. They went to Rome in the west and China in the east.
3. As early as the first century BC, they travelled to countries like Indonesia
and Cambodia in search of gold.
4. These traders travelled from many flourishing cities like Kashi, Mathura,
Ujjain, Prayag and Pataliputra.
5. Wherever the traders went, they established cultural links with those
places.
6. In this way, the traders served as cultural ambassadors and established
trade relations with the outside world.
B. Spread of Indian culture through teachers :
1. The universities were the most important centres of cultural interaction.
2. They attracted large numbers of students and scholars. The scholars
coming from abroad often visited the library of Nalanda University.
3. Students and teachers from such universities carried Indian culture
abroad along with its knowledge and religion.
C. Spread of Indian culture through other modes :
1. Romas or Gypsies some groups of Indians went abroad as wanderers.
2. They went towards the West, crossing the present-day Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
3. From there, their caravans went through Iran and Iraq to Turkey.
Travelling through Persia, Taurus Mountains and Constantinople, they
spread to many countries of Europe.
4. It took them almost four hundred years to spread to these countries in
Europe.
5. By that time, though they had forgotten their original home, they did
retain their language, customs, ways of living, and their professions.
Que 5.33. What was the contribution of India in the field of

mathematics, astronomy and medical science ?
Answer
1. India’s links with West Asia, by land as well as sea routes, goes back to
very ancient times.
2. An important contribution of India to Arab civilization was mathematics.
3. The Arabs acknowledged their debt to India by calling mathematics
‘hindisa’ (pertaining to India).
4. Indian mathematics became their favourite field of study and discussion,
its popularity being enhanced by the works of Alkindi among others.
5. They were quick to appreciate the revolutionary character of the Indian
decimal system with its concept of zero.
6. In the field of astronomy, two important works namely the Brahma-
sphuta-siddhanta better known to the Arab world as Sindhin and
Khandakhadyaka (known as Arkand) were brought to Baghdad by
embassies from Sindh.
7. With the help of Indian scholars of these embassies, they were translated
into Arabic by Alfazari.
8. Several Indian works on medicine and therapeutics that were rendered
into Arabic at the behest of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the ruler of
Baghdad.
9. Indian scholars were also involved in these translations. For instance,
the Sushruta Samhita was translated by an Indian called Mankh in
Arabic.
10. All these knowledge in the field of mathematics, astronomy and medical
science learned by Arabs from India were passed on to Europe.
Que 5.34. What do you mean by the term 'cinema' ? Explain the
various era's of Indian Cinema.
Answer
The word ‘cinema’ is a short form of ‘cinematography’. It refers to the art of
filmmaking.
Various era of Indian Cinema : Following are the era’s of Indian cinema :
A. Early Indian cinema (1898 to 1945) :
1. Age of Silent Films :
i. The earliest of films were silent films.
ii. The dialogues delivered by actors were not audible to viewers
because technology was not advanced enough to record both visuals
and audio simultaneously.
iii. The plot used to be told through writings using title cards.
iv. These silent films were not completely silent. They were
accompanied by live sounds. A small orchestra used to play music
during the films as per the nature of scene.
2. Age of Talking Films or Talkies :
i. With the start of 1930s, a new era of talkies commenced in Indian
cinema.
ii. Talkie was a sound film or a motion picture having synchronized
sound.
iii. The first talkie in India was ‘Alam Ara’.
iv. This release set a new trend in India and regional talkies also
started after ‘Alam Ara’.
B. Golden era of Indian Cinema (1940 to 1960) :
i. In the late 1940s, Indian cinema picked up the new ‘masala’ themed
films depicting music, dance and romance.
ii. This era was led by directors like Guru Dutt, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy and
Mehboob Khan.
iii. They brought new depth to the themes prevalent in India.
iv. This era laid the foundation stone of Indian cinema inspiring generations
of film makers.
v. With the independence of India in 1947, a statutory body was created by
enacting the Cinematograph Act in 1952 with the name of Central
Board of Film Certification (CBFC).
vi. It was placed under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
C. Classic decades of Indian Cinema (1970s and 1980s) :
i. The films of this phase were characterized by a mixture of genre of
romance and action.
ii. This phase was dominated by film makers like Ramesh Sippy, Hrishikesh
Mukherjee and Vijay Anand.
iii. Iconic films like ‘Zanjeer’ and ‘Sholay’ became huge commercial success
and went on to become trendsetters in Indian cinema.
iv. The term ‘Bollywood’ was coined during the 1970s with the establishment
of Conventions of Commercial Bollywood Films (CCBF).
D. New Bollywood phase of Indian Cinema (1990s to Present) :
i. During the late 1980s, Indian cinema faced a phase of stagnation because
of increasing use of violence, issues related to quality of music and rise
in cases of video theft.
ii. With the release of Yash Chopra’s epic film ‘Chandni’, Indian cinema
rejuvenated itself and an era of romance started.
iii. The beginning of the 21st century marked commencement of an era of
technological evolution.
iv. The new technology, advancements in terms of animation, special effects,
digital projectors, latest production techniques, etc. improved the quality
of Indian films and increased its popularity among the masses.
Que 5.35. Write a short note on: The Cinematograph Act, 1952.
Answer
1. The Cinematograph Act, 1952 is an Act to make provision for the
certification of cinematograph films for exhibition and for regulating
exhibitions by means of cinematographs.
2. The Act gives power to the government to establish a Board to assess
the film’s suitability for the audience.
3. Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) (Censor Board) was created
under the provisions of this Act.
4. A film is judged based on the overall impact and is evaluated in light of
the film's period depicted and contemporary standards in the country.
5. While certifying films for unrestricted public exhibition, the CBFC shall
ensure that the movie is suitable for family viewing.
6. The Ministry of Information and Bro adcasting drafte d the
Cinematograph Amendment Bill, 2019 to amend Cinematograph Act,
1952.
7. This Bill contains provisions to tackle film piracy by making unapproved
cam-recording and duplication of films a penal offence.
Que 5.36. Write a short note on: Central Board of Film

