Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.

com

Grade: XII

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-1- Database Management System - 8 Marks

1. What is Database and DBMS? List out the advantages and disadvantages of
DBMS.
2. Explain the different models of DBMS with advantages and disadvantages.
3. Write differentiate between centralized and distributed database system.
4. Who is DBA? What are the major responsibilities of DBA?
5. What is normalization? Explain normalization process with examples.
6. Define the following terms. a) Data Dictionary b) Primary Key
c) Relationship d) DML e) SQL f) Data Integrity g) DDL
h) Data Security i) Database System

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Unit 1 – Database Management System (DBMS)

Data:
Data is defined as the raw facts and figures. It could be any numbers, pictures, sound, alphabets or any
combination of it. Which do not provide clear meaning. Examples, 101, Hari, Bharatpur etc.
1. Primary Data: Facts and figures newly collected. Examples, observation data, questionnaire data,
surveys data etc.
2. Secondary data: Facts and figures already collected. Examples, Financial statements, customer
list, sales report, census report etc.
Data Processing:
Data processing is the mechanism of converting unprocessed data into meaningful result or information.

Information:
When data are processed using a database program or software, they are converted to the meaningful
result, called information. Information provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when"
questions. Examples, Hari lives in Bharatpur-11, Chitwan.

Data Processing

Difference between Data and Information

S.N. Data S.N. Information
1 It is raw or known facts. 1 It is processed or refined data.
2 It stores the facts. 2 It presents the facts.
3 It is inactive in nature (they exist) 3 It is active in nature (It enables doing)
4 It is technology-based 4 It is business based
5 Data is gathered from various 5 Information is transformed from data
sources.
6 Data do not have fixed format. 6 Information normally in the form of table, graph,
curve line etc.

Flat File/ File based system:

• It is traditional way to keeping records of any organization in a manual filing system. It means to
used to keep records in file based or flat file system non computerized.
• A flat file system is a system of flies in which every file in the system must have a different name.

Limitation of file based/ Flat file system

i. Duplication of data ( Data Redundancy)
ii. Inconsistent data.
iii. Program Data dependence.
iv. Poor data control.
v. Limited data sharing.
vi. Security problems.
vii. Incompatible file formats.
viii. Fixed queries

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Database System:
A database system consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of application programs to access,
update and manage the data.

Database:
It is organized form of record about some person, organization or something store under certain media.
It is a collection of related information about a subject organized in a useful manner that provides a base
or foundation for procedure, such as retrieving information, drawing conclusion and make decision.
Advantage of database over flat file or file based system
1. Reduction of data redundancies
2. Shared data
3. Data independent
4. Improved integrity
5. Efficient data access
6. Multiple user interface
7. Improved security
8. Improved backup and recovery
9. Supports for concurrent transactions
10. Unforeseen queries can be answered

File based system Vs Electronic Database System

S.N. File Based System S.N. Electronic Database System
1 It provide detail of the data 1 Database System gives abstract view
representation and storage of data of data that hides details.
2 It doesn’t have a crash recovery 2 It provides crash recovery mechanism
mechanism. using backup and other security
measures.
3 It is difficult to reduce data 3 Data redundancy can be done easily.
redundancy.
4 Searching of data requires a lot of time 4 Data can be easily searched.
and effort.
5 Difficult to maintain the database. 5 Easy to maintain the database.

DBMS:
Database Management System is software that manages the data stored in a database. This is a collection
of software which is used to store data, records, process them and obtain desired information. Since, data
are very important to the end users, we must have a good way of managing data.
A DBMS is a collection of programs that manages the database structure and controls access to the data
stored in the database. The DBMS make it possible to share the data in the database among multiple
applications or users. The DBMS stands between the database and the user.

Examples: MS-Access, Oracle, FoxPro, dBase, SQL server, MySQL, Delphi, Sybase, etc.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
API
APP

Database
API Management System
(DBMS) Database (DB)
User

API
APP

Why to Use DBMS?

1. To develop software application in less time.
2. Data independence and efficient use of data.
3. For uniform data administration.
4. For data integrity and security.
5. For concurrent access to data, and data recovery from crashes.
6. To use user friendly declarative query language.

