CHAPTER ONE

COMMUNICATION AN OVERVIEW

The word ‘’communication’’ derived from the Latin word ‘’communicare’’ that means to impart,to participate,
to share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that individual
or organization share meaning and understanding with one another. In other words, it is a transmission and
interacting the facts, ideas, opinion, feeling and attitudes. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers
and beyond boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective
communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made globalization a reality. Communication had
a vital role to play in ensuring that people belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact
with and relate to people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group. Communication adds
meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It enriches our
knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.

1.1.Meaning of communication

There are various definitions and meaning interpreted by different scholars.

T.S. Matthews says that Communication is something so difficult that we can never put it in simple words. But
we do need a definition to understand the concept.

In his book Communication in Administrative, Peter Little defines communication as the process by which
information is transmitted between individuals and/ or organizations so that an understandable response results.

W.H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr. defines communication as, ‘’Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas,
opinions, or emotions by two or more persons’’.

Obviously, information is the key word in the first definition. But this definition does not indicate the objects
about which information is to be transmitted. This is precisely what is provided in the second definition.
Communication transmits information not only about tangible facts and determinable ideas and opinions but also
about emotions. When a communicator passes on or transmits some information, he may also, either intentionally
or unconsciously, be communicating his attitude or the frame of his mind. And sometimes the latter may be more
relevant to the reality that is being communicated.

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The following definition offered by William Scott in his book Organization Theory’ should appear comprehensive
and especially satisfying to the students of Administrative communication since it touches all aspects of the
communication process:

‘’Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas
ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.’’

The above definition emphasizes four important points:

1. The process of communication involves the communication of ideas.

2. The ideas should be accurately replicated (reproduced) in the receivers mind, i.e., the receiver should get
exactly the same ideas as were transmitted. If the process of communication is perfect, there will be no
dilution, exaggeration or distortion of the ideas.
3. The transmitter is assured of the accurate replication of the ideas by feedback, i.e., by the receivers
response which is communicated back to the transmitter. Here it is suggested that communication is a two-
way process including transmission of feedback.
4. The purpose of all communication is to elicit action.

It is quite comprehensive definition and covers almost all aspects of communication. But two comments can be
made on it:

1. The concept of ideas should be adequately enlarged to include emotions also.

2. Even in administrative communication the purpose may not always be to elicit action. Seeking information
or persuading others to a certain point of view can be equally important objectives of communication.

1.2.Importance and significance of Communication

1.2.1 Importance of communication

Communication is important particularly to the individual communicator and to the organization at

large.

I. Communication from the Individual Perspective

On individual basis, communication offers the following benefits toward meeting personal
responsibilities:

 Interpersonal role: It stimulates communication with others.

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 Informational role: It assists to gather essential inputs.

 Decisional role: It helps to participate in discussions that lead to problem solving.

 Technical role: It links the different functions of management through effective and efficientway.
 Conceptual role: It creates a vivid understanding of organizational functions andachievements.
II. Communication from the Organizational Perspective

From the organizational perspective, communication provides the next critical advantages of
business development:
 Spirit of understanding and cooperation becomes developed.

 It links the organization in different directions.

 It connects the organization with the external environment.

1.2.2 Significance of Communication

You will understand the significance of communication from the following points

 For Transfer of Ideas

To transfer ideas from one person to another, communication plays a vital role. Every human being has
some ideas that are unique to his own mind. Many of these ideas can be implemented in real life and
can turn into major creations too. But to make the transition from just a thought to an implementation,
it requires effectual communication. Hence, the idea should be communicated as a plan, drawing or
description so that it can be created further.
 For Interacting With Society

It is very important that we interact with our surroundings and people living in the surroundings.
Whenever we talk to someone, we, unknowingly or knowingly, react to his/her questions, actions or
comments. This is communication. While corresponding to someone in any way, we are actually
communicating. Healthy communication is essential for a healthy society.
 For Education

To educate someone, we need to communicate the ideas in the syllabus or the study material to thestudent.
Education involves a collection of all kinds of communication i.e., audio, video, books and lectures.
However, herein the deal is not just to communicate, but to communicate effectively. Inefficient
communication can lead to transfer of ambiguous knowledge.

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  To Update Oneself

In the modern world, nothing is more important than staying up-to-date. Only through proper channels
of communication can people be updated with current affairs and important events across the globe.
Communication is the actual transfer of information through various mediums in such a way that it caters
to the needs of people from different strata of life. News can actually stand for as a collection of
information from the 4 directions, i.e. North, East, West and South, that, in turn,is delivered to us through
various communication channels.

 For Entertainment

Entertainment, today, is mostly based on the channels of mass communication, like films and television.
Moreover, theatre and other arts also communicate certain ideas to its audience. Internet is another
common platform for entertainment, which again is a mode of communication. In short,we can safely
conclude that communication and entertainment are entwined in today’s world.
 To Understand the World

Unless we communicate with the world, we will never understand the way things function and how
things are piled up and related to one another. People are just a fragment amongst these things.Did you
know that other elements of the world also communicate to us, but in their own ways?

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We need to interact with the environment in order to understand life. People who do notcommunicate tend
to get isolated, which thereby leads to many problems.

1.3. Models of Communication

There are various models of communication. But for the purpose of this course we will discuss three models
namely linear, interactive and transactional models of communication.

1.3.1 Linear Model

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener
listens. Laswell9s (1948) model was based on the five questions below, which effectively describe how
communication works:

Figure 1.1: A linear model of communication

1.3.2. Interactive Model

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only
speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener
providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback
given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other.
Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, orin both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of
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 experience, or fields which overlap(please refer to Figure 1.2):

Figure 1.2: An interactive model of communication

In basic terms, humans communicate through a process of encoding and decoding. The encoder is the person who
develops and sends the message. The encoder must determine how the message will be received by the audience,
and make adjustments so the message is received the way they want it to be received.

Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. The encoder uses a ‘medium’ to send the message
— a phone call, email, text message, face-to-face meeting, or other communication tool. The level of conscious
thought that goes into encoding messages may vary. The encoder should also take into account any ‘noise’ that
might interfere with their message, such as other messages, distractions, or influences.

The audience then ‘decodes’, or interprets, the message for themselves. Decoding is the process of turning
communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to
send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message,
they decode your communication and turn it back into thoughts to make meaning.

1.3.3. Transactional Model

The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send
and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process
which changes over time. The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent.
Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and
receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
1. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are

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 changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually
changing as well.
2. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.There is this
interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source.
3. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior
experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure 1.3 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or interference in
communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens
within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal
systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators9
fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as
receiver simultaneously.

Figure 1.3: A transactional model of communication

1.4. Organization Communication Climate

Climate is the atmosphere of the organization. More specifically, climate is the atmosphere of supportiveness or
defensiveness that people feel within an organization. It is an integral part of culture.
 Do they feel safe? Protected? Appreciated? Are they confidant that their opinions count?
 Do they know that when they have something to say, they have a way to say it so that it will be heard, and that

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 people will listen and take their ideas or comments seriously?

The overall organizational climate also includes the organizations communication climate how free people feel
to communicate at work, especially about bad news or negative information. When people feel they cannot
communicate bad news for fear of reprisal, the organization loses valuable information about how it operates.

Information will flow much more freely in an organization where there is a positive communication climate, but
may not flow at all, especially when it is most needed, if there is a negative communication climate. A supportive
communication climate allows for a better exchange of information and a more positive work environment.

 An organizations climate can be equated to the weather. It is the atmosphere that people feel within the
organization itself. It is an integral part of organizational culture.
 More specifically, organizational climate is the atmosphere of supportiveness or defensiveness people feel
within the organization and the feelings they have about sendingand receiving messages.
To build a supportive communication climate you need to send messages that acknowledge effort,creativity, and
teamwork, engage people in the decision making process, establish trust, which is maintained through consistency,
congruity, reliability, and integrity. It is not enough to be a nice manager/leader and create a nice environment in
which to communicate and work. You must alsocommunicate a sense of challenge to your employees by placing
importance on high quality and establishing high performance goals.

1.5. Communication Audit

1.5.1. Meaning of communication audit
A communication audit is a comprehensive evaluation of an organizations ability to send, receive and share
information with various audiences within the organization (and as organizations become flatter to allow groups
within the organization to cooperate and share among themselves), as well at key constituencies outside, such as
customers and investors, in the case of publicly traded companies. This type of audit can be performed to evaluate
an organization's external or internal communication effectiveness.
An organization conducts a communication audit to evaluate how effectively and efficiently its communication
system is working. In the communication audit, an inventory of all the firms communication activities such as
group meetings, hiring and exit interviews, company publications, bulletin boards, and supervisor-subordinate
scheduled meetings is taken. These activities are then analyzed and appraised to determine whether or not the
firm’s communication policies are being followed.