Certification (CBFC).
Answer
1. The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), commonly known as
the Censor Board, is an important body that handles film certification in
India.
2. It is a statutory body under the Information and Broadcasting Ministry.
3. It regulates the public exhibition of films under the provisions of the
Cinematograph Act 1952.
4. Films can be exhibited to the public only after they have been certified
by the CBFC.
5. Films are certified into four categories in India. They are :

i. U - unrestricted
ii. UA - unrestricted but with a parental discretion advisory for children
under 12 years
iii. A - adult
iv. S - only for a special class of persons
6. The main aim of establishing CBFC is to promote a healthy
entertainment industry.
7. Certification by CBFC is necessary for international and dubbed films
too.
Que 5.37. Write a short note on: Films Division of India.
Answer
1. Films Division of India was established in 1948 to articulate the energy
of a newly independent nation.
2. The main purpose behind establishing this division was to extend support
towards the cultural aspects of India.
3. The main functions and responsibilities of Films Division are as follows :
i. It focuses on national perspectives by educating the people in
implementation of national development programmes.
ii. It is responsible for presenting a positive image and heritage of our
country to Indian as well as foreign audiences.
iii. It fosters growth of documentary films in the areas of information,
communication and integration.
iv. It produces news magazines, short films, animation films and
documentaries.
4. It is the main film-medium organization of the Government of India.
5. It is well equipped with trained film personnel, cameras, recording and
editing facilities.
6. This infrastructure is put to use to assist in-house as well as independent
film makers and producers.

Indian Tradition, Culture & Society SQ–1 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
1 Society State & Polity

in India
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. What were the four important theories regarding the origin
of the state in ancient India ?
Ans. Four important theories regarding the origin of the state in ancient
India are :
i. Evolutionary theory
ii. Force theory
iii. Mystical theory
iv. Contract theory
1.2. Name some of the ancient Indian thinkers who look into
the origin and evolution of the state.
Ans. Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya, Kamandaka are some of the
ancient Indian thinkers who look into the origin and evolution of
the state.
1.3. Who developed Saptanga theory of the state ?