Some major database System activities are (Functions of DBMS)

1. Adding new file to the database
2. Inserting data into the database
3. Retrieving/viewing data from the database
4. Updating data in existing database file
5. Deleting data from the database file
6. Removing files from the database

Advantages of DBMS (Features /Objectives of DBMS)

1. Sharing data
2. Reduced data redundancy
3. Data backup and recovery
4. Inconsistency avoided
5. Data integrity
6. Data security
7. Data independence
8. Multiple user interfaces
9. Process complex query

Disadvantages of DBMS
1. Expensive
2. Changing Technology
3. Needs Technical Training
4. Backup is needed

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Field/ Attribute:
A field is a piece of information about an element. A field is represented by a column. Every field has got
a title called the field title.

Record (Tuple):
A record is information about an element such as a person, student, an employee, client, etc. A record
can have much information in different heading or titles.

Table:
A table is the arrangements of rows and columns. Each table must have unique name and must be simple.
It is the place where data and information are stored.

Table: Student Information

Roll No. Name Address
1 Gita Narayangarh
2 Sita Gaindakot
3 Arjun Bharatpur
Objects:
Database Objects are the essential tools of relational database. These database objects helps to store,
view, edit and manipulate the data and information stored in database.
It can be used to hold and manipulate the data. Some of the examples of database objects are view,
sequence, indexes, form, query report etc.
 Table: Basic unit of storage; composed rows and columns
 View: Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables
 Sequence: Generates primary key values
 Index: Improves the performance of some queries
 Synonym: Alternative name for an object

Some Basic Terms used in Database

 Schema: A schema is the structure of database which defines name of tables, data fields with data
types, relationships and constraints.
 Instance: It defines data values in a record.
 Entity: An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is different from other objects.
 Attribute: Attribute is properties possessed by an entity or relationship.
 Index: It is used to create indexes in database. It helps searching and sorting operation faster and
improves the performances of queries.
 Query: It is the object of DBMS which is mainly used to extract and upgrade the necessary records
that are present in the database.
 Form: It is object of database which is mainly used for data entry. It is easy to add, modify and
delete the records in form.
 Report: Report are the printed output that is created from table or query. We can't add, modify
and delete the records in report.

Keys of DBMS:
Key is a field that uniquely identifies the records, tables or data. Key in a table allows us to establish the
relation between multiple tables. Keys are also useful for finding the unique records or combination of
records from a large database tables.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 Primary Key: A primary key is one or more columns in a table used to uniquely identify each row
in the table. Primary key cannot contain Null value.
A primary key is a special relational database table column (or combination of columns)
designated to uniquely identify each table record. A table cannot have more than one primary
key.
A primary key’s main features are:
 It must contain a unique value under the field.
 It cannot contain null values.
 Every row must have a primary key value.
 Foreign Key: Foreign keys represent relationships between tables. A foreign key is a column whose
values are derived from the primary key of some other table.
 Candidate Key: If a relational schema has more than one key, that is called a candidate key. All
the keys which satisfy the condition of primary key can be candidate key. There can be any number
of candidate keys that can be used in place of the primary key if required.
 Alternate Key/ Secondary Key: Alternative keys are those candidate keys which are not the
primary key. There can be only one primary key for a table. Therefore all the remaining candidate
keys are known as alternative.
 Compound Key: It has two or more attributes that allow you to uniquely recognize specific record.
It is possible that each column may not be unique by itself within the database.

Table1 Alternate Key Foreign Key

Primary Key Course ID Course Name
COM 101 Computer
ACC 102 Accountancy
MTH 103 Mathematics
Relationship
Table2
Student ID First Name Last Name E-mail Course ID
101 Rajesh Hamal rajesh@gmail.com COM 101
102 Nikhil Upreti nikhil@hotmail.com ACC 102
103 Anmol KC kcanmol@yahoo.com MTH 103

SQL (Structured Query Language):

It is an international standard database query language for accessing and managing data in the database.
Features of SQL
 It is a non-procedural Language.
 It is English like language.
 It can process a single record as well as sets of records at a time.
 It is a data sub-language consisting of three built in language: DDL, DML, DCL etc.
 It insulates the user from the underlying structure and algorithm.
 It has the facilities for defining tables, views, security, integrity, transaction control etc.