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The purpose of a communication audit is to discover the strengths and weaknesses between management,
typically, and employees, customers and other groups such as investors, the news media, and regulators and
legislative bodies with the objective to improve future communications by developing a strategic plan, through a
series of recommendations, and to determine where gaps exists which need to be bridged.

A communications audit may be undertaken by corporate communications team or by outside consultants who
are retained by management to assess the company’s communications effectiveness in accordance with the
business objectives, compare the company vs. competitors, and identify target audience perceptions and
motivators. The resulting strategic positioning and corresponding communications plan is focused on achieving
strategic communications objectives whether they are to be achieving brand recognition, modify perceptions,
maximize sales, encourage community support or establish leadership. If an outside auditor is retained, the auditor
may include an evaluation of the corporate communications staff and the activities of the corporatecommunications
department with recommendations to management designed to streamline departmental communications and
inter-company communications effectiveness.

1.5.2. Factors that are appraised during an audit of communication system

 Operations of the centralized staff unit that has responsibility for controlling the communication system.
 Recognition and support of the communication system by to management.
 Procedures followed in solving problems related to the communication functions.
 Menses of introducing innovative communication media.
As part of the communication audit, the organization may use network analysis to study its formal and informal
communication networks. Network analysis is a communication research technique that is used to find out where
people go to get their needed information. In the network analysis, the informal communication patterns within
an organization are studied to learn how they compare with the relationship expected if the formal communication
network were used. As a result of such studies office manager are aided in evaluating the present formal network
and adopting new policies and procedures that will better satisfy the needs of all workers.

1.5.3. What are you communicating? Are your communications effective?

A Communications Audit will answer these questions. A Communications Audit is a systematic research method,
which will identify the strengths and weaknesses of your current internal and external communications. An
effective Communications Audit will identify:
 How past communications were handled.
 key audiences, what they currently know about your business, service, product ororganization, what they

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 need and want to know and how they prefer to be reached
 strengths and weakness in current communications programs
 Untapped opportunities for future communications.
A Communications Audit asks:
 What are our current goals and objectives for communications?
 How well is the current Communications Plan working?
 Are our messages clear and consistent? Do we have a coordinated graphic identity?
 Are we reaching key audiences with our messages and moving them to action?
 What communications have been most effective?
 What do customers think of our communications?
 Do our communications support our overall strategic plan for our business or organization?
 What would make our communications more effective in the future?
 What communications opportunities are we missing?

1.5.4. Steps for Conducting a Communications Audit

According to Katlin Smith, there are Ten Steps for Conducting a Communications Audit. You may either conduct
a self-assessment or hire a professional to perform the audit. These 10 steps will help you complete your
Communications Audit.
Step 1: Determine key areas to be audited: Look at both internal and external communications. Include
everything from your standard identity pieces (business cards, letterhead, logo and signage) to promotional
materials to news coverage received. Don’t forget to analyze your Web site and other online marketing materials.

Step 2: Choose your research methods: To conduct your audit, select among numerous research methods such
as one-on-one interviews, focus groups, online or telephone surveys and media analysis.
Step 3: Collect and evaluate your past communications: Spread all of last year’s communications
pieces internal and external on a conference room table. Ask:
 How did we inform the public about our business? What worked? What didn’t?
 Were our graphics coordinated and messages consistent?
 Who were our key audiences?
 What were our key messages?
 Did we reach our audiences with the right messages?
 What media coverage did we receive? Was it effective? What media opportunities did wemiss?
 Did we successfully tell our story in our communications?

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Take the time to analyze each communications piece. Create a written list of what worked, and what didn’t. Survey
a few trusted staff and clients. What did they appreciate and why? What didn’t work for them?
Step 4: Look outward: Query your customers: Choose neutral researchers to query your customers. Electronic
surveys, one-on-one interviews, telephone interviews or focus groups are a few techniques. Select a limited
number of questions to analyze your communications from your customer’s point of view. Ask: What are your
impressions of our communications? What do you think of our graphics, identity pieces, Web site and other
marketing materials? How could we improve our communications?
Remember the saying, “a complaint is a gift.” (This is the title of Janelle Barlow and Claus Mollers classic, highly
recommended book about responding to customer feedback.)

Step 5: Look outward: Query your community: What does the community know and perceive about your
organization? Take a broader look at the impact of your communications. Again, ask questions to reveal public
perceptions. This can be achieved by hiring a research firm or an objective person to conduct a formal community
survey or by informally interviewing community members.

Step 6: Look inward: Query your staff and volunteers: Don’t forget your internal audiences. Collect their
opinions about your communications. Ask: What are your reactions to communications during the past year?
What was effective? What wasn’t? What could be improved? Did internal documents serve your needs? What
future communications could help you function as part of the organization? You will need to determine if all
communications were understood by all internal audiences. And examine how your internal audiences present
your organization to the public. Do all employees have an accurate, consistent “elevator speech” about your
organization? Do you speak as one voice?
Step 7: Analyze your media coverage: Keep all your press coverage in a media binder. This caninclude television
and radio tapes and/or transcripts and Web coverage. As in Step 3, spread yourmedia coverage around a table.
Include articles and paid ads. Look at the frequency and reach of your coverage. What is the tone and impact? Are
your key messages being promoted? Are your audiences being reached? What media opportunities have you
missed? To oversee coverage, contract with a news monitoring service or use Googles free Media Alerts to track
your coverage inthe press, blogs and Web sites.
Step 8: Conduct a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis: Pull your data together
from the previous steps. Do a SWOT analysis of your communications using a simplechart:

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 STRENGTH WEAKNESS Internal factors (issues)

OPPORTUNITY THREAT External factors(issues)

Analyze how you can capitalize on strengths, stop weaknesses, maximize opportunities and defend against threats.

Step 9: Think like a communications consultant: Based on your findings, what would you recommend to
yourself for future communications? Select a team to help you analyze your audit results and strategize about
future actions.
Step 10: Put together a plan for future communications: Use your research as the starting pointfor creating a
Communications Plan for your organization. Either create the plan internally, or hirea professional to design and
implement your plan.

CHAPTER TWO

2. ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Introduction
The transmission of senders ideas to the receiver and the receivers feedback or reaction to the sender constitute
the communication cycle. The process of communication begins when one person (the sender) wants to transmit
a fact, idea, opinion or other information to someone else (the receiver). This facts, idea or opinion has meaning
to the sender. The next step is translating orconverting the message into a language which reflects the idea.
That is the message must be encoded. The encoding process is influenced by content of the message, the
familiarity of senderand receiver and other situation of factors.

After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium.Common channel
in organization includes meetings, reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail, fax and telephone calls. When the
message is received, it is decoded, by the receiver and gives feedback to the sender as the conformation about the
particular message has been carefully understand or not
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2.1.The Process of Communication
Communication process is the transmission of the senders’ ideas to the receiver and the receivers’ feedback or
reactions to the sender constitute the communication process. The process of communication involves the
following elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as sender. Sender
initiates the message and changes the behavior of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact, idea, opinion or
information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if communication is to takeplace.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organizes his idea into series of symbols(words, signs,
etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers.
4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the information.
Communication channel is the media through which the message passes. It isthe link that connects the
sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is the personto whom the
particular message is sent by the transmitter. The communication process is incomplete without the
existence of receiver of the message. It is a receiver who receives and tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the understandable
meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from the message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process. For the exchange to be complete the information must
go back to whom from where it started (or sender), so that he can know the reaction of the receiver. The
reaction or response of the receiver is known as feedback.
8. Brain drain: On whole process there is a possibility of misunderstandings at any level andis called brain
drain. It may arise on sender side if they do not choose the adequate mediumfor delivery of message, by
using default channel and it may also arise when receiver doesnot properly decode the message. In other
words, we can say that it is breakdown of cycleat any level.

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 Fig. 2.1.: The Communication Process

2.2. BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

2.2.1. Meaning of Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to communication simply refer to the natural as well as man-made factors that hinder the process of
effective communication. The barriers can be divided into four main parts, and they can be controlled by using
appropriate mechanisms of overcoming them.