Ans. Saptanga theory of the state was developed by Kautilya.
1.4 According to Saptanga theory of the state who is the most

important organ of the state.
Ans. The king has been described as the most important organ of the
state.
1.5. What do you understand by Council of Ministers ?

Ans. The Council of Ministers was the chief administrative authority in
the kingdom. The king was supposed not to do anything without
the consent of the council.
1.6. What was a remarkable feature of the Mauryan

government ?
Ans. The establishment of well organised, hierarchical and cadre-based
bureaucracy for administrative purpose was a remarkable feature
of the Mauryan government.
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)
1.7. In ancient India by which term the political science was

known ?
Ans. In ancient India the political science was known by several terms
like the Rajadharma, Rajyasastra, Dandniti, Nitisastra and
Arthasastra.
1.8. Why was Nitishastra also known as the science of ethics ?

Ans.
1. In Nitishastra, the term Niti is derived from the root ‘ni’ meaning to
lead; Niti therefore means proper guidance or direction.
2. It was held that this would become possible by following ethical
course of conduct. Therefore Nitishastra was also known as the
science of ethics.
1.9. According to the Hindu thought what was the purpose of

government ?
Ans. According to the Hindu thought the purpose of government was
not to legislate, but only to administer the eternal law (sanatana
dharma).
1.10. What are the seven limbs of the state ?

Ans. The seven limbs of the state are as follows :
i. Swami (The Ruler)
ii. Amatya (The Minister)
iii. Janpada (The Population)
iv. Durga (The Fortified Capital)
v. Kosha (The Treasury)
vi. Danda (The Army)
vii. Mitra (Ally and Friend)
1.11. What do you mean by the word purusartha ?

Ans. The word purusartha means “attainments” or “life purposes”.
1.12. Name the four purusarthas.

Ans. The four purusarthas are :
i. Dharma
ii. Artha
iii. Kama
iv. Moksha
1.13. How the varna hierarchy system was divided ?

Ans. The varna hierarchy system was divided as follow :
i. Brahmins
ii. Kshatriya
iii. Vaishyas
iv. Shudras
1.14. What do you mean by ashrama or the stages of life according

to Indian philosophy ?
Ans. The ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages
discussed in Indian texts of the ancient and medieval eras.
1.15. Mention the four ashrama in Hinduism.

Ans. The four ashramas are :
i. Brahmacharyashrama or the Stage of Studentship
ii. Grihasthashrama or the Stage of Householder
iii. Vanaprasthasharma or the Stage of Retirement from Active Life
iv. Sanyasashrama or the Stage of Renunciation
1.16. What was the main purpose of marriage in ancient India ?

Ans. Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes :
i. Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.
ii. Progency or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and
continuation of family line or kula.
iii. Rati or sexual pleasure.
1.17. Mention the eight forms of marriage in ancient India.

Ans. The eight forms of marriage in ancient India are :
i. Brahma Vivaha
ii. Daiva Vivaha
iii. Arsa Vivaha
iv. Prajapatya Vivaha
v. Asura Vivaha
vi. Gandharva Vivaha
vii. Rakshasa Vivaha
viii. Paishacha Vivaha
1.18. Why gender studies were a part of ancient India ?

Ans. In ancient India gender studies were designed to appreciate the
diversity of nature, as well as to identify those who could become

monks, outgrow sexual desire and liberate themselves from all
karma.
1.19. Give the four-class classification.

Ans. According to Abu’l Fazl the people of the world may be divided into
following four classes :
i. Warriors
ii. Artificers and merchants
iii. The learned
iv. Husbandmen and labourers
1.20. Which term is most often used to refer to a slave in ancient

India ?
Ans. The term that is most often used to refer to a slave in ancient India
is ‘dasa’.

