*Water with head of 1.

00m and a base of 1m2 will exert a pressure of 9810 N/m2, or

9810 Pa, that is 9.81 kPa.

• Classification of Heads
There are different kinds of head according to their effect on pumping operations.

1. Static Discharge Head or Gravity Head- results from the vertical height of a
column of water. It is the weight of water exerted as a result of the force of
gravity. In pumping operatons, it is the vertical distance (in meters) from the
center line of the pump to the point of free discharge.
2. Pressure head- the vertical height to to which a given pressure will force water to
a certain level
3. Suction Lift- the term used when the source of supply is below the center line of
the pump.
4. Static Suction Lift- the vertical distance (in meters) from the liquid level to the
center line of the pump.
5. Total Suction Lift- the static suction lift plus friction head in the entire suction pipe
and fittings.
6. Suction head- the term used when the source of supply is above the center lne of
the pump. Also known as flooded suction.
7. Static Suction Head- the vertical distance (in meters) from the center line of the
pump to the level of the liquid being pumped.
8. Total Suction Head- the static suction head minus the friction head in the entire
suction pipe and fittings.
9. Total discharge Head- the static delivery head plus the friction head plus the
friction head in all of the delivery pipe and fittings.
10. Velocity Head- the head required to accelerate the water in the delivery pipe. It
should be included in the total pump head but it so nominal that it is usually
ignored.
11. Total Pump Head- the total suction lift plus the total delivery plus the velocity
head.

CHAPTER 11: DOMESTIC HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

DOMESTIC HOT WATER SUPPLY

The supply of hot water of domestic use is based on the need for personal hygiene and
washing in order to remain healthy and safe.
1. Personal hygiene- through science, people became aware that dirt harbors
disease, to keep away from this condition people attend to constantly maintain
their bodies clean. To achieve this, a regular supply of hot water is required to
break down and dissolve oil and dirt. Soap lathers much better in hot water than
cold. Hot water is friendlier to our skin temperature since we are warm blooded
 animals. Hot water also helps to open skin pores, letting the soap get down into
the tissue to lift out the oil and dirt.
2. Washing- certain substances, such as fatty foods on a plate, require a
temperature of 60 degrees centigrade to lift them.
There are several methods of heating water , but the availability of fuel and the cost
involved in operating and maintaining the system are main concerns in choosing the
suitable type. The types of fuel currently available are:
1. Electricity 5. steam
2. Solid fuel- coal 6. Oil
3. Gas 7. Heat pumps
4. Solar
HEAT-UP TIME
In order to achieve the greatest convenience and the best running cost, knowledge of
the heat-up time for water heaters is important. Capacities of water heaters vary
according to requirements, storage size and heat input. This is the reason why most
heaters have to be turned- on before use as they need time to heat up. To be able to
calculate the heat- up time we need to understand a few facts about heating water.
1. Specific heat- is the specific amount of heat for a specific temperature rise. It
takes 4.187 kJ (kilo Joules) of energy to raise 1 kilogram of water through 1
degree centigrade.
2. For the purpose of calculations, 1 liter of water has a mass of 1 kilogram.
3. Temperature Rise (TR)- is the difference between the cold water temperature
and the final required temperature. This is expressed in the formula: TR= (t2-t1)
4. Often the water heater is electrical equipment that is related in kilowatts (kW), it
is necessary to convert kJ to kW. The conversion is kW= 3600 kJ.
Knowing the quantity of water to be heated, the temperature rise and the specific heat
of water, we can calculate the amount of heat required, and because electrical
appliances have the input based on an hourly rate, these figures can be reversed to find
the time it would take to heat up.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the amount of electrical energy and the time required to heat 13 liters of water
from 10oC to 60oC at 100% efficiency.
Solution
1. Solving for Temperature Rise: TR=60oC - 10oC= 50oC
2. Solving for Energy Required
Energy Required = liters x temperature x specific heat
= 13 liters x 50oC x 4.187 kJ/ liter oC
= 13 liters x 50oC x 4.187 kJ
Liter degree centigrade
= 2,721.55 kJ
3. Convert kJ to kW
kW= 2721.55 kJ
3600 kJ/ kW
4. Solving for Time Required
 T= 2721.55 kJ
3600 kJ/ kWh x 0.76 kW
Convert hours to minutes: T= 0.99 hours x 60 minutes / hour = 59.4 minutes
The above time of 59.4 minutes is quite impractical for a waiting time before hot water is
available. To shorten the waiting time, the input should be increased.
ADDENDUM OF SAMPLE PROBLEM
*If we double the input from 0.76 kW to 1.52kW, calculate the time it will take to reach
the required temperature.
Solution. Use the same figures but this time double the input.
T= 13 liters x 50 oC x 4.187 k
3600kJ/ kWh x 1.52kW