2.2.2. Types of Communication Barriers

A. Physical (External or Mechanical) Barriers

 Defects in the channel: These are the barriers beyond control of the parties engaged in communication; for
example, breakdown in the system of telephones, postal system, telegraph, and noise of other transferring
machines, etc.
 Defects in the organization and communication systems: especially if the message has to pass through
many chains of command there will be loss of information because of the editing and judgment included in
between, information overload, inappropriate time of communication, distance between sender and receiver,
etc.

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The following are also some examples of this type of communication barriers.

 Noise: In factories, oral communication is rendered difficult by the loud noise of machines. The word noise is
also used to refer to all kind of physical interference like illegible hand writing, bad photo-copies etc.
 Electronic noise interferes in communication by telephone or loud speaker system.
 Time and distance;
 Congestion in telephone and network facilities;
 People working in different shifts;
 Faulty seating arrangement in a hall

B. Semantic Barriers
These barriers refer to language problems. It is not only using different languages but also interpretation of
words, use of technical jargon, difference in language etc.

1. Interpretation of words: A person interprets the same word in a different meaning and this causes barrier
between communicators. Murphy and Peck in their book Effective Business Communication mentioned, the little
word “run” has71 meanings as a verb 35 as noun 4 more as an adjective.

2. Bypassed instructions: Bypassing is said to have occurred if the sender and the receiver of themessage attribute
different meanings to the same word or use different words for the same meaning.For example, look at the following
sentence. “Take it to be our stockroom and burn it”. In officiallanguage to burn means to make more copies of the
same document.

3. Denotations and Connotations: Words have two types of meaning, denotative and connotative. While
meaning is the literal meaning of a word connotative meaning allows qualitative judgments and personal reactions.
Denotation must inform and names objects without indicating any positive or negative.

Example: He gave us cheap material.

“At this shop, they sell things cheap.”

In this example, the first one is favorable connotation and the second is unfavorable.To avoid semantic problems,
the following tips can be used.

• Prefer words which are familiar to the receiver.

• Make meanings clear the very first time you use it if words are unfamiliar to the receiver.
• Choose words with positive rather than negative connotation.

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C. Difference in Perception
There could be different reasons for this.
1. Abstracting: is a process of focusing attention on some details and omitting others. It’s caused by
considering that information sometimes is not important.
2. Inference: It’s a statement that goes beyond fact people infer based on their perception and experience.
It is conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
3. Hasty generalization (Slanting): Selecting few aspects of reality and making them representative of
the whole. It depends on our attitude.
4. Difference in age: People have different ages. Their perceptions and experiences differaccordingly.
5. Faulty representation of facts: It is the presentation of facts in faulty ways that causeconfusion
and misunderstanding in communication.
D. Socio-Psychological Barriers

Some examples of this kind are listed below.

1. Source credibility: It refers to the trust, confidence, and faith that receivers have in the words and
actions of the sender.
2. Value judgment: it means assigning an overall worth/value to a message prior to receiving the entire
message due to past experience with the sender and anticipated meaning of the message.
3. Status consciousness (Status black): The title the sender has and the kind of privilege and office he has could
affect communication. This is a major problem in upward communication.A superior may develop the attitude
that he knows everything. He may not be willing to listen to any ideas, how much bright, given from his
subordinates. And at the same time, subordinates may feel frightened or shy to tell their ideas to their bosses.
4. Poor communication skills: Lack of skill in writing and speaking obviously prevents the sender from
encoding his ideas properly so as to get across to his audience. And faulty skills of reading and listening in
the case of the receiver may create some communication problems.
5. Closed mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests cause a person’s mind to
be narrow. This limits his understanding of human nature and makes him incapable of receiving
communication with sympathy.
6. State of health: If one’s health is not at its best, its best is not to engage in communication tasks. The person
may not have enough energy to follow what’s going on and his perception may be reduced.
7. Self-image: We don’t tend to accept anything which goes against our self-image that we’ve cultivated over
the years. For instance, the accountant who thinks of himself as an efficient worker may find it difficult to
accept his inefficiency when his superiors want to help him.

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 8. Emotionality: if people are emotional, they tend to be irrational. We most try to suppress our emotions.
Emotional reaction like anger, love, defensiveness, hate, fear, etc can influence how we understand others’
messages, and how others perceive our own messages.
9. Self-centered attitudes: We tend to hear or see everything in light to floor opinions. And we agree with those
ideas that agree with ours while disagreeing with those that don’t go with ours.
10. Filtering: It refers to the manipulation of information so that the receiver perceives the information as positive.
It is an attempt to filter out negative information and pass the negativeone.
11. Group identification: We tend to identify with a group. And thus whatever idea which worksagainst our group
may be rejected although we may understand the reason behind it; for example a strike may be understood
as harmful to the government and country; however, the worker will go with it so as to identify with the group.
12. Inconsistent verbal and non-verbal communication: When what we say doesn’t correspondwith the body
language we use people would get confused about the message we want to transfer.

2.3. Overcoming Communication Barriers

The responsibility for overcoming barriers to communication and ensuring the success of every communication
activity falls upon the management or the more senior, the better-trained person. The higher the position of a
manager, the greater is his need for effective communication. He has to cultivate all the four communication skills
and also know the non-verbal communication methods.

The external barriers of defective channels and faulty organizational systems are entirely the management’s
responsibility within the organization. The internal channels must be kept in good working condition, i.e. the
intercoms, notice boards, information meetings must be kept up-to- date. Many companies, which can afford it,
maintain sound proof rooms for meetings and also take steps to reduce the noise levels in the offices.

Intercom: A communication system linking different rooms within building or a ship.

The semantic barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of language, and by using words which
have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences, and also by using visual and whenever possible. Barriers
can develop unexpectedly since emotions play a large part in communication. It is not easy to overcome all
barriers; everyone has to do his best to be aware of them and take care to avoid them.

The personal barriers (Difference in perception and Socio-psychological) can be overcome only by making a
conscious effort to learn better methods, and by training for better communication. Persons in responsible positions
are expected to improve their communication skills and overcome their particular blocks. Many companies
organize training sessions for their stuff for better communication skills.

2.4.Principles of Communication

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To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles. The basic
communication principles known as seven C’s of communication provide guidelines for choosing content and
style of presentation. The seven C’s are as follows:

 Completeness

Your message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction you desire. It is
necessary for bringing the desired results without the expense of additional message. As you strive for
completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:

 Answer all queries

 Give something extra, when desirable

 Check the five W’s and any other essentials. The five W’s are- who, what, where, when, why and any
other essentials like how.

 Conciseness
A concise message saves time and cost for both sender and receiver. Conciseness means saying what you have
to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other C qualities. To achieve conciseness try to
observe the following suggestions:
 Eliminate wordy expressions (it is the act of using more words than necessary to express thought.)

 Include only relevant statement

 Avoid unnecessary repetition

 Consideration
It means that you prepare every message the recipient in mind and try to put yourself in his or herplace. So, try to
visualize you readers with their desires, problems, emotions, and probable reactions and then handle the matter
from point of view. In the following four ways it indicates that you are considerate:

 Focus on “You” instead of “I” or “We”

 Show readers interest/benefit

 Emphasize on positive and pleasant facts

 Apply integrity and ethics

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  Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, vivid rather than vague and general. So,good concrete
writing and speaking include specific facts and figures with relevant examples. The following guidelines should
help to compose concrete and convincing messages.
 Use specific facts and figures

 Put action in your verbs

 Choose vivid and image building words

 Clarity
It means getting your messages across so that receiver understands what you are trying to convey.So make your
message clear by using words that are familiar to your receiver. Here are some specific ways to help make your
message clear:

 Choose short, familiar and conversational words

 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs

 Have an average sentence length around 15 to 20 words and average paragraph length offour to five
lines in the case of letters and 8 to 9 lines in reports
 Achieve appropriate readability and listenability

 Include examples, illustrations and other visual aids when desire

 Courtesy
Courteous sentences/messages help to strengthen present business friendship as well as new friends. Courtesy
stems from sincere “your attitude” It is not merely politeness with insertions of “pleases” and “thank you”. To
be courteous, considerate communicators should follow thesesuggestions regarding the tone of communications.

 Be sincere, thoughtful, and appreciative

 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle the reader

 Answer mails as promptly as possible

 Correctness

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Correctness means that the message you are going to send is grammatically correct and considerate(appreciative).
Similarly the message should not certain any insulating statement which may look the potential customer(s).
Therefore to write a correct message bears in mind the following guidelines:

 The message is grammatically correct

 The information is considerate and appreciative

 The message is bias less and impartial
 Proper punctuation and capitalization.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are different types of communication depending on the nature and purpose of the message need to be
communicated, the characteristics of the receiver, the nature of channel, etc. this shows that we have different basis
to classify communication.

