Absolute space and time

Absolute space and time is a concept in physics and philosophy about the properties of the universe. In
physics, absolute space and time may be a preferred frame.

Early concept
A version of the concept of absolute space (in the sense of a preferred frame) can be seen in Aristotelian
physics.[1] Robert S. Westman writes that a "whiff" of absolute space can be observed in Copernicus's De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium, where Copernicus uses the concept of an immobile sphere of stars.[2]

Newton
Originally introduced by Sir Isaac Newton in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, the concepts
of absolute time and space provided a theoretical foundation that facilitated Newtonian mechanics.[3]
According to Newton, absolute time and space respectively are independent aspects of objective reality:[4]

Absolute, true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without
regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent and
common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of
duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time ...

According to Newton, absolute time exists independently of any perceiver and progresses at a consistent
pace throughout the universe. Unlike relative time, Newton believed absolute time was imperceptible and
could only be understood mathematically. According to Newton, humans are only capable of perceiving
relative time, which is a measurement of perceivable objects in motion (like the Moon or Sun). From these
movements, we infer the passage of time.

Absolute space, in its own nature, without regard to anything external, remains always similar
and immovable. Relative space is some movable dimension or measure of the absolute spaces;
which our senses determine by its position to bodies: and which is vulgarly taken for
immovable space ... Absolute motion is the translation of a body from one absolute place into
another: and relative motion, the translation from one relative place into another ...

— Isaac Newton

These notions imply that absolute space and time do not depend upon physical events, but are a backdrop
or stage setting within which physical phenomena occur. Thus, every object has an absolute state of motion
relative to absolute space, so that an object must be either in a state of absolute rest, or moving at some
absolute speed.[5] To support his views, Newton provided some empirical examples: according to Newton,
a solitary rotating sphere can be inferred to rotate about its axis relative to absolute space by observing the
bulging of its equator, and a solitary pair of spheres tied by a rope can be inferred to be in absolute rotation
about their center of gravity (barycenter) by observing the tension in the rope.

Differing views
Historically, there have been differing views on the concept of
absolute space and time. Gottfried Leibniz was of the opinion that
space made no sense except as the relative location of bodies, and
time made no sense except as the relative movement of bodies.[6]
George Berkeley suggested that, lacking any point of reference, a
sphere in an otherwise empty universe could not be conceived to
rotate, and a pair of spheres could be conceived to rotate relative to
one another, but not to rotate about their center of gravity,[7] an
example later raised by Albert Einstein in his development of
general relativity.
Two spheres orbiting around an axis.
A more recent form of these objections was made by Ernst Mach. The spheres are distant enough for
Mach's principle proposes that mechanics is entirely about relative their effects on each other to be
motion of bodies and, in particular, mass is an expression of such ignored, and they are held together
relative motion. So, for example, a single particle in a universe with by a rope. If the rope is under
no other bodies would have zero mass. According to Mach, tension, it is because the bodies are
Newton's examples simply illustrate relative rotation of spheres and rotating relative to absolute space
the bulk of the universe.[8] according to Newton, or because
they rotate relative to the universe
itself according to Mach, or because
When, accordingly, we say that a body preserves they rotate relative to local
unchanged its direction and velocity in space, our geodesics according to general
assertion is nothing more or less than an abbreviated relativity.
reference to the entire universe.
—Ernst Mach; as quoted by Ciufolini and Wheeler:
Gravitation and Inertia, p. 387

These views opposing absolute space and time may be seen from a modern stance as an attempt to
introduce operational definitions for space and time, a perspective made explicit in the special theory of
relativity.

Even within the context of Newtonian mechanics, the modern view is that absolute space is unnecessary.
Instead, the notion of inertial frame of reference has taken precedence, that is, a preferred set of frames of
reference that move uniformly with respect to one another. The laws of physics transform from one inertial
frame to another according to Galilean relativity, leading to the following objections to absolute space, as
outlined by Milutin Blagojević:[9]

The existence of absolute space contradicts the internal logic of classical

mechanics since, according to Galilean principle of relativity, none of the inertial
frames can be singled out.
Absolute space does not explain inertial forces since they are related to
acceleration with respect to any one of the inertial frames.
Absolute space acts on physical objects by inducing their resistance to
acceleration but it cannot be acted upon.
Newton himself recognized the role of inertial frames.[10]

The motions of bodies included in a given space are the same among themselves, whether that
space is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a straight line.