= 2721.55 kJ = 0.497 hours

5472 kJ/ h

Convert hours to minutes

T= 0.497h x 60 min/ h
Time= 29.82 minutes

TYPES OF HOT WATER SYSTEM AVAILABLE

The above stated types of fuel can be used to heat the water in the following systems:
1. Localized water heating (single appliances)
a. High Pressure
b. Low Pressure
2. Centralized hot water system
a. High Pressure
b. Low Pressure
3. Storage water heaters
a. High Pressure
b. Low Pressure
4. Instantaneous water heaters
a. High Pressure
b. Low Pressure

STORAGE WATER HEATER- OPEN OUTLET SINGLE POINT, ABOVE SINK

All heaters of this type are designed to serve one fixture at a time. Although, it is
possible to install the heater between two adjacent fixtures so the swivel spout can be
turned to supply both. They are available from 7 to 34 liters storage and normally have a
2000 watt element fitted. This means that there is heat-up time of 12 minutes to 1 hour.

STORAGE WATER HEATER- OPEN OULET SINGLE POINT, UNDER SINK

The under sink water heater works on the principle of displacement, hot water only
flowing when cold water enters the cylinder and pushes the hot out. To prevent undue
pressure from the cold water inlet, a restrictor is fitted to the inlet connection. Provision
must be made for expansion and this is done by leaving the hot water outlet open and
discharging it over the sink. The cold water faucet controls the flow of hot water and the
hot outlet pipe allows for expansion. Under sink water heaters are not suitable for use
with dish washers, unless installed as low-pressure water heaters.

INSTANTANEOUS HEATERS
Instantaneous heaters instantly heat cold water as it passes through the heater. These
heaters are compact since storage is not required. They are popularly used at showers
and lavatories and due to this condition; there is a shower model and lavatory model.

1. Shower model- has rated power consumption of 6000 watts (6kW)

- provides a continuous supply of hot water at a maximum rate of 3
liters per minute at a showering temperature of 40 degrees
centigrade.
2. Lavatory model- has a rated power consumption of 3000 watts (3kW)
-provides a continuous supply of warm water for hand washing at
the rate of approximately 1.4 liters per minute.
3. Multi-point model- serves several fixtures such as a range of lavatories, sink or
. shower.
OPERATION OF INSTANTANEOUS HEATER

1. When the cold water control valve is turned on, water flows and exerts pressure
on a pressure switch which in turn completes the electrical circuit so that the
element can now heat the water as it passes through. The pressure switch is the
safeguard that the heating element is only on when water is flowing.
2. A preset thermal cut-out switch is also incorporated as a safety measure against
overheating the water.
3. The heating element is thermostatically controlled using a rod thermostat or invar
steel which expands very little. This is fixed inside a tube of brass which expands
very little. This is fixed inside a tube of brass which expands approximately 18
times as much as the invar steel. When the brass tube, which is in contact with
the water, expands, it draws out the invar rod with it and breaks the electrical
contact.
4. A magnet ensures a clean snap action, as the magnet will hold the control switch
until the last minute, so preventing excessive arcing and rapid deterioration of the
contact points.
CENTRALIZED HOT WATER SUPPLY

 In centralized systems, water is heated and stored centrally and distributed to the
hot water faucets via the hot water piping. In the average home, an electric
heating element is directly immersed into the water to be heated. But, for
commercial and larger projects an independent boiler or furnace is used to heat
the water remotely. The hot water is stored in a range boiler or storage tank that
is located as near the boiler as possible to keep heat losses at a minimum.
 To provide an adequate supply of hot water for the average family, a 180 liter
storage cylinder is recommended and is designed to provide the central bulk of
the hot water requirements. The aforementioned value should be increased if
there is an abnormally high usage of hot water or be supplemented with
secondary forms of heating water.

1. The hot water storage vessel holds sufficient water to meet a large draw-off at
peak times.
2. It may be possible to use cheaper, lower grade fuel oil, coal, natural gas or other
solid fuel.
3. The boiler can be housed in its own room, keeping noise and dust out of the
main building.
4. One boiler plant reduces maintenance.