The basis and types of communication presented as follows.

1. On the basis of media used(verbal -- oral and written and non -verbal) communication
2. From organization point of view (external and internal-formal and informal) communication
3. On the basis of human aspect( intra personal and interpersonal ) communication
4. On the basis of direction of flow of communication( vertical, horizontal and diagonal)
communication
5. Other types of communication (mass communication, audio visual and digital)communication. The
following chart presents the partial classification of communication.

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3.1.Verbal and non-verbal communication
On the basis of media used (how information transmitted), communication can be classified as verbal and non-
verbal communication.

A. Verbal communication
Verbal communication includes any oral or written means of transmitting meaning through words.It can be
further divided as oral and written communication.

1. Oral communication: Oral communication is communication where the message or information exchanged
by spoken words. It can be done by both faces to-face (including meeting of people, speech, interview,
conferences, and seminars) and mechanical devices(over telephone, on the radio etc.). When communicating
orally, language choice plays a vital role. So the language chosen must be clear, energetic and vivid (unique).

Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication

Oral communication involves many advantages. In recent survey research about communication it is clear that
more than 55% of the executives choose this communication. In spite of its advantages, oral communication has
its own disadvantages. The advantages and disadvantages of oral communication are given in the table below:

Advantage and disadvantages of oral communication

S.No. Advantages Disadvantages
1. Save time and cost Expensive if it uses technological devices
2. More powerful to pursue and control others No record not used for future reference
3. More effective Possibility of distortion of the message
4. Fast flow of message & Immediate Inaccuracy of message
feedback
5. Most preferable and considered more Limited in scope to use-it does not used to
suitable among employees. lengthy message
6. It promote friendly relationship between Probability of omitting main subject
executives and subordinates
7. Very flexible Confused speech that leads misunderstanding

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 8. Very easy No legal validity and less important
9. Correction of errors Late decision

2. Written communication
This communication involves written languages (words). Such communication makes possible to get precisely
the same information to many people and provides references for future time period. Effective written
communication is one of the most important factor contributing to a successful organization or institution. To be
effective it should be understandable (clear), concise, brief, truthful (correct) and comprehensive (complete).

Examples of written communications

are:

 Letters,
 Memo,
 Notice,
 Circular,
 a report,
 Minutes and Others.

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Advantages and disadvantages of written communication

S.No Advantages Disadvantages

1. Easy to preserve for long time Comparatively expensive
2. Easy to presentation of complex matters Time consuming
3. Permanent record and used as future Red-Taoism(take time for approval)
reference
4. Accurate presentation possible Useless for illiterate person
5. Help to delegate authority to subordinates Lack of flexibility
6. Used to maintain and protect image of Delay in response and decision making (slow
person and the organization feedback)
7. Proper and complete communication is Difficult and expensive to keep all the
possible records
8. Less possibility of distortion of message and Possibility of use of complex words
misunderstanding
9. Used to control organizational activities Lack of direct relation ship
10 Verified easily Bureaucratic attitude
11 Used as legal document Understanding problems between boos and
subordinates
12 More reliable and acceptable Lack in quick clarification and correction

13 Reduction of risk and create confidence Formality problem

14 Easily circulated, wide access and coverage Lack of personal intimacy etc.

Difference between oral and written communication

Although the main objective of both oral and written communication is to transmit message, there
are points which differentiate them many differences. Their difference is present below:

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Basis Written communication Oral communication
Record It always has permanent record and possible It does not have any
to preserve information and use it in future permanent record and not
used for future.
Cost High cost Less costly
Feedback Not immediate Immediate
Flexibility Rigid or inflexible Highly flexible
Time taken It takes much time to prepare and transmit Takes less time to prepare
message and transmit message
Reliability Most reliable Not reliable
Legality Is legal document and evidence Is not legal evidence
Distortion No possibility of distortion High possibility of distortion
Effectiveness Not effective as oral Most effective
communication
Significance Most significant in all types of Less significant in all
organizational context organizational context
Relationship Create indirect relationship between parties Create direct relationship
between parties
Formality It maintain formal communication Maintains informal
relationship form communication relationship
form
Emotion Not affected by emotion Affected by emotion

Need of education Parties must be educated Education not a matter

Media Are written in nature such as letters, memo, Its media are oral in nature
etc. such as telephone, face to-
face communication etc.
Delegation Possible and suitable Impossible and not suitable

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Delegation: Delegating involves not only delivering the task to your team but also monitoring the
progress of their work. During this process, effective communication needs to occur as it is vital
to successfully accomplishing the task and ultimately the project. Delegation refers to the transfer
of responsibility for specific tasks from one person to another. From a management perspective,
delegation occurs when a manager assigns specific tasks to their employees.

B. Non-verbal communication
Everything that you see, touch, smell, or hear that is not structured into a formal verbal message
is considered as non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication means all communication
that involves neither written nor spoken words but it occurs without the use of words. It is
communication through a channel that does not use words. In other words, non-verbal
communication consist any information not spoken or written that is perceived by one’s sense.

Types of Non-verbal communication

The field of non-verbal communication is quite inclusive. But we can divide it into the following
ways:

1. Kinesics(body language)

2. Proxemics(personal space language)

3. Time language

4. Paralanguage

5. Tactile communication

6. Physical environment

1. Kinesics (body language): Kinesics is the study of the body’s physical movements. It is the
way the body communicates without words, that is, through various movements of its parts.
For example, by nodding your head, blinking your eyes, shrugging your shoulders, waving
your hands, and making other such physical movements, you send message to others.

When we study body language, we are looking at symbols of meaning that the body’s physical
movements are communicating. We are searching for inner state of emotion, attitudes, perceived
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status, relationships, moods, deception, warmth, needs for interaction, and the like as a body
symbols and activities express them. The bodies parts people mostly used as a symbol for body
language are the following:

i. Face and eyes: we look to the face and eyes when we want to determine much of the
meaning behind body language and non-verbal communication. Our face tells us whatis
going on inside us. For example, consider that facial expressions you associate with
happiness, fear, anger, and sadness. Within the facial area, the eyes tell us much morethan
other facial features. Eyes tell us the most. When the eye features are put together with other
facial parts we infer about the person’s inner going on. Eye contact and movements are
also meaningful. They show the intensity.
ii. Gesture: gestures are physical movements of our arms, legs, hands, trunk and head.
Gestures tell us something about people’s internal emotional states. Gestures are made
relationally (they are used not individually but in relation to another person). Gestures are
usually linked with speaking. But here the nature of the linkage is not exactly known.
However, the intensity of speech appears to be directly associated with the sizeof a gesture:
“the greater the gesture, the louder the speech” and vice versa. So we appear to continually
attempt to coordinate our speaking with our gesture. Because speech and gesture are both
learned. We also learn how to coordinate them. When the two are uncoordinated we
experience discomfort and confusion.
iii. Body shape and posture: body shape and posture affect how we think about ourselves,how
we relate to others and how others relate to us. When you encounter an unfavorable situation,
you become more aware of body shape and posture. But posture is a part of any
relationship, regardless of your degree of awareness. So that whether you learn forward or
backward, stand or erectly, or slouch haphazardly, you tell another person something; and
the other’s mental filter gives meaning to your posture.
iv. Appearance: this includes clothing, hair styles, and adornments/decorations such as
jewelry, cosmetics, and the like. Our own appearance and other’s appearance tell us much
about how we can (and they) want to be seen by other people. Just like other body features,
appearance is an inevitable part of the meaning derived from our body’s movements.
Therefore, you should expect appearances to be a part of the message you communicate,
and you should consider how others will view you in relation to how you want to be seen

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 and hence you should plan and adapt your appearance to the specialfeatures of the situation
so that it will effectively communicate to others.
2. Proxemics (personal space language)
It involves how we arrange personal space and what we arrange in it. The space around you and
its contents communicate. They create meaning in your mind and in others mind. Thus proxy is
“personal space language” just as kinesics is body language. The four types of space are the
following.

i. Intimate distance (0 – 1½ foot): such space allowed to special persons. For example love
relationships and when we feel free to touch a person. Others may enter this space occasionally
but only under special circumstances for instance in Greeting with handshake.
ii. Personal distance (1½ - 4 feet): this space used in friendly conversation for example to
colleagues and close friends. This space is personal in nature but it is a relaxed and casual place
must of the time and permits un-programmed communication.
iii. Social distance (4 – 12 feet): this space is used more formally for example, for business
transaction. It is conducted less emotionally and care.
iv. Public distance (12 – 25 feet): this space used up to the communicator can see and hear.