As a practical matter, inertial frames often are taken as frames moving uniformly with respect to the fixed
stars.[11] See Inertial frame of reference for more discussion on this.

Mathematical definitions
Space, as understood in Newtonian mechanics, is three-dimensional and Euclidean, with a fixed orientation.
It is denoted E3 . If some point O in E3 is fixed and defined as an origin, the position of any point P in E3 is
uniquely determined by its radius vector (the origin of this vector coincides with the point O and
its end coincides with the point P). The three-dimensional linear vector space R3 is a set of all radius
vectors. The space R3 is endowed with a scalar product ⟨ , ⟩.

Time is a scalar which is the same in all space E3 and is denoted as t. The ordered set { t } is called a time
axis.

Motion (also path or trajectory) is a function r : Δ → R3 that maps a point in the interval Δ from the time
axis to a position (radius vector) in R3 .

The above four concepts are the "well-known" objects mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia:

I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all.[12]

Special relativity
The concepts of space and time were separate in physical theory prior to the advent of special relativity
theory, which connected the two and showed both to be dependent upon the reference frame's motion. In
Einstein's theories, the ideas of absolute time and space were superseded by the notion of spacetime in
special relativity, and curved spacetime in general relativity.

Absolute simultaneity refers to the concurrence of events in time at different locations in space in a manner
agreed upon in all frames of reference. The theory of relativity does not have a concept of absolute time
because there is a relativity of simultaneity. An event that is simultaneous with another event in one frame of
reference may be in the past or future of that event in a different frame of reference,[6]: 59 which negates
absolute simultaneity.

Einstein
Quoted below from his later papers, Einstein identified the term aether with "properties of space", a
terminology that is not widely used. Einstein stated that in general relativity the "aether" is not absolute
anymore, as the geodesic and therefore the structure of spacetime depends on the presence of matter.[13]
 To deny the ether is ultimately to assume that empty space has no physical qualities whatever.
The fundamental facts of mechanics do not harmonize with this view. For the mechanical
behaviour of a corporeal system hovering freely in empty space depends not only on relative
positions (distances) and relative velocities, but also on its state of rotation, which physically
may be taken as a characteristic not appertaining to the system in itself. In order to be able to
look upon the rotation of the system, at least formally, as something real, Newton objectivises
space. Since he classes his absolute space together with real things, for him rotation relative to
an absolute space is also something real. Newton might no less well have called his absolute
space “Ether”; what is essential is merely that besides observable objects, another thing, which
is not perceptible, must be looked upon as real, to enable acceleration or rotation to be looked
upon as something real.

—Albert Einstein, Ether and the Theory of Relativity (1920)[14]

Because it was no longer possible to speak, in any absolute sense, of simultaneous states at
different locations in the aether, the aether became, as it were, four-dimensional, since there
was no objective way of ordering its states by time alone. According to special relativity too,
the aether was absolute, since its influence on inertia and the propagation of light was thought
of as being itself independent of physical influence....The theory of relativity resolved this
problem by establishing the behaviour of the electrically neutral point-mass by the law of the
geodetic line, according to which inertial and gravitational effects are no longer considered as
separate. In doing so, it attached characteristics to the aether which vary from point to point,
determining the metric and the dynamic behaviour of material points, and determined, in their
turn, by physical factors, namely the distribution of mass/energy. Thus the aether of general
relativity differs from those of classical mechanics and special relativity in that it is not
‘absolute’ but determined, in its locally variable characteristics, by ponderable matter.