2 Indian Literature,
Culture & Tradition
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. What are the different languages of India ?

Ans. The Indian people speaks languages belonging to following four
distinct speech families :
A. Aryan
B. Dravidian
C. Sino-Tibetan
D. Austric
2.2. Describe briefly Brahmi script in India.

Ans. Brahmi is the modern name given to the one of the oldest scripts
used on the Indian subcontinent during the final centuries BCE
and the early centuries CE.
2.3. Describe briefly Harappan script in India.

Ans. The Harappan script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus
valley civilisation.
2.4 What do you mean by Veda ?

Ans. The word 'Veda' literally means knowledge. The Vedas are the
earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in
Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one generation to the
other.
2.5. Briefly describe Rig-Veda samhita.

Ans. It is the name given to that samhita in which the priest intones the
mantras as an invitation to the Gods to put in an appearance at a
yagya.
2.6. Briefly describe Sama-Veda samhita.

Ans. Sama means song or singing. In the Samaveda everything is sung.
When the yagya was organised, the singer priest called out to the
deity in question by singing the mantras in a loud and sweet voice.
2.7. Briefly describe Yajur-Veda samhita.

Ans. Yaju is the name given to poetry, for which reason much of this
Veda is in poetry. Etymologically the term 'Yajur Veda' means
knowledge concerning yagya.
2.8. Briefly describe Atharva-Veda samhita.

Ans. In the Atharva Veda little attention has been paid to the technique
or mode of yagya. In this Veda there are 20 kandas, 34 Prapathaka,
111 Anuvaka, 731 suktas and 1849 mantras.
2.9. What is Upanisad ?

Ans. Literally speaking, the word, “Upanisad”, means ‘sitting down near’.
The sense most commonly signified by the word upanisad is the
esoteric teaching imparted by the teacher to the pupil who sits
(sad), near him (upa), in a closed select (ni), group.
2.10. What is Purana ?

Ans. The term purana means, “that which lives from ancient times”. The
Puranas are a very important branch, of the Hindu sacred
literature. They enable us to know the true import of the ethos,
philosophy, and religion of the Vedas.
2.11. How Buddhist literature is divided ?

Ans.
1. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-
canonical. The canonical literature is represented by the Tripitaka :
i. Vinaya Pitaka
ii. Sutta Pitaka
iii. Abhidhamma Pitaka
2. The non-canonical literature is represented by the Jatakas.
2.12. What is Kautilya’s Arthashastra ?

Ans. The Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise
on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy.
2.13. Mention some of the famous Sanskrit authors and their

work.
Ans. Following are some of the famous Sanskrit authors :
1. Ashwaghosha
2. Bhasa
3. Kalidasa
4. Sudraka
5. Vatsyayana
6. Vishakhadatta
7. Bharavi
8. Magha
2.14. What do you mean by Sangam ?

Ans. In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned
men of the Tamil land was called ‘Sangam’ whose chief function
was promotion of literature.
2.15. How Urdu language came to being ?

Ans. Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the
Turks and the Mongols. Urdu as a language was born out of the
interaction between Hindi and Persian.

3 Indian Religion &

Philosophy
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Define Religion.

Ans. Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and
practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies,
ethics, or organizations that relates humanity to supernatural,
transcendental, and spiritual elements.
3.2. What was the origin of Harappan civilization ?

Ans. Harappan civilization dates back to about 3000 B.C.
3.3. Who were the most important female and male deities of
Harappan civilization ?
Ans. Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess and Siva were the most
important female and male deities of Harappan civilization.
3.4. What is the source of knowledge of the Vedic religion ?

Ans. The Vedic religion emanates from the Veda.
3.5. What do you mean by ‘Veda’ ?

Ans. The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, ‘to know’ and hence
means knowledge.
3.6. How are Vedic rituals classified ?

Ans. Vedic rituals are broadly classified into two categories : public rites
(srauta) and domestic rites (grhya or smarta).
3.7. Where was Gautam Buddha born ?