Personal space also differs for each individual based on cultures. Researchers identified two types
of spaces.

1. Fixed space: in this space, the surrounding’s physical features are permanent walls, room sizes,
total building capacity, and the like. Such permanent structure affects who interact with whom
and for how long. They also determine how you may perceive and structure your informal
space.
2. Semi-fixed space: in such space, the environments physical features are partially changeable.
For example furnishing can be rearranged for different effects. Such arrangements permit a
very Varity of spaces in which to conduct communication activities

3. Paralanguage
Para means “like” thus paralanguage literally means “like language”. It involves those hints and
signals in a person’s voice that give us meaning.

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Paralanguage is the way we say something. It includes such characteristics as rate (speed of
speaking), pitch (highness or lowness of tone), volume (loudness) and quality (pleasant or
unpleasant sound).

It involves the “how=”of a speaker’s voice rather than the “what” of the words.

Paralanguage examines;
1. The sounds of some one’s speech (fast or slow rate, smooth or disjointed or highness or
lowness of pitch or tone, loud and forceful or hardly audible volume, quality i.e. pleasant
or unpleasant sound).
2. Pause and insertions: it includes such things as “Oh”, “Uh”, “you know” and the like
since these signal have meanings to us too.

N.B. as a sender, you should particularly avoid sending “mixed signals” saying one thing in one
way and using words that intend the opposite. As far as possible, you should make the “WHAT”
and the “How” of your message blend. As a receiver, you should concentrate on both how the
message is sent and the meaning of the words. Look for the consistency and inconsistency.

4. Time language
Time language involves the meaning we give to time, that is, how we communicate to others what
time means to us. In order to give meaning to time, we must perceive it, filter it, and symbolize
about it. But our final symbolizing about time is not always done with words. Early managers
equated time and money. Time and motion study, time management, and such shows we have
meaning and value to for time. Similarly most cultures tells us meaning for time. In some cultures
being on time is a virtue/asset. Thus, how we use our time in our personal and professional
schedules reflects how our culture has thought us to perceive time.

For example, when someone is late, we react negatively and if he/she arrives early, we see him/her
as eager or aggressive. Agendas used at meetings are designed to keep us on time.

In general we can say that we can communicate our ideas about time with our non-verbal behaviors,
both personally and professionally.

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5. Physical context
It refers to how color, lighting, odor, and layout/design communicate.

 Colors: different colors are associated with different mood and behaviors. They have an
impact on our behaviors. Thus we have a color language. For example, black and gray colors
convey negative feelings. But blue and yellow, colors convey positive feelings. So give
attention to color of clothing, office, house, etc. to create a desired effect.
 Lighting: Different light magnitudes have implications.
 Odor: Bad smell could destruct communication.
 Layout and design: the space arrangement of an office, the presence or absence of carpeting,
the layout of desk and chairs and office size all tells someone something about us. The layout
and design of our surroundings communicate about us to others. Perhaps it conveys our status
in a group or perhaps our needs for formality.

6. Tactile communication
Tactile communication is communication by touch. It is the earliest and most elementary modeof
communication of the human organism. Tactual sensitivity is the most primitive sensory process
in lower organisms. Tactile communication is of special significance to human beings.It is the first
form of communication experienced by the infant, and it is known that the early tactile experiences
are crucial in the later development of symbolic recognition and response.

Parental care and love through infancy and childhood are largely matters of tactile communication,
tactual contacts that comfort, reassure, express acceptance, give encouragement, and build
confidence in the child.

For adults, tactile communication is a potent form of non-verbal communication. It has at leastfour
characteristics:

 Tactile communication is ordinarily limited to two persons;

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  Tactile experience is immediate and transitory, operating only as long as contact is
maintained;
 It is reciprocal in the sense that who or what a person touches also touches him; and
 It takes place on the level of signal (direct stimulation through the sense of touch) ratherthan
through symbolic mediation. Silence: can be used to communicate. It is not unusual that
what is not said is as important as or more important than what is said. Silence can have
messages such as disagreement, violation, snoring, etc.

3.3.Visual and audio-visual communication

A. Visual communication
Visual communication is the communication that involves the use of visual elements, such as
drawings, illustrations, electronic images, to convey ideas and information to an audience (i.e. to
communicate and understand the world around us). It is the type of communication through a
visual aid and described as the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or
looked upon. Visual communication partly or whole relies on vision and is primarily presented or
expressed with two dimensions. They are;

1. Images include signs, drawings, graphic design, illustration, pictures, charts, tables, animation
color and electronic resources.
2. Words: visual message accompanying text (words) has a greater power to inform, educate,or
persuade others.

Advantages and disadvantages of visual communication (VC).

Advantages

 Visual communication used to maintain the attention of the audience.

 It helps to remember the information by the receivers.
 It used to attract customers.
 It makes communication interesting, more dynamic and effective if we use them right.

Disadvantages

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  VC involves the use of poorly designed visual aids that are difficult to understand and see.
 If irrelevant information is presented, images can also be distracting and impede the
understanding of the concepts they should be trying to clarify.
B. Audio-visual communication

Audio-visual communication is a type of communication that involves both hearing (sound) and
sight (vision). Audio-visual communication helps to understand audience easily, is clear, speedy.
In addition such communications increases message retention. Research findings shows that if
message transferred orally has 10% retention, 35% retention if communicated visually and if both
audio and video are used the retention can be up to 65%. Moreover, audio-visual communication
allows using multi Medias such as MP3, images, slideshows, online social media etc.

CHAPTER FOUR

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

4.1.Meaning and definitions of development communication

There is no single and universally accepted definition for the phrase development communication.
This is because different individual writers define it differently based on their own point of view.
Here bellow we can get some definitions of development communication given by different
bodies.

Development Communication is the study of social change brought about by the application of
communication research, theory, and technologies to bring about development is a widely
participatory process of social change in a society, intended to bring about both social and material
advancement, including greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities for the majority of
people through their gaining greater control over their environment (Everett Rogers, 1976).

Communication for development is a social process, designed to seek a common understanding

among all the participants of a development initiative, creating a basis for concerted action (UN
FAO, 1984).

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The planned use of communication techniques, activities and media gives people powerful tools
both to experience change and actually to guide it. An intensified exchange of ideas among all
sectors of society can lead to the greater involvement of people in a common cause. This is a
fundamental requirement for appropriate and sustainable development (Colin Fraser and
Jonathan Villet, 1994).

There has been no sustainable, effective social development in which the principles of leadership
from within the peoples most affected; a strong and independent voice in public debate, private
dialogue and decision making for a by people most affected; and the people most immediately
involved defining and agreeing the development agenda, have not been core, central components
of the action (Warren Feek, Communication Initiative, 2006).

Development communication is a process of public and private dialogue through which people
themselves define who they are, what they need and how to get what they need in order to improve
their own lives. It utilizes dialogue that leads to collective problem identification, decision making
and community-based implementation of solutions todevelopment issues. (CFSC, 2006).

Development communication involves creating mechanisms to broaden public access to

information on reforms; strengthening client’s ability to listen to their constituencies and negotiate
with stakeholders; empowering grassroots organizations to achieve a moreparticipatory process;
and undertaking communication activities that are grounded in research. (World Bank, 2006).

4.2.The objectives of development communication

Development communication rests on the premise that successful rural development calls for the
conscious and active participation of the intended beneficiaries at every stage of the development
process; for in the final analysis, rural development cannot take place without changes in attitudes
and behavior among the people concerned.

To this end, Development Communication is the planned and systematic use of communication
through interpersonal channels, and audio-visual and mass media:

 To collect and exchange information among all those concerned in planning a development
initiative, with the aim of reaching a consensus on the development problems being faced and
the options for their solution.

33
 To mobilize people for development action and to assist in solving problems and
misunderstandings that may arise during project implementation.
 To enhance the pedagogical and communication skills of development agents (at all levels)so
that they may dialogue more effectively with their audiences.
 To apply communication technology to training and extension programs, particularly at the
grassroots level, in order to improve their quality and impact.