PARTS OF CENTRALIZED HOT WATER SUPPLY

1. Heating element/ boiler 3. Range boiler/ hot water storage tank
2. Thermostat 4. Hot water pipes
 • Heating element- the size of the heating element has a direct bearing on the
heating up time, which is also related to the size of the storage cylinder. A
general guide for adequate supply is: 135 liters  1500 watts
180 liters  2000 watts

Both the 180 liter with a 2000 watt element and the 135 liter with a 1500 watt
element will reach a temperature of 60 degrees centigrade in 5 hours and 15 minutes,
based on cold water entering the cylinder at 10 degrees centigrade.

Caution: It is not uncommon for higher wattage elements to be installed, up to

3000 watts in a 135 liter cylinder, but when this is done in an old installation, the wiring
should be checked to avoid electrical overloading that may result to fire.

• Thermostat- is the key to a satisfactory and economical water heater,

automatically switching off the power when the preset temperature is reached
and switching on again when hot water is drawn off, or the temperature drops
through heat loss. Recommended thermostat settings for average family
requirement are 65 to 0 degrees centigrade. Where there are smaller demands,
60 degrees centigrade is more economical temperature. Some savings can be
made by lowering the temperature setting during summer.

• Range boiler/ hot water storage tank- the hot water tank serves the domestic
hot water system in a storage capacity. There are two types of tanks used for the
storage of hot water:

1. Range boiler- the small cylindrical hot water tank that varies in size from
300 mm to 600 mm in diameter and is not more than 1800 mm long. The
range boiler is made of galvanized steel sheet of standard and extra
heavy gauge. It can be used in either horizontal or vertical position.

2. Storage tank- the large cylindrical hot water tank with a range of diameter
at 600mm to 1350 mm and not more than 4500 mm long.

The proper size of the hot water storage tank depends on the following:
1. The design of the building
2. The number of occupants and
3. The heating capacity of the supply device

• Hot water pipes- should be as short as possible in order to avoid the use of
“dead legs”. A “dead leg” is a long pipe run whereby it takes a long time to push
out the cold water for the sake of a small amount of hot water. The smallest size
of piping that will provide a satisfactory flow should be used. Short, small sized
pipes are less expensive and they waste less heat and less water.

HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The storage tank and heating device of a hot water distribution system are so
assembled as to create a circulation of water within them. The movement of the water is
the result of molecular activity. The application of heat to a body of water caused it to
expand and become less dense, which give it a natural tendency to rise. The inequality
of weights between the hot and the cold water contained in the tank results a circulation
of the liquid. The operation and efficiency of the hot water distribution system is
dependent upon the following:

1. Type of heating system used

a. Direct system
b. Indirect system

2. Type of tank connection used

a. Vertical position
b. Horizontal position
c. Pipes, valves and fittings

3. Types of installation used

a. Upfeed and Gravity return

b. Overhead feed and gravity return
c. Pump circuit system

DIRECT HEATING SYSTEM

In this system the water that is being heated by the boiler is actually used out of the hot
water faucets.

Direct water heaters are classified into four categories:

1. Range boilers
a. Range boiler and furnace coil
b. Range boiler and heater
2. Gas water heaters
a. Side-arm gas heater
b. Gas water heater
3. Oil-Fired water heater
4. Electric water heater

Each type should have a temperature and pressure relief valve and sediment drain at
the lowest part of the tank. Relief valves are set to allow water to blow into a drain line
when the temperature exceeds 100 degrees centigrade or when the pressure exceeds
860 kPa.
• Range Boiler and furnace coil- the range boiler is usually mounted upright on a
stand. A drain is placed at the bottom to remove sediment; a temperature and
 pressure relief valve is placed at the top for safety. The furnace coil is located in
the furnace box.
• Range boiler and Heater- the range boiler is usually installed horizontally on a
stand. The heater maybe fired by coal, gas or oil.

• Side-Arm Gas Heater- is used mostly during summer months in temperate

countries to support furnace oil heaters.
• Gas water heater- a galvanized iron, copper, or porcelain- lined steel tank
enclosed in an insulating jacket. A gas (LPG) burner provides the heat. The
thermostat controls the temperature of the water in the insulated tank. Its
operation is automatic and will keep water at any temperature from 45 to 75
degree centigrade, according to the setting of the thermostat. Gas water heaters
provide an efficient and inexpensive way to supply hot water at all times.