1. DDL (Data Definition Language): DDL is used by the database designers and programmers to
specify the content and structure of the table. It is used to define the physical characteristics of
records. It includes commands that manipulate the structure of objects such as views, tables, and
indexes, etc.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

» CREATE: Create is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views, store
procedure and triggers).
» DROP: Drop is used to delete objects from the database.
» ALTER: Alter is used to alter the structure of the database.
» TRUNCATE: Truncate is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed.
» COMMENT: Comment is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
» RENAME: Rename is used to rename an object existing in the database.

2. DML (Data Manipulation Language): DML is related with manipulation of records such as
retrieval, sorting, display and deletion of records of data. It helps user to use query and display reports
of the table. So it provides technique for processing the database.

» SELECT: It is used to retrieve data from a database.

» INSERT: It is used to insert data into a table.
» UPDATE: it is used to update an existing data in table.
» DELETE: It is used to delete record from table.

3. DCL (Data Control Language): DCL provides additional features for security of table or database.
It includes commands for controlling data and access to the database. Examples of these commands
are commit, Rollback, Grant etc.

 GRAND: It gives user's access privileges to database.

 REVOKE: It is used withdraw users' access privileges given by using the GRANT command.

Database Model:
A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and are used to show how data
will be stored, accessed and updated in a Database Management System. It refers to the layout of a
database and helps in designing a database. The various types of database models are
Different database models
1. Hierarchical database model: this is one of the oldest types of database models. In this model
data is represented in the form of records. Each record has multiple fields. All records are arranged
in database as tree like structure. The relationship between the records is called parent child
relationship in which any child record relates to only a single parent type record.

Gurukul College

Science Humanities Management

Chemistry Physics Biology

Advantages
⚫ It is the easiest model.
⚫ Searching is fast and easy if parent is known.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
⚫ It is very efficient in handling one to one and one to many relationships.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Disadvantages
⚫ It is old and outdated database model.
⚫ It does not support many to many relationships.
⚫ It increases redundancy because same data is to be repeated in different places.

2. Network database model: It replaced hierarchical network database model due to some
limitations on the model. Suppose, if an employee relates to two departments, then the
hierarchical database model cannot able to arrange records in proper place. So network, database
model was emerged to arranged non-hierarchical database. The structure of database is more like
graph rather than tree structure. A network database model is a database model that allows
multiple records to be linked the same owner file. The network model allows each child to have
multiple parents.

Gurukul College

Science Examination Library

Faculties Books Students

Advantages
⚫ It accepts many to many relationships, so it is more flexible.
⚫ The searching is faster because of multidirectional pointer.
⚫ The network model is simple and easy to design.
⚫ It reduces the redundancy.
Disadvantages
⚫ It is difficult to handle the relationship in complex programs.
⚫ There is less security because of sharing data.
⚫ It increases the processing overhead due to the complex relationship.

3. Relational database model: in this model, the data is organized into tables which contain multiple
rows and columns. These tables are called relations. A row in a table represents a relationship
among a set of values. Since a table is a collection of such relationships, it is generally referred to
the mathematical term relation, from which the relational database model derives its name.
We notice from below table, here each student has a unique roll number and has marks of subject.
Here Roll makes relation between these two tables.

For example, if we make relation between student and subject, we get

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
following:

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Table: Subject
Roll Name Math English Computer
1 Hari 80 90 95
2 Sita 90 80 85
3 Ram 95 95 95

Advantages
⚫ The breaking of complex database table into simple database table becomes possible.
⚫ Database processing is faster than other model.
⚫ There is very less redundancy.
⚫ The integrity rules can easily be implemented.
Disadvantages
⚫ It is more complex than other models.
⚫ There are too many rules because of complex relationships.
⚫ It needs more powerful computers and data storage devices.