4.3.Overall consideration in planning of development communication

While we are making our development communication planning, we need to take into account the
following considerations.

a. Successful development communication calls for a well-defined strategy, systematic

planning, and rigorous management.
b. Experience has shown all too clearly that ad hoc communication inputs such as the
provision of some audio-visual equipment, or the stand-alone production of some audio-
visual or printed material has seldom made any measurable impact.
c. It has also become clear that communication activities require a certain critical mass of
resources, intensity, and duration if they are to realize their full potential in mobilizing
people for development action and become self-sustaining in this role. This explains the
minimal results when symbolic attention has been paid to development communication by
including of some token equipment and expertise in the project.
d. A communication plan should be tailored to the particular conditions being faced. There
are so many variables of a human, cultural and physical nature that a communication plan
that worked for irrigation development in an arid zone of one country cannot effectively
be transferred into another country. For even if the principles remain the same, the details
will almost certainly call for differences.

4.4.A Brief History of Development Communication

Since World War II, there have been three theoretical approaches dominating the development
context and, consequently, the field of development communication:

1. The modernization paradigm, also referred to as the dominant paradigm;

34
 2. The dependency theory, and recently,

3. The participatory paradigm, referred to by a number of different terms.

I). DOMINANT PARADIGM

This perspective emerged from the concept of development to be “modernization.” Evolved after
the World War II, the central idea of this paradigm was to solve development problems by
"modernizing" underdeveloped countries. This thought was part of the dominant culture or we can
say the majority at least believed this (capitalism and embracing modernity) to be answer to
development issues. This approach advised the society, how to be effective in following the
behavior of the rich and influential or we can say pattern of the capitalist driven western
economies. Development was equated with economic growth. The modernization approach is to
promote and support capitalist economic development. In an extent the followers of this paradigm
believe that the Western model of economic growth is universally applicable and persuaded people
to adopt the modern technology (Melkote & Leslie, 2015). Paulo Freire (2008) defined four major
levels of dominant paradigm:
Paulo Freire (2008) defined four major levels of dominant paradigm:

♦ Cultural level,

♦ Technocratic level,

♦ Political level,

♦ Economic level.

Modernization promoted to change the mindset of individuals under developed countries and
advised to abandon traditional beliefs to embrace innovation and modernity at the cultural level.
(Lerner 1958). At the technocratic level, modernization proposed to rely on scientific method,
whereas political freedom and the adoption of democratic systems need to be followed at the
political level. And at the economic level, virtues and power of the free market is blindly followed,
with no or minimal government intervention (Freire, 2008). In 1950s and 1960s, the main aim of
modernization was to measure economic growth as development.

35
Here the conception of development is a linear one based on trust in science, reason, technology,
and the free market (Freire, 2008). This perspective is criticized for overtly focusing on the
economic aspect and ignoring the broader aspect of socio-cultural impact. Further, this paradigm
is believed to be culturally insensitive, theoretically flawed, and methodologically inadequate
(Servaes, 1991). Communication was associated with the dissemination of information and
messages aimed at modernizing the “backward or under – developed or developing” countries and
their people.

Media seemed to be the loadstar (as a model) as it provided with communication initiatives that is
largely dependent on the traditional vertical or one-way model: Sender-Message-Channel-
Receiver (SMCR). “Communication was expected to help modernize people’s attitudes and ways
of thinking, which would be conducive to support of the economic model” (Melkote and Stevens
2001). Communication in the dominant paradigm is linked with the linear mass media model
aimed at transmitting information and messages in a vertical or top-down fashion, believed in the
persuasive power of media, till 1970s (Freire,2008).

Lasswell’s (1948) linear communication model reflected the use of communication to persuade
audiences to change behaviors.

The failure of modernization caused the re-analysis of the theoretical models of communication,
such as “the hypodermic needle theory” or “the bullet theory,” which overemphasized the power
of media over people. It is evident that media alone cannot change people’s mind-set and behavior
and moreover audiences are not as passive either (Freire, 2008). The new perspectives in
development communication began between 1970 and 1980 subsequently, an alternate way of
thinking about development emerged.

II) THE OPPOSING PARADIGM (DEPENDENCY):

In the 1970s political-economic aspect of development was considered a better alternative for
“modernization” and after strong opposition against the modernization paradigm, emergence of an
alternative theoretical model set afloat, based on the dependency theory. This school of thought
criticizes some of the core assumptions of the modernization paradigm, such as neglecting social,
historical, and economic factors. It accuses the dominant paradigm of being very Western-centric,
overlooking any alternative route to development.

36
The dependency theorists emphasized the importance of the link between communication and
culture. According to A.G. Frank (1969), development and underdevelopment are the two faces of
the same coin, shaped by specific historical, economic, and political factors. He developed this
view based on a structural analysis of the international capitalist system (Freire, 2008).

This alternate thinking of development challenged the dominate pattern of modernization and
argued for political and economic restructuring for an equal distribution in society (Freire, 2008;
Melkote & Leslie, 2015).

To address the imbalances in the world’s state of affairs, dependency theory proposed developing
countries to work on two levels. National level they need to be economically self-reliant and less
dependent on foreign imports. Internationally, they should form alliances among themselves to
create a stronger political presence (Freire, 2008).

It demanded a more balanced and equitable exchange of communication, information, and cultural
programs, among rich and poor countries. The main idea was to stimulate growth of domestic
industrialization (McMichael 1996). But it was unable to deliver an appropriate method/s to
address development challenges.

Critics accused this model of becoming too economically focused and not considering social and
cultural factors, like dominance theory. And the focus of communication is not prominent in this
paradigm.

Media and flow of information played a minor role internationally. With all differences between
modernization and dependency theories, their communication model was same: a one-way
communication flow, with the main difference between the two theories being who was controlling
and sending the message and for what purpose.

The supporters of this theory debated for re-analysing the communication agenda in lines of a
balanced communication flow internationally. They suggested to ponder the various component
of communication within countries and to entrust on the private media and community media
(Freire, 2008). Although the dependency theory had gained a significant impact during the 1970s,
yet it started to lose relevance around 1980s.

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III) THE EMERGING PARADIGM (PARTICIPATION):
This participatory model is less oriented towards political-economic dimension and more rooted
in cultural realities of development focusing on peoples’ participation. Slowly there was a shift
from economic aspect towards social aspects. This development was considered positive for the
long run.
“Participation” is recognized as an important part of sustainable development strategies. The
refusal of the above two paradigms, only put forth this new emerging paradigm, advocating for
not just people’s participation but also for empowerment.

According to Melkote (2015), the emerging perspective is referred as liberation or monastic, a

third area of thinking which practices development and social change. Paolo Freire (1973) is the
most distinguished scholar advocated development as liberation, derived from liberation theology
(Melkote, 2015). A few more theories surfaced in the lines of participatory and people-based
development like, multiplicity paradigm (Servaes 1991), the empowerment approach (Friedmann
1992).

Common features of this perspective are the emphasis on people, the endogenous vision of
development, and the attention to power and rights issues at grass root level (Freire, 2008).
“Participatory” paradigm emphasized upon two-way communication principles and practices.

Development communication has increasingly moved toward a horizontal, “two-way” model,

which favors peoples’ active and direct interaction through consultation and dialogue with the help
of traditional form (one-way information dissemination) of mass media. It also assesses risks,
identifies solutions, and seeks consensus for action. These qualities are seen as a key to the success
and sustainable development efforts.

This paradigm is changing the way communication is conceived and applied. It shifts the emphasis
from information dissemination to situation analysis, from persuasion to participation.

Though media is no longer the central element, just a means of communication yet this paradigm
is broadening its scope, maintaining the key functions of informing people and promoting change,
still maintaining the importance of using communication to involve stakeholders in the process of
development.

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39
Characteristics of top to down approach (Participation (bottom-up-two way)
1. Focus on beneficiaries: instead of starting with an innovation or a behavior or an
organization’s priorities, increasingly communication interventions are emphasizing the
individual or family or community as the center of the development process. Participatory
development communication considered as “people-centered” as compared to agency or
ministry-centered approaches.
2. Consideration of various stakeholders: in addition to focusing on those who are expected to
be the primary targets for change-inducing communication, others are considered as targets
because of their influence and their control over essential resources. These range frompolitical
and opinion leaders to clinic staffs and those in outreach systems such as the mass media and
extension. Even those initiating a program/project may also be considered as stakeholders.
Hence the concept of advocacy reflects the importance of looking beyond mass-oriented
strategies.
3. Participation: the ideas of “targeting” and “receivers” are modified (but not eliminated) sothat
interactivity and sharing of power within and among stakeholders groups is an operational
model guiding communication planning.
4. Emphasis on outcomes: what and how many messages are sent out is less important than what
is perceived by stakeholders and what changes take place in stakeholder’s behavior relative to
development objectives.
5. Data gathering and analysis: while intuition and creativity continue to be valued these are
driven and inspired by systematic data collection and analysis. For example, an early step ina
communication plan is to do a situational analysis that includes research on a variety of subjects
related to behavioral change and communication resources. Evaluation is another process that
permeates the communication program, with information being collected for pre-testing
materials, monitoring progress, and measuring impact. Evaluation is not a singlestep; it occurs
in various forms throughout the process. To include evaluation in this context,it would be more
precise to call it summative evaluation.