Ans. Gautama Buddha was born at Lumbini in present Nepal.
3.8. Where did Buddha received enlightenment ?

Ans. On the banks of Uruvela, at Gaya, Buddha received enlightenment
under the pipal (bodhi) tree.
3.9. After enlightenment, where did Buddha delivered his first

sermon ?
Ans. After enlightenment, Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.
3.10. What was the purpose of Sangha (Buddhist Monastery) ?

Ans. For the propagation of Buddhism, Buddha created a disciplined
mechanism of missionaries, called as Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.
He organized the missionaries and his disciples in a specific
organization, called as Sangha.
3.11. What are pitakas ?

Ans.
1. Buddha’s preaching are collected and classified into three volumes,
collectively called as pitakas.
2. The three volumes are :
a. Sutta-pitaka
b. Vinaya pitaka
c. Abhi-dhamma-pitaka
3.12. What were the causes of decline in Buddhism ?

Ans. Following were the causes of decline in Buddhism :
1. Shift in king’s favor
2. Introspection of Vedic religion
3. Dissensions in Buddhism
4. Loss of individualistic identity
5. Foreign invasion
3.13. Make a comparison between Hinayana Buddhism and

Mahayana Buddhism.
Ans.
S. No. Hinayana Mahayana

1. Stress on Buddha’s original Ready to make changes as per
preaching. need.
2. Strict adherence to the codes People-oriented.
of conduct flexibility.
3. Stress on perso nal On uplilftment of mass.
upliftment.
4. Use of Pali. Use of Sanskrit.
5. Worship of symbols. Worship of Buddha’s idol.
3.14. How many tirthankars are there in Jainism ?

Ans. There are 24 tirthankaras in Jainism.
3.15. Who was the first tirthankars ?

Ans. Rishabhdeva was the first among 24 tirthankaras.
3.16. Where was Vardhaman Mahavir born ?

Ans. Vardhaman was born at Kundagrama in dist. Muzaffarpur (in
present Bihar).
3.17. What are the basic principles of Jainism ?

Ans. The basic principles of Jainism are as follows :
1. Negations of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its concept of God.
2. To achieve moksha, one should control his own senses instead of
depending on the favours of God.
3. Universe is created due to jiva (soul) which is immortal.
4. To achieve moksha, jiva should be free from actions.
5. Belief in equality.
3.18. What are the Maha-vrata in Jainism ?

Ans. Following are the Maha-vrata in Jainism :
1. Ahimsa
2. Satya
3. Asteya
4. Aparigraha
5. Brahmacharya
3.19. What are the six systems of ancient Indian philosophy ?

Ans. Following are the six philosophical system (Shada Darsan) of Indian
philosophy :
1. Samkhaya
2. Yoga
3. Vaisesika
4. Nyaya
5. Purva Mimansa
6. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa
3.20. What are the various philosophical doctrines of ancient

India ?
Ans. Following are the various philosophical doctrines of ancient India :
1. Hindu Philosophy (Vedic Philosophy)
2. Charvaka School
3. Jain Philosophy
4. Buddhist Philosophy
3.21. Give various causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults

(Heterodox Religious Order).
Ans. Causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults are as follows :
1. Proliferation of Sacrifices
2. Discriminatory Institutions
3. Ambiguous Scriptures
4. Need of New Thoughts
3.22. What were the various heterodox sects in ancient India ?

Ans. Following are the various heterodox sects in ancient India :
1. Charvaka
2. Jainism
3. Buddhism
4. Ajivika

Science, Management
4 & Indian Knowledge

System
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. What was the first ‘astronomical’ object found in India ?

Ans. The first ‘astronomical’ objects, found in India are calendar sticks
noting the waxing and waning of the moon by incising daily notches
on a wooden stick.
4.2. What is considered as the representative text of calendrical

astronomy in India ?
Ans. The Jyotish vedanga of Lagadha is considered as the representative
text of calendrical astronomy.
4.3. What was the contribution of Aryabhatta in Astronomy ?