• Oil-Fired water heaters- are similar to the gas water heater, except that a
vaporizing or pressure oil burner supplies the heat.
 • Electric Water Heater- normally has two immersion type heating elements. The
upper heater usually has higher wattage than the lower. Thermostats control
these elements to ensure that the operation is automatic. The heater does not
need a flue or smoke stack since there are no burning products. The electric
water heater may be located in a closet.

INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEM

In this system the water that is heated by the boiler is never used out of the hot water
faucets, but circulates through a heat exchanger. This takes the form of a coil pipe
within the hot water storage tank. The heated water circulates through the system and
in turn heats the water held within the storage tank, then results to the boiler to be
reheated. The advantages of this system are:
1. Since the water in the boiler does not mix with the water in the storage tank, the
risk of rusty water being drawn off through the faucets is eliminated.
2. It keeps the carbonate deposits to a minimum level because once the temporary
hardness of the water has been released it will not recur as the same water is
reheated over and over again.
3. It can use steam as the heating medium instead of water.

There are 3 types of indirect heating system currently used in buildings, these are:
1. Primatic Cylinder
2. Calorifiers
3. Annular Cylinder

1. Primatic cylinder- is a single feed cylinder with a patented internal heat

exchanger. It is designed with two air locks, which prevent the mixing of the
heated water with the useable water.
2. Calorifiers- is a continuous coil of pipe within a vertical cylinder. In hospitals and
factories where steam is already being generated for other uses, it can be used
to heat the water by the indirect method through the calorifier. The steam enters
the coil through the top connection. The strainer removes any solid matter
suspended in the controlled. The thermostat prevents overheating or boiling of
the stored water. A steam trap, fitted near the outlet of the coil, prevents the
steam from leaving the coil until it condenses.
 3. Annulars cylinder- is a horizontal calorifier that works in a similar way to that
described above. This best suited for areas with limited headroom.

NOTE: Where water is being used for heating , the “rule of thumb” to determine the
heating surface is approximately 1000 cubic centimeter of heating surface per 10 liters
of water in the storage tank. For 180 liters of stored water, this works out to
approximately 21 meters of a 15 mm diameter pipe or 16 meters of a 20mm diameter
pipe.

Indirect water heating with an annular cylinder

STORAGE TANK CONNECTION

It is advisable to seat the tank in a vertical position on small installations and in a
horizontal position on the larger installations. In both the vertical and horizontal position,
the tank must be set above the heater to allow the heated water to rise and permit a
more rapid circulation.

Other necessary connections to the tank are:

a. Cold water supply- delivered into the tank via a boiler tube that extends to
within 150mm of the tank bottom. The purpose for this is to avoid the possibility
of cooling the hot water which accumulates at the top of the tank. This cold water
line must have a small hole within 150mm from the top of the tank. This hole
serves as a vacuum breaker and prevents siphonage. The supply line into the
tank must be equipped with a control valve located as close to the hot water tank
as possible.
b. Flow connection- is connected to an opening on the tank somewhere above its
center point. This line is called the flow connection because the heated water
flows from the heater in the tank.
c. Return connection- is connected to a tapping on the bottom of the tank. This
line is called the return connection because it returns the colder water from the
bottom of the tank of the heater.
d. Drain valve- is located at the lowest point of the storage tank.
e. Hot water distribution pipe- is connected to a tapping on the top of the tank at
the point near the flow inlet.
f. Blow-off valve- is installed to the storage tank to control the temperature and
pressure and to prevent serious difficulties should the tank become overheated.

HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION: Types of installations

The installation for hot water distribution consists of the piping work that conveys the
heated water from the storage tank to the plumbing fixtures.

• Upfeed and Gravity Return system

- Commonly used in residential installations
- The purpose of this system is to permit circulation of hot water within the
piping arrangement
- The circulating return is economical since it eliminates water waste.
- The principle on which this system functions is provided in the unequal
weights of 2 columns of heated water of uniform height. The inequality of
weight is the result of a variation in temperature in the 2 columns.