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6. Systematic models: The communication process involves specific and explicit sequential
steps including situational analysis (research), planning, pre-testing, implementation and
evaluation. The sequence is iterative and dynamic: results of the evaluation are fed back intothe
situational analysis to register changes in conditions upon which the original planning was
based so that adjustments can be made in the steps that follow.

7. Strategy: Most development programs deal with voluntary behavior of stakeholders:farmers

choose to adopt different varieties of seeds; families choose to change diets or visit health
clinics; couples choose to accept or reject family planning. These kinds of situations challenge
communication people to design strategies for providing appropriate information, through
appropriate channels, at appropriate times, for the appropriate people. Thus a quality
professionally-driven development communication program is characterized by having a
rational means for selecting communication objectives, content, channels and target groups
that fit the voluntary nature of the behavior change being proposed.
8. Multi-channel versatility: development communication is equipped with a broad range of
information and communication techniques and technologies with which to attack poverty and
underdevelopment.

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4.5.Ten Key Issues about (Development) Communication
The ten (10) points presented in this section address some of the myths and misconceptions about
communication, especially when related to the field of development.
These misconceptions can often be the cause of misunderstandings and lead to inconsistent and
ineffective use of communication concepts and practices. The first two points on this list are about
communication in general, while the others refer to development communication in particular.
1. Communications and communicationare not the same thing. The plural form refers main to
activities and products, including information technologies, media products, and services (the
Internet, satellites, broadcasts, and so forth). The singular form, on the other hand, usually
refers to the process of communication, emphasizing its dialogical and analytical functions
rather than its informative nature and media products. This distinction is significant at the
theoretical, methodological, and operational levels.
2. There is a sharp difference between everyday communication and professional
communication. Such a statement might seem obvious, but the two are frequently equated,
either overtly or more subtly, as in, He or she communicates well; hence, he or she is a good
communicator. A person who communicates well is not necessarily a person who can make
effective and professional use of communication. Each human being is a born communicator,but
not everyone can communicate strategically, using the knowledge of principles and experience
in practical applications. A professional (development) communication specialistunderstands
relevant theories and practices and is capable of designing effective strategies that draw from
the full range of communication approaches and methods to achieve intendedobjectives.
3. There is a significant difference between development communication and other types of
communication. Both theoretically and practically, there are many different types of
applications in the communication family. In this publication, we refer to four main types of
communication, which are represented significantly in the work of the World Bank: advocacy
communication, corporate communication, internal communication, and development
communication. Each has a different scope and requires specific knowledge and skills to be
performed effectively. Expertise in one area of communication is not sufficient to ensure
results if applied in another area.

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4. The main scope and functions of development communication are not exclusively about
communicating information and messages, but they also involve engaging stakeholders and
assessing the situation. Communication is not only about selling ideas. Such a conceptioncould
have been appropriate in the past, when communication was identified with mass media and
the linear Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver model, whose purpose was to inform audiences
and persuade them to change. Not surprisingly, the first systematic research on the effects of
communication was carried out soon after World War II, when communication activities
were mostly associated with a controversial concept4 propaganda. Currently, the scope of
development communication has broadened to include an analytical aspect as well as a
dialogical one4intended to open public spaces where perceptions, opinions, and knowledge of
relevant stakeholders can be aired and assessed.
5. Development communication initiatives can never be successful unless proper communication
research is conducted before deciding on the strategy. A communication professional should
not design a communication campaign or strategy without having all therelevant data to inform
his or her decision. If further research is needed to obtain relevant data, to identify gaps, or to
validate the project assumptions, the communication specialist must not hesitate to make such
a request to the project management. Even when a communication specialist is called in the
middle of a project whose objectives appear straightforward and clearly defined, specific
communication research should be carried out if there are gaps in the available data.
Assumptions based on the expert’s knowledge shouldalways be triangulated with other sources
to ensure their overall validity. Given its interdisciplinary and cross-cutting nature,
communication research should ideally be carried out at the inception of any development
initiative, regardless of the sector or if a communication component would be needed at a later
stage.

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6. To be effective in their work, development communication specialists need to have a specific
and in-depth knowledge of the theory and practical applications of the discipline. In additionto
being familiar with the relevant literature about the various communication theories, models,
and applications, development communication specialists should also be educated in the basic
principles and practices of other interrelated disciplines, such as anthropology, marketing,
sociology, ethnography, psychology, adult education, and social research. In the current
development framework, it is particularly important that a specialist be acquainted with
participatory research methods and techniques, monitoring and evaluation tools, and basics
principles of strategy design. Additionally, a good professional should also have the right
attitude toward people, being empathic and willing to listen and to facilitate dialog in order to
elicit and incorporate stakeholder’s perceptions and opinions. Most of all, a professional
development communication specialist needs to be consistently issue-focused, rather than
institution-focused.
7. Development communication support can only be as effective as the project itself. Even the
most well-designed communication strategy will fail if the overall objectives of the project are
not properly determined, if they do not enjoy a broad consensus from stakeholders, or if the
activities are not implemented in a satisfactory manner. Sometimes communication experts are
called in and asked to provide solutions to problems that were not clearly investigated and
defined, or to support objectives that are disconnected from the political andsocial reality on the
ground. In such cases, the ideal solution is to carry out field research ora communication-based
assessment to probe key issues, constraints, and feasible options. Tight deadlines and budget
limitations, however, often induce managers to put pressure on communication experts to
produce quick fixes, trying to force them to act as short-term damage-control public relations
or spin doctors. In such cases, the basic foundations of development communication are
neglected, and the results are usually disappointing, especially over the long term.

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8. Development communication is not exclusively about behavior change. The areas of
intervention and the applications of development communication extend beyond the traditional
notion of behavior change to include, among other things, probing socio-economic and political
factors, identifying priorities, assessing risks and opportunities, empowering people,
strengthening institutions, and promoting social change within complex cultural andpolitical
environments. That development communication is often associated with behavior change
could be ascribed to a number of factors, such as its application in health programs or its use
in mass media to persuade audiences to adopt certain practices. These kinds of interventions
are among the most visible, relying heavily on communication campaigns to change people’s
behaviors and to eliminate or reduce often fatal risks (for example, AIDS). The reality of
development, though, is complex and often requires broader changes than specific individual
behaviors.

9. Media and information technologies are not the backbone of development communication. As
a matter of fact, the value-added of development communication occurs before media and
information and communication technologies (ICTs) are even considered. Of course, media
and information technologies are part of development communication, and they are important
and useful means to support development. Their application, however, comes at alater stage,
and their impact is greatly affected by the communication work done in the research phase.
Project managers should be wary of “one-size-fits-all” solutions that appear to solve all
problems by using media products. Past experience indicates that unless such instruments are
used in connection with other approaches and based on proper research, theyseldom deliver the
intended results.

10. Participatory approaches and participatory communication approaches are not the same thing
and should not be used interchangeably, but they can be used together, as their functionsare often
complementary, especially during the research phase. Even if there are some similarities
between the two types of approaches, most renowned participatory approaches, such as
participatory rural appraisal (PRA) or participatory action research (PAR), do not usually
assess the range and level of people’s perceptions and attitudes on key issues, identify
communication entry points, and map out the information and communication systems that
can be used later to design and implement the communication strategy. Instead, these are all
key activities carried out in a participatory communication assessment.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Digital communication definition: This concept, also known as data communication or data
transmission, is the transfer of data or information using digital signals over a point-to-point (P2P)
channel. A P2P connection is a mode of communication between two communication endpoints.

Communicating digitally is a communication technique in which thoughts, data or information are

digitally encoded as discreet signals. These signals are electronically transferred to the recipients.