Ans. Aryabhata contributed to astronomy with his Aryabhattiya, which
dealt concisely but systematically with developments in mathematics
and astronomy.
4.4. What were the major chemical products that contributed

to the development of chemistry in India ?
Ans. Following were the major chemical products that contributed to
the development of chemistry in India :
i. Glass
ii. Paper
iii. Soap
iv. Dyeing
v. Cosmetics and Perfumes
vi. Ink
vii. Alcoholic liquors
4.5. What were the main contributions in the field of

mathematics by ancient Indian ?
Ans. The main contributions in the field of mathematics were: the
notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero.
4.6. What were the principal crops grown in ancient India ?

Ans. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds,
cotton, sugarcane and indigo.
4.7. What were the two important texts in medicine field in

ancient India ?
Ans. The two important texts in medicine field are Craraksamhita by
Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta.
4.8. Define Metallurgy.

Ans. Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, alloying
and application of metals.
4.9. What is the need to study geography ?

Ans. The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to
study geography.
4.10. Which plants find frequent mention in the Rig-Veda and

later Samhitas ?
Ans. Soma and peepal (asvattha) plants find frequent mention in the
Rig-Veda and later Samhitas.
4.11. Define the term ‘technology’ in relation to humanity’s early

stages.
Ans. When we deal with humanity’s early stages, the word ‘technology’
applies to any made modification of the natural environment —
from a stone tool to a woven piece of clothing or a construction.
4.12. Mention Harappan technologies of ancient India.

Ans. Harappan technologies of ancient India : pots, baked bricks, bead-
making, stone and ivory carving, carpet making and inlaid
woodwork.
4.13. Why do Harappans use trapezoid bricks ?

Ans. To stop the collapse of wells inward under the pressure of
underground infiltrations; Harappans invented trapezoid bricks to
construct wells.
4.14. Mention India’s specialties in the field of textile.

Ans. Some of India’s specialties in the field of textile have been :
i. Muslin : This thin, loosely woven cotton fabric is highly suitable
for hot climates. It was introduced into Europe from Bengal.
ii. Calico : It is a plain-woven textile made from unbleached cotton; it
was originally from Kozhikode or Calicut (in Kerala).
iii. Chintz : It is a form of Calico printed with floral and other colour
patterns.
iv. India also produced large quantities of very useful fabrics from
fibres such as hemp, flax or linen and jute.
4.15. What are the two important technologies associated with

textile ?
Ans. Two important technologies associated with textile are weaving

technology and dyeing technology.
4.16. How dyes were extracted in ancient India ?

Ans. Dyes were extracted from both vegetal and mineral sources: blue
usually from indigo, red from various plants such as madder, yellow
from turmeric, pomegranate rind or mango bark and black from
iron acetate.
4.17. How were the manuscripts written in India ?

Ans. In India traditionally the manuscripts were written on materials
such as birch bark and palm leaves.
4.18. Who were the premier economic and trade powers from
early times until the colonial era ?
Ans. India and China were the premier economic and trade powers from
early times until the colonial era.

5 Cultural Heritage &

Performing Arts
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. What are the different types of architecture found in India ?

Ans. Caves, stupas, pillars, temples and Indo-Islamic architecture are
variety of architecture found in India.
5.2. What are the major cave architecture in India ?

Ans. Following are the major cave architecture in India :
i. Ellora Cave
ii. Ajanta Cave
iii. Elephanta Cave
iv. Karla Cave
v. Lomasa Rishi Cave
5.3. What do you understand by the term Stupa ?

Ans. A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was
used to house Buddha's relics or to commemorate significant facts
and events related to Buddhism.
5.4 Give classification of Stupa.

Ans. The stupas are classified into 5 main categories :
i. Relic Stupas
ii. Object Stupas
iii. Commemorative Stupas
iv. Symbolic Stupas
v. Votive Stupas
5.5. Describe the basic features of Indian temples.

