What is Atomic Theory?

Dalton's atomic theory was a scicntific theory on the nature of matter put
forward by the English physicist and chemnist
John Dalton in thc ycar 1808. It stated that all matter was made up of
small, indivisible particles known as 'atoms'.
All substances, according to Dalton's atomic theory, arc made up of
atoms, which are indivisible and indestructible
building units. While an clcment's atoms wcrc all thec same size and mass, various
clements possesscd atoms of varying
sizes and masses.

Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory

Allmattcr is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties.
However, atoms of different
clement cxhibit different properties and vary in mass and size.
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles.
Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-number ratios in order to form
compounds.
Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions.
Limitations of Dalton's Atomic Theory
It does not account for subatomic particles: Dalton's atomic theory stated that atoms were indivisible.
However, the discovery of subatomic particles (such as protons, electrons, and neutrons) disproved this postulate.
It does not account for isotopes: As per Dalton's atomic theory, all atoms of an element have identical masses
and densities. However, different isotopes of elements bave different atomic masses (Example: bydrogen,
deuterium, and tritium).
It does not account for isobars: This theory states that the masses of the atoms of two different elements must
differ. However, it is possible for two different elements to share the same mass number. Such atoms are called
isobars (Example:"Ar and"Ca).
Elements need not combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds: Certain complex organic
compounds do not feature simple ratios of constituent atoms. Example: sugar/sucrose (C1HO11).
The theory does not account for allotropes: The differences in the properties of diamond and graphite, both of
which contain only carbon, cannot be explained by Dalton's atomic theory.
What are the Merits of Dalton's Atomic Theory?
1. The law of multiple proportions, the law of conservation of mass, and the law of constant proportions are not
violated by Dalton's atomic theory.
2. The theory provides a basis to differentiate between elements and compounds.

The concept of atoms and their structure was first introduced by John Dolton in 1808. He explained the laws of the
chemical combination by considering atoms as invisible particles without a structure. Then in 1911, the New Zealand
physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed that atoms consist of two componcnts: a positively charged nucleus in the center of
the atom and negatively charged electrons in the extranuclear part of the atom. Certain theories such as clectromagnetic
theory presented by Maxwell could not be explainced with Rutherford's model. Because of such limitations in

Rutherford's model, the Danish physicist Nicls Bohr proposed a new model in 1913 bascd on the quantum theory of
radiations. Bohr's model was largely accepted and he was awarded the Nobcl Prize for his work. Even though it was
largely accepted, it still carries certain drawbacks and limitations. The main difference between Bohr model and
 Rutherford model is that tn Rutlherud model, eleerons (Rn revolve in any nrbit wround the nueleus, whereas in
Bohr model, electronsCAM FOTelve nn detnltealell.
What is RutherfordModel}
ln 1911, mest Ruthertiud u d uiletnl atntea tat the atom (the volume) consists mainly of space and
the mass ofthe atom ix tend n the mulem, whieh i e coe of the atom The nucleus is positively charged and the
cletonoit anmnt tle muleux lhe ote ve no defite pathy, Morcover, since atoms are neutral, they have cqual
ositive (n the wtu) and ative chao (electhonn), Rutherfod's model failed to explain the clectroma gnetic
they, the stabiiytatom anl the exidewe of deinite lines in the hydrogen spectrum.
What is Rohr Model
Bohr's Nt was pyoot by Niclk tlolr n19P2 to explain the structurc of the atom. In this model, Bohr mentionca
that the Nt of the atonic mass iexin the central nucleus that contains protons and clectrons are arranged in detinite
NY cs and tvohe aound the nucleus, The model also proposed clcctronic configuration, which explains the
ataNNI ovtons in cimmlar obits desiputed as K. L. M. N. etc. Atoms with complcte elcctron configurations are
explain the spectrum of
NY aI\ B t 0niuration determines the reactivity of the atom. Bohr's model is able to
not explain
ttVRR ato, hut it cannot fully explain the rcactivity of multielectron atoms. Moreover, it does
ficld. In this
tNaN t, whee ach spectral line split up into more lines in the presence of an external magnetic
Broglie discovered that electrons have
NEaN elhn is c0usidered only as a particle. However. a French physicist,de
called Heisenberg's uncertainty
waVT nd particle properties, Later on, a physicist put forth another principle
determination of exact position and momentum of small
l, which explains the impossibility of the simultaneous
serious setback.
oing particles such as electrons. With this invention, Bohr's model faced a

What is the Difference Between Bohr and Rutherford Model?

Behr vs Ruther ford Model
Bohr model was proposed Rutherford model was proposed

by Niels Bohr in 19. by Ernest Rutherford in 1911.

Theory
Most of the atomic mass lies in Most of the atom consists of empty
the central nucleus, which space. The center of the atom
Contains protons, and the Contains positively charged
electrons are arranged in definite nucleus and its negatively charged
energy levels or shells. electrons are present in the space
surrounding the nucleus.