—Albert Einstein, Über den Äther (1924)[15]

General relativity
Special relativity eliminates absolute time (although Gödel and others suspect absolute time may be valid for
some forms of general relativity)[16] and general relativity further reduces the physical scope of absolute
space and time through the concept of geodesics.[6]: 207–223 There appears to be absolute space in relation
to the distant stars because the local geodesics eventually channel information from these stars, but it is not
necessary to invoke absolute space with respect to any system's physics, as its local geodesics are sufficient
to describe its spacetime.[17]

See also
Absolute rotation
Absolute theory
Apeiron
Bucket argument
Copernican principle
Inertial frame of reference
Luminiferous aether
Mach's principle
 Philosophy of space and time
Rotating spheres
Time dilation
Vacuum

References and notes

1. "Absolute and Relational Space and Motion: Classical Theories" (https://plato.stanford.edu/e
ntries/spacetime-theories-classical/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 19 July 2021.
2. Robert S. Westman, The Copernican Achievement, University of California Press, 1975, p.
45.
3. Knudsen, Jens M.; Hjorth, Poul (2012). Elements of Newtonian Mechanics (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=rkP1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30) (illustrated ed.). Springer Science &
Business Media. p. 30. ISBN 978-3-642-97599-8.
4. Newton, Isaac; Chittenden, N. W. Life of Sir Isaac Newton; Adee, Daniel; Motte, Andrew; Hill,
Theodore Preston Early American mathematics books CU-BANC (1846). Newton's
Principia : the mathematical principles of natural philosophy (http://archive.org/details/newto
nspmathema00newtrich). University of California Libraries. New-York : Published by Daniel
Adee.
5. Space and Time: Inertial Frames (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (http://plato.stanford.
edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/)
6. Ferraro, Rafael (2007), Einstein's Space-Time: An Introduction to Special and General
Relativity, Springer Science & Business Media, Bibcode:2007esti.book.....F (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2007esti.book.....F), ISBN 9780387699462
7. Davies, Paul; Gribbin, John (2007). The Matter Myth: Dramatic Discoveries that Challenge
Our Understanding of Physical Reality (https://books.google.com/books?id=vlmEIGiZ0g4C&
pg=PA70). Simon & Schuster. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7432-9091-3.
8. Ernst Mach; as quoted by Ignazio Ciufolini; John Archibald Wheeler (1995). Gravitation and
Inertia (https://books.google.com/books?id=UYIs1ndbi38C&pg=RA1-PA386). Princeton
University Press. pp. 386–387. ISBN 978-0-691-03323-5.
9. Blagojević, Milutin (2002). Gravitation and Gauge Symmetries (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=N8JDSi_eNbwC&pg=PA5). CRC Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7503-0767-3.
10. Newton, Isaac; Chittenden, N. W. Life of Sir Isaac Newton; Adee, Daniel; Motte, Andrew; Hill,
Theodore Preston Early American mathematics books CU-BANC (1846). Newton's
Principia : the mathematical principles of natural philosophy (http://archive.org/details/newto
nspmathema00newtrich). University of California Libraries. New-York : Published by Daniel
Adee. p. 88.
11. Møller, C. (1976). The Theory of Relativity (Second ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-560539-6. OCLC 220221617 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/220
221617).
12. Newton 1687 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Londini, Jussu Societatis
Regiae ac Typis J. Streater, or The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,
London, English translation by Andrew Motte 1700s. From part of the Scholium, reprinted on
page 737 of On the Shoulders of Giants:The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works
by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-
7624-1348-4
13. Kostro, L. (2001), "Albert Einstein's New Ether and his General Relativity" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20100802120105/http://www.mathem.pub.ro/proc/bsgp-10/0KOSTRO.PDF)
(PDF), Proceedings of the Conference of Applied Differential Geometry: 78–86, archived
from the original (http://www.mathem.pub.ro/proc/bsgp-10/0KOSTRO.PDF) (PDF) on 2010-
08-02.
14. Einstein, Albert: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity" (1920), Sidelights on Relativity
(Methuen, London, 1922)
15. A. Einstein (1924), "Über den Äther", Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 105 (2): 85–93. English translation: Concerning the Aether
(http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/aether.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010110
4022846/http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/aether.htm) 2010-11-04 at the Wayback Machine
16. Savitt, Steven F. (September 2000), "There's No Time Like the Present (in Minkowski
Spacetime)", Philosophy of Science, 67 (S1): S563–S574, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.14.6140 (http
s://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.14.6140), doi:10.1086/392846 (https://
doi.org/10.1086%2F392846), S2CID 121275903 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
21275903)
17. Gilson, James G. (September 1, 2004), Mach's Principle II, arXiv:physics/0409010 (https://ar
xiv.org/abs/physics/0409010), Bibcode:2004physics...9010G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2004physics...9010G)

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