Ans. The basic features that comprise a Hindu Temple are :
i. Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum)
ii. Mandapa
iii. Shikhara or Vimana
iv. Vahana
v. Amalaka
vi. Kalasha
vii. Antarala (vestibule)
viii. Jagati
5.6. Give the classification of structural/free standing temple

architecture.
Ans. Basically there are 3 kinds of structural/free standing temple
architecture :
1. Nagara style temple architecture
2. Dravida style temple architecture
3. Vesara style temple architecture
5.7. What do you understand by pottery ?

Ans. Pottery refers to the creation of objects that are made up of hard
brittle material produced from non-metallic minerals by moulding
them while the material is wet and then firing them at high
temperatures.
5.8. What do you mean by puppet ?

Ans. A doll or a figure controlled by a person so that it appears to be
moving on its own is called a puppet.
5.9. What is puppetry ?

Ans. Puppetry is a performing art or a form of theatre that involves
manipulation of puppets.
5.10. Give the classification of puppetry.

Ans. Puppetry has been classified as :
i. String Puppets ii. Glove Puppets
iii. Rod Puppets iv. Shadow Puppets
5.11. What are the various dance forms in India ?

Ans. The 2 major dance forms in India are classical and folk dance.
5.12. What are the aspects of classical dance ?

Ans. There are two basic aspects of classical dance :
1. Lasya : It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya. It is symbolic to
the feminine features of dance as an art form.
2. Tandava : This is symbolic to the male aspects of dance and has
more emphasis on rhythm and movement.
5.13. What are the basic elements of classical dance ?

Ans. There are three basic elements classical dance :
1. Nritta : These are the basic dance steps and are performed
rhythmically but devoid of any expression or mood.
2. Natya : It means dramatic representations and refers to the story

that is elaborated through the dance recital.
3. Nritya : It refers to the sentiment and the emotions evoked through
dance. It includes the mime and the different methods of expression
including mudras in the dance.
5.14. What are the basic technicalities that are expressed in the
classical dance ?
Ans. The 8 basic technicalities that are expressed in the classical dance
are given below :
i. Shringar : Love
ii. Hasya : Humorous
iii. Karuna : Sorrow
iv. Raudra : Anger
v. Veer : Heroism
vi. Bhayanak : Fear
vii. Bibhats : Disgust
viii. Adbhoot : Wonder
5.15. Name some of the classical dances of India ?

Ans. The classical dances in India are given below :
1. Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)
2. Kathak (Uttar Pradesh)
3. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
4. Odissi (Odisha)
5. Kathakali (Kerala)
6. Sattriya (Assam)
7. Manipuri (Manipur)
8. Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
5.16. Describe the fundamental elements of Indian Music.

Ans. Following are the fundamental elements of Indian Music :
1. Sruti 2. Swara
3. Raga 4. Tala
5.17. Briefly describe Indian Classical Music.

Ans.
1. The Indian classical music has two distinct varieties: Hindustani
music and Carnatic music.
2. Hindustani music belongs to the Northern part of the country, and
the Carnatic music is south Indian.
5.18. List the main elements of theatre.

Ans. The main elements of theatre are :

i. Plot ii. Character
iii. Thought iv. Diction
v. Music vi. Spectacle
5.19. Give classification of Indian paintings.

Ans.
1. Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures.
2. Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures
directly.
3. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or
albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth.
5.20. Explain the term ‘martial art’.

Ans. The term ‘martial art’ refers to creativity exhibited by warriors
while fighting against their opponents.
5.21. Explain various modes through which Indian culture

spread abroad.
Ans.
1. Spread of Indian culture through traders.
2. Spread of Indian culture through teachers.
3. Spread of Indian culture through other modes.
5.22. What do you mean by the term ‘cinema’ ?

Ans. The word ‘cinema’ is a short form of ‘cinematography’. It refers to
the art of filmmaking.
5.23. Explain the various era’s of Indian Cinema.