FEATURES OF THE UPFEED AND GRAVITY RETURN SYSTEM:

a. The distribution main is connected to a tapping on the top of the storage tank
close to the flow from the heater.
This pipe is usually suspended from the basement ceiling.
b. Hot water rises are generally connected to the distribution main by means of 45
degree connection.
 However, this practice may vary according to the length of the risers, in order to
avoid one riser circulating faster and more thoroughly than the others. For
example, should an installation consists of 3 risers of varying heights, the longest
can be connected to the main horizontally; the shorter riser by a vertical
connection; and the third riser maybe connected with a 45 degree fitting.
c. The flow riser is passed as near the fixtures as possible. Swing joints are
provided in the supports of risers to allow for expansion and prevent breakage of
the pipes. The flow riser is equipped with a control valve and a drip at its base.
d. The circulating return is connected to a tee that is installed in the riser below the
highest fixture to overcome air lock. The return is usually one size smaller that
the flow riser. It is connected to a return main often suspended from the
basement ceiling. The return riser is also equipped with a drip and a control valve
at its base.
e. The circulating main is usually suspended from the basement ceiling and
installed with a slope to a Y fitting installed in the return connection between the
storage tank and the heating unit. A valve must be placed at this connection.
f. All valves used in the system should be of the gate valve type in order to be
assured of a full way water flow and to overcome trapped water lines- a fault
which occurs in the use of disc or globe valves.
g. The largest diameter of the pipe is at the bottom of the riser, the size diminishing
as it passes through the upper floor s of the building.
OVERHEAD FEED AND GRAVITY RETURN SYSTEM
- The most efficient method of delivering hot water to fixtures.
- It is generally used in multi-storey buildings.
- It is dependent on the natural laws governing expansion and gravity
- Its advantage is that it allows continuous circulation even if there is a
mechanical defect in the system.
- The operating principle of the overhead system is based on the fact that in a
closed system of piping, water rises when heated. After it has reached the
high point of the system, natural forces of gravity return it to the storage unit.

FEATURES OF THE OVERHEAD FEED AND GRAVITY RETURN SYSTEM

a. The storage tank should be located at the lowest point of the distribution piping.
b. Overhead feed riser is connected to a tapping at the top of the storage tank close
to the flow connection of the heater. This riser must be extended as direct and
free from offsets as possible to the work space or the ceiling above the top floor
of the building. This riser must not have connections from fixtures.
c. Distribution main is connected to the top of the riser, and is suspended from the
ceiling or the building framework by means of metal hangers. The main must be
pitched away from the riser so that the water will flow to the last drop. The main
shoulder be located so as to make the horizontal runs of the riser as short ans as
equal in length as possible.
d. The horizontal riser branch is connected into the main by means of inverted 45
degree fitting and is pitched to the drop or vertical riser proper. The horizontal
riser branch must be equipped with a valve installed as close as may be
practical.
e. The largest pipe diameter is at the top of the riser, the size diminishing as it
passes through the lower floors.
f. The circulating return main is a line suspended from the basement or lowest
floor. It is pitched and connected to a Y located at the return piping between the
heater and the storage tank.
g. The return risers are connected to the circulating return main.
h. The system is equipped with a relief vent that eliminates the accumulation of air
(air bound) at the top most point of the distributing piping. Air bound is a condition
in the pipe works that retards or prevents the circulation of hot water. There are
two methods to provide a relief vent in the system; 1 connects an uncirculated
riser to the highest point of the overhead distribution main. It is possible to relieve
the air lock from time to time by opening the fixture/ faucet that the riser serves.
2, by installing an air relief valve, which opens when the air accumulates and
automatically closes when the air is released. The relief valve is equipped with a
drain pipe that allows water to drip to an open fixture.
PUMP CIRCUIT SYSTEM
-The circulation of hot water to the plumbing fixture by means of mechanical
device, usually a centrifugal pump. The rotary motion of the impeller of the centrifugal
pump creates an even movement of hot water flow in the pipes which makes this pump
practical to use.
- this is used in buildings where it is impossible to produce a circulation of hot
water.

FEATURES OF THE PUMP CIRCUIT SYTEM

a. The pump is installed on the circulating return main as close to the heater as
possible.
b. The circulating return is connected to the inlet side of the pump and the outlet
side of the pump is connected into the return of the heater.
c. It is advisable to equip the pump with a by-pass, which is done by inserting tees
of the same diameter as the circulating return ahead of the valves. The tees are
connected and the line is equipped with a gate valve. Should the pump get out of
order, the control valves may be closed and the hot water will circulate around
the pump into the return pipe of the heater. This practice serves as a temporary
means of water circulation. When the by-pass is not in use, the valve with which
it is equipped must be closed. The valves on either side of the pump must be
open at all times when the pump is in operation.