4. Object oriented database model: In the object-oriented model, both data and their relationships
are contained in a single structure known as an object. An Object-Oriented Model reflects a very
different way to define and use entities. An object includes information about relationships
between the facts within the object, as well as information about its relationships with other
objects. An objects include data, various types of relationships, and operational procedures, the
object becomes self-contained, thus making the object-at least potentially-a basic building block
for autonomous structures.

Advantages
 Semantic content is added.
 Visual representation includes semantic content.
 Inheritance promotes data integrity.
Disadvantages
 Slow development of standards caused vendors to supply their own enhancements, thus
eliminating a widely accepted standard.
 It is a complex navigational system.
 There is a steep learning curve.
 High system overhead slows transactions.

5. Entity Relationship Diagram:

The diagrammatic representation of entities attributes and relationship is called E-R diagram. The
E-R diagram is an overall logical structure of a database that can be expressed graphically. It was
developed to facilitate database design. It is graphical representation of database.
Components of E-R Diagram
Entity Attribute Link Relationship
 Entity: An entity is defined as anything about which data to be collected and stored.
 Relationships: Relationships describes associations among data. Most relationships
describes associations between two entities.
 Attribute: Attribute describes particular characteristics of the entity.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Pname
CName
CAddress
PAddress

College H Principal

Pcontact
Phone
Fig. E-R diagram for relation between college and principal

Relationship and its types:

A relationship is an association among several entities and represents meaningful dependencies between
them. It is represented by diamond. There are 3 types of relationship:
i. One to one
ii. One to many
iii. Many to many
1. One to one: if one record of an entity is related with only one record of another entity then
such type of relationship is called one to one relationship.
⚫ College ----------- Principal
⚫ Bank ---------------Manager
⚫ Driver ------------- Car

2. One to many: If one instance of one entity is related with many instances of other entity then
it is called the one to many relationship.
⚫ College ----------------students
⚫ Bank -------------------- Employers

3. Many to many: If many instances of the one entity are related with many instances of another
entity then it is called many to many relationship.
⚫ Teachers --------------- students
⚫ Books ----------------- Readers
⚫ Employers ------------ Customers

Concept of Normalization
Normalization is a database design process in which complex database table is broken down into simple
separate tables. It makes data model more flexible and easier to maintain.
 Database Normalization is a technique of organizing the data in the database. It is a systematic
approach of decomposing the tables to eliminate data redundancy and inconsistency. The data is
said to be redundant if there is duplicate or repeated data in the table.
 Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using relationship. It
increase clarity in organizing data in the database.
For example:
Below table shown is our database without normalized. Here in table we can see that for the large records
of this table, there would be multiple data row of same values especially in the country and city column.
So, we can normalize the table by splitting it into two tables where one table only stores the location area
of each person name and could be referenced by some unique id. Say Area code.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Id Country City Name

101 Nepal Kathmandu Alex
102 India Delhi Martin
103 Nepal Kathmandu Melman
104 Japan Tokyo Gloria

The above table can be normalized in two tables as below:

country City Area code Id Area code Name

Nepal Kathmandu N1 101 N1 Alex
India Delhi I1 102 I1 Martin
Japan Tokyo J1 103 N1 Melman
104 J1 Gloria
Advantages of Normalization
 It reduces the data redundancy.
 It improves faster sorting and index creation.
 It improves the performances of the database system.
 It simplifies the structures of table.
 It avoids the loss of information.
Disadvantages of Normalization
 It is complex to design due to the relationship between tables.
 It requires more CPU cycles.
 It requires large memory.
 It requires more joins to get the result.
 Maintenance overhead.

Types of Normalization
 1NF (First Normal Form):
A table is said to be in first normal form if it has atomic values. There shouldn't be any repeating
groups of attribute in the table. First normal form sets the very basic rules for an organized
database.
o The data field should be a single (atomic) valued attribute/ columns.
o It eliminates duplicates rows and columns from the same table.
o It minimizes the data redundancy in the database table.