Ans. Following are the various era’s of Indian cinema :
1. Early Indian cinema (1898 to 1945)
a. Age of Silent Films
b. Age of Talking Films or Talkies
2. Golden era of Indian Cinema (1940 to 1960)
3. Classic decades of Indian Cinema (1970s and 1980s)
4. New Bollywood phase of Indian Cinema (1990s to Present)
5.24. What is Cinematograph Act, 1952.

Ans. The Cinematograph Act, 1952 is an Act to make provision for the
certification of cinematograph films for exhibition and for regulating
exhibitions by means of cinematographs.


Indian Tradition Culture and Society

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Indian Tradition Culture and Society

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Indian Tradition Culture and Society

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3

UNIT-1 : SOCIETY STATE & POLITY IN INDIA (1–1 Q to 1–18 Q)

UNIT-2 : INDIAN LITERATURE, CULTURE & TRADITION (2–1 Q to 2–24 Q)

UNIT-3 : INDIAN RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY (3–1 Q to 3–23 Q)

UNIT-4 : SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT & INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

UNIT-5 : CULTURAL HERITAGE & PERFORMING ARTS

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 Q to SQ-18 Q)

1 Society State & Polity

Part-2 : Kingship, Council of Ministers, ........... 1–5Q to 1–10Q

Part-3 : Society in Ancient India, .................... 1–10Q to 1–18Q

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

5. Also in the Arthashastra contractual origin of kingship is not intended

Que 1.2. Describe the stages of state formation in ancient India.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.3. Describe Kingship in ancient India.

Que 1.4. Write a short note on : Council of Ministers.

Que 1.5. Give an account on administration in ancient India.

3. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are probably

Que 1.6. Write a short note on : Political ideas in ancient India.

Que 1.7. Write a short note on : Conditions of the welfare of

Que 1.8. Write a short note on : Kautilya’s saptanga (The seven

i. Swami (The Ruler) :

vi. Danda (The Army) :

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.9. Give a brief account on society in ancient India. Also

Que 1.10. Discuss the Varnashrama system of ancient India.

1. Various texts talk of varnashrmadharma or the dharma of different

5. Kshatriyas had the right to possess arms.

Que 1.11. Discuss ashrama or the stages of life according to

1. The ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed

Que 1.12. Give a brief account on marriage in ancient India.

1. Marriage or vivaha was a very important samskara in ancient India.

iv. Prajapatya Vivaha : In this type of marriage, the father offers

Que 1.13. Write a short note on : Understanding gender as a social

1. Gender studies was very much part of ancient India.

Que 1.14. Write a short note on : The representation of women in

1. Indian tradition has generally respected womanhood.

Que 1.15. Write a short note on : Four-class classification.

1. The four-class classification is found in Abu’l Fazl, A’in-i-Akbari.

Que 1.16. Give a brief account on slavery in ancient India.

Part-2 : The Vedas, the Upanishads, ................ 2–7Q to 2–13Q

Part-3 : Buddhist and Jain .............................. 2–13Q to 2–16Q

Part-4 : Kautilya’s Arthashastra, .................... 2–16Q to 2–24Q

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Discuss the different language of India.

Que 2.2. Trace the evolution of writing in India.

Que 2.3. Write an essay on the origin and development of Brahmi

6. But there are some basic divergences between Phoenician writing on

Que 2.4. What are the characteristics of Brahmi script ?

Que 2.5. Give an account on the Harappan script of India.

Que 2.6. What factors are considered as the obstacles for a

Que 2.7. What are the characteristics of Harappan script ?

4. Since that is considered too large a number for each character to be a

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8. Write an essay on the Vedic literature.

D. The Atharva-Veda Samhita :

Que 2.9. What is Upanisad ? Discuss.

Que 2.10. Describe the story of Ramayana.

Que 2.11. Write an account on the literary characteristics of

3. The author of the Ramayana has thus presented a magnificent life-