Emission of Radiation of Electrons

Electrons only emit waves of Elcctrons emit waves of all

definite frequencies. frequencies.

Electron Emission Spectrüm
Electron emission spectrum is a Electron emission spectrum is
line spectrum. a continuous spectrum.
Summary - Bohr vs Rutherford Model
Both Bohr and Rutherford modcls arc planctary modcls that explain thec atomic structure up to a certain cxtent. 1hese
models have Iimitations and do not cxplain some modern principles of physics. However, these models greatly contribute
towards nmodern advanccd modcls that cxplain the atomic structurc, Bohr model states that most of the atomic mass 15 1n
the central nucleus, which contains protons and, that clectrons arc arranged in definite energy levcls or shells, resulting in
consists of an cmpty spacc and the center of the
Civeo ine spectrum. Rutherford's modcl statcs that most of the atom
negatively charged clectrons, resulting in continuous clectron
dtout contains a positivcly charged nuclcus surrounded by
spcctrum. This is the differencc betwccn Bohr and Ruthcrford Modcl.

on what
many hypotheses before John Dalton's exceptional thecory, and all these hypotheses concentrated
Ihere were
of atoms. It was
understood the subatomic particles forming different types
mass was made of. The scientists eventually proportions,
the law of conservation of mass, the law of multiple
the first time a theory properly explained and supported scientists. The
the law of constant composition. It is then that three subatomic particles were discovered by the
and
important discoveries.
discovery of clectron proton and neutron propelled various other discovered
of atoms. An atom is made of many subatomic particles. In this section, we will learn who
Matter is made
particle. These
experiments led to the discovery of each subatomic
electron protons and neutrons and how. Every set of branches.
discoveries in the 19 and 20 centuries led to the foundation ofNuclear Physics and its various
path-breaking
How the Electron was Discovered?
electromagnetic force of
the subatomic particle that remains outside the nucleus. It is bound by the
Electrons are
orbit. Sir William
electron and a nucleus, the strong force keeps it in its
attraction. Despite the huge distance between an
year 1885.
Crookes was the one who discovered electrons in the
metallic electrodes in a vacuum. He was conducting experiments to check the
He conducted many experiments by heating the electrodes was
vacuum. The glass tube in which he was heating
behavioral features of metals when heated in a
particles
connected to the electrodes, a stream of highly-energized
partially evacuated. When a source of high-voltage was
positive electrode of the anode. Crooks also saw that
was observed emerging from the negative electrode or cathode to the
magnetic field. A set of
there is no influence of an external electric or
these particles traveled in a straight line when Thompson,
of these particles was then concluded by the further experiments done by the other scientists. Sir J. J.
features
added to the physical features of electrons.
who invented electrons, was an eminent physicist who
that these are very small particles that possess very tiny
Crooks, whodiscovered electrons, and other scientists concluded
charge to
kinetic energy, travel very fast in a straight line, and are negatively charged. They also measured the
mass and
same.
mass ratio (e/m) and found that they are always the
How Protons were Discovered?
experimenting with a perforated cathode (negative electrode). The
Eugen Goldstein, the one who discoveredprotons, was
pressure is extremely low. He experimented in 1886. During
electrodes were fit into a glass tube containing air, but the
red
a
He passed high voltage across the clectrodes. He observed
this time, the electron was not discovered and identified.
in the opposite direction of the electrons flowing
forming
glow behind the cathode in that tube. This ray was formed
accidentally.
cathode rays. Hence, the proton was discovered by Goldstein a
The same experiment was then conducted on anodes
resulting in the flow of another ray. This time, the particles had
electrical or magnetic field around. The formation of these
Sign1ticant mass but traveled straight when there was no
subatomic particles in the ray has been properly explained. If you read it carefully, you will find who discovered protons
and how the features of this subatomic particle have been concluded.
These particles are much heavier than electrons. The charge to mass ratio (e/m) was always the same even if different
metals were used to conduct the same experiment. On procceding further, Rutherford was capable of proving that the
hydrogen ion (H), the resultant of ahydrogen atom losing an clectron, had the same propertics as that of the positive
particles flowing forming rays in 1919.
Discovery of Neutron
James Chadwick, after the end ofWorld WarI, returnedto England to his mentor Enest Rutherford. He completed his
Ph.D. under Rutherford's supervision and concentrated his experiments on radioactive decay. Even though Rutherford
found protons in an atom, Chadwick found that it was not the only subatomic particle residing inside the nucleus of an
atom.

He then conducted his experiments on atomic disintegrations and found that the atomic number of Helium is 2but its
mass number is4. After carrying on many other experiments, he coneluded that only protons can hold two electrons in a
Hclium atom. Hence, the other subatomic particles, that have the same mass as a proton, did not carry a charge. These
particles were neutral but had mass. In 1935, he discovered the presence of neutrons and received the Nobel Prize.