This means transferring data, either by digitized analogue signal or digital bit stream, over point-
to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channels. These channels can be made up of many
types. For example, there are storage channels, fiber optics, computer buses, wireless
communication channels, etc.

Everyone, and all modern businesses, institutions and organizations depend on this system to
communicate between themselves. In this case, the source of information tends to come from a
computer keyboard or mobile device and flows or is transferred digitally. Only one person is
needed to operate this system. Therefore, this mode of communication reduces manpower and is
the cheapest way of communicating to date.

Simply said, digital communication involves an organization’s online communication efforts.

Most organizations today use a wide range of digital communication channels—from their website
to mobile chat to blogs—to connect with current and prospective customers, employees, and other
stakeholders.

5.1.The impact of electronic communication on organization

In this age of communication, information and wide access to it is considered as wealth. One of
the keys to such a source lies in the application of information retrieval techniques which have
contributed a lot for the emergence of new communication technology.

The use of new communication technology can tackle some of the basic problem, namely,
accuracy, cost, speed, quality, quantity in the light of wide corporate operations. So, the search for

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alternative methods has become imperative in the modern complex organization, where
communication has to go to vast geographical territory, both inside and outside the country. Over
the traditional media like radio, television, computer, audio and video cassettes, video disk,
telephones and many mechanical devices have been successfully used as a means of
communication in many organizations. They are also helpful in managerial functions like
planning, control, direction, motivation etc.

Organizations of this world must adopt new technologies for the cause of communication to serve
the community as social responsibility or, it will be difficult to survive in the competitive scenario.

In short electronic communication could provide the following advantages to all organizations
which are recognized it and utilizing properly.

 It helps to establish and maintain external communication with outside organization.

 Redefines the role of management and transforms the manager’s role altogether.
 Employees can interact with the other co-workers of any department.
 The ultimate objective of developing electronic networking in organization is achieved by
making-employees more productive.
 The information is always online, it is real time and constantly improving the quality of
data.
 It connects more computers or terminals and makes communication possible between the
group of networks and individual networks.
 The electronic communication system permits the distribution of information timely,
quickly, efficiently and particularly in the case of multi-national corporations where global
work-force operated in several countries.
 It help to make data transfer between computers is easy and convenient.
 Easy and quick access, immediate availability of information which helps in increased
production.
 It minimizes the labor cost of doing paperwork.
 It saves lot of time and efforts of the employees as the technology permits face to face
interaction.

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  Easy to inform any changes in organization policies or practice across the employees who
scattered at different location.
5.2.Electronic Mail (E-Mails)

Electronic Mail or e-mail is a system of electronic correspondence by which users send and
receive message over a network of computer and telecommunication links. The message may
consist of short notes and greetings, or extensive text files plus graphics and photographic images,
video clips or sound.

Thus, e-mail is an electronic past office. It lets people communicate even in the absence of the
receiver at the other end. It means that you can send e-mail message at any time or whenever you
want. The person, to whom you have sent the message, can read the same whenever he wants.
Thus, the sender and the receiver don’t have to connect themselves at the same time to
communicate for that particular message.

Advantages of E-Mail
E-mail may provide the following advantages to its right users:

 It permits sending to and receiving messages from others having e-mail address.
 It transmits the message almost immediately. Thus, its speed is very fast.
 It does not require the presence of the receiver of the message at the other end. The message
is delivered into his mailbox and it can be checked by the receiver by opening his mailbox
at any time.
 It directly reaches the concerned individual’s electronic mailbox.
 It ensures a higher degree of secrecy of the message.
 It is a very cheap medium of communication. Hard copy letters and memorandums can
often be replaced by electronic mail.
 Message can be sent at any time, day or night, decreasing problems brought about by
differences in time zone.
 Identical message can be sent to many people simultaneously.

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5.3.Short Message Service (SMS)

Short Message Service (SMS) is the facility to send and receive the text messages to and from
mobile telephone. SMS is a communication protocol allowing the interchange of short text
messages between mobile telephone devices. SMS text messaging is the most widely used data
application on the planet, the text may be in the form of words or numbers or an alpha numeric
combination. With SMS, an active mobile handset is able to receive or submit a sort message at
any time, independent of whether a voice or data call is in progress.

Merits of Short Message Service

Short Message Service has the following merits:

 Message can be sent at any time.

 It is helpful in urgency.

 It saves cost and time both.

Demerits of Short Message Service

Short Message Service also has the following demerits:
 Delay in delivery of message due to network conjunction.

 Very short words or sentences sometimes misinterpreted by receiver.

5.4.Teleconferencing

Teleconferencing is electronic communication between two or more people at two or more

locations. In its simplest form, it is the telephone conference call that has been available for many
years. With speakerphones in each office, the number of participants can be greatly increased.
When using two-way calls, all participants can speak with all other participants. In one way
communication calls, oral messages (for example, statements from a company president) are
delivered simultaneously too many locations.

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Advantages
Teleconferencing has the following advantages:

 Easy to use.

 Easily available.

 Easy to participate from any telephone line in the world.

 Take only few minutes to set up a conference hall.

 Costs, energy and time are saved.

Disadvantage

A major limitation of teleconferencing is that it can’t replace the face-to-face interaction between
people. Where people prefer face-to-face interaction, teleconferencing will not serve the real
purpose.

5.5.Video conferencing
A real time video session between two or more users or between two or more locations is called
video conferencing. Video conferencing allows people at different locations to see and hear each
other at the same time. It is fully interactive and almost like face-to-face meetings. Depending of
the level of technology used, it may connect two locations interactively or it may be broadcast
video with the broadcasting site transmitting its image to many sites that may be able to
communicate back through standard telephone line. With more complex system and equipment it
is possible to have more the two locations connected together so that they can all see and hear one
another, very much like an actual meeting.

Advantages and disadvantages of Video conferencing

Video conferencing has the following advantages:

1. It serves as a substitute for face-to-face communication.

2. Communication is real time.

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 3. It overcomes transcending barriers of distance.

4. It leads to saving in travelling costs of executives.

5. It leads to saving in time of holding meetings.

6. It facilitates rapid expansion of knowledge of people sitting at different places.

Video conferencing has also the following disadvantages:

 The person that you want to talk to should have a computer as well as the hardware and
software required for conferencing.
 Computer is not portable like cellular phone. Hence, it affects the portability of your
conferencing.
 The privacy of a videoconference is not always guaranteed.

5.6.Intranet

An internet connection within the organization is known as intranet. It is also referred to a system
with restricted audience. Through the intranet system, well-managed and structured information is
transferred to selective individuals within the organization. The intranet has access to internet but
the internet has no access to the intranet. The intranet has limited or private accessibility. Intra
means within and with reference to the computer network, it refers to private networking within
an organization.

The intranet is an internal website used in an organization to disseminate information and data to
employees. In recent years, many organizations have been searching for different ways and means
to improve employee communication. The application and usage of intranet is a practical solution
for distribution of materials more efficiently and thus reduce overhead costs.

Advantages Of intranet
Intranet may provide the following advantages:

 It can reduce cost of communication.

 Increases productivity and efficiency level of employees.

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  It provides a way for people to easily retrieve the information they need and at any time.
 Any member of an organization has an opportunity to access the technology of intranet and
to have access to information within the organization irrespective of their hard ware
technology.
 Intranet converts the conventional paper office into an electronic office by creating
electronic documents for potential business communication.
 Intranet removes barriers to free flow of communication within the organization and
allowing individuals and groups to communicate and share knowledge.

5.7.Internet

Net is the short form of internet, a new name given to the world wide network. The internet is a
conglomeration of a number of smallest networks and other smaller inter-connected machines
distributed over the entire globe. Internet is a window to the global superhighway and to the
cyberspace. So, it is a global system of connected independent group of computers. The internet
is a two way communication method. Exploring internet potential brings the world on the screen
of the user’s computers. The basic principle of the Net is that the sender and the receiver are on
the same line of the system.

To explain simply the internet is like the telephone system which is an instrument of global contact.
There are many variant ways to connect to the Net. Similarly, there are different types of programs
to run. Internet really is a way or path for various computers to communicate.

Advantages Of internet
Internet can provide the following benefits to its users:
1. Sending and receiving the messages through internet across the globe.

2. Getting information stored on the computers for future reference.

3. Reading newspaper, magazines and newsletters.

4. Downloading articles and other materials of our interest.

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5. Participating in e-banking, i.e., operating one’s bank account through e-mail facility.

6. Shopping through internet save the time of customers.

7. Updates your company with latest technology across the globe.

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