 2NF (Second Normal Form):

A table is said to be in 2NF if it is a First normal form and it doesn't have the partial dependency.
Second normal form further addresses the concept of removing duplicate data.
o It should be in the first normal form.
o It should not have partial Dependency.
o It identifies data dependencies.
o Non key attributes are functionally depends on key attribute (primary key).

 3NF (Third Normal Form):

Third normal form goes one large step further.
o It should be in the second normal form.
o It removes transitive dependencies in a table.
o All non-primary key attribute must dependent on primary key attribute or attribute.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

In Details Normalization with Examples

Un-normalized:
A table is said to be un-normalized when there is repetition of data in a table. In un-normalized table
records are not atomic. Let's take an example of un-normalized table.

Un-normalized table: Table No.1

Roll No. Name Faculty Subject
1 Sundar ICT Java, OS
2 Mukesh ICT Network
3 Ganesh ICT C, Web

A. 1NF (First Normal Form):

A table is said to be in first normal form if it has atomic values. There shouldn’t be any repeating groups
of attribute in the table. Following are the main rules for table to be in 1NF:
 Table should have single (atomic) valued attributes/columns.
 Values stored in columns should be of same domain.
 Columns name should not be repeated in table.
 The order of column names doesn’t matter.
The table given above in un-normalized data meets the three requirements among four to be in first
normal form. In the subject column more than one subject are stored in a single column for two students.
But, each column must contain atomic value to be in first normal form. And the problem is solved in the
table given below:

Example of 1NF for above table No.1

Table No.2
Roll No. Name Faculty Subject
1 Sundar ICT Java
1 Sundar ICT OS
2 Mukesh ICT Network
3 Ganesh ICT Web
3 Ganesh ICT C
Though, some values are repeated but all columns are atomic for each record /row.
B. 2NF (Second Normal Form):
A table is said to be in 2NF if it is in First normal form and it doesn’t have the partial dependency. i.e.
each attributes should functionally depend on primary key. Rules for 2 NF:
 A table should be in first normal form.
 There must not be partial dependency.
 Partial dependency exists when any attribute of a table depends on only one part of a
composite primary key (primary key combining more than one field) and not on the
complete primary key.
 To remove partial dependency, a table can be divided and attributes creating partial
dependency are removed in some other tables.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Situation of Dependency:
Let’s take an example of table student with student_id, name, address and age as its columns.
Student_id Name Address age
Here student_id is the primary key which can identify each records uniquely and can be used to fetch
any row of data from this table.

Student_id Name Address Age

15 Ganesh KTM 17
16 Janaki BKT 17

Here we can get name, address and age of the student easily from their student_id. Which means each
column can be fetched using primary key. So, all needed is student_id and every other column depends
on it or can be fetched using it.
This is called dependency or functional dependency. And this kind of dependency must be in table to be
in second normal form.

Situation for partial dependency:

In above table a single filed student_id uniquely identifies the all the records of the table. But in some
cases combination of two or more columns or fields makes the primary key. Where more than one field
acts as primary key. Lets create a table named subject with fields subject_id and subjectname.

Subject_id Subjectname
101 Math
102 Science
103 Nepali

Above we have two tables: student and subject for storing student’s and subject’s information. Now, let’s
make a table named Mark storing student’s mark in respective subjects with subject teacher.

Score_id Student_id Subject_id Marks Teacher

1 15 101 55 Bishnu
2 15 102 65 Umesh
3 16 103 88 Janvi

Note: the above table is not in 2nd normal form.

In above table student_id is used to get student’s information where as subject_id is used to get subject
name. The combination of student_id and subject_id is the primary in above table. It is because if we
want to get mark of student with id 15 then we cannot get because we don’t know which subject. Here
we have to give sudent_id and subject_id to uniquely identify any row.
Is there a partial dependency in above table? Obviously, yes. In the given table Mark column name
teacher is only dependent on the subject, for math there is Bishnu for science Umesh and so on. But the
primary key is the combination of student_id and subject_id, teacher’s name depend only on subject, i.e.
subject_id not on the student id.
This situation is known as partial dependency, where an attribute/ column in table depends on only a

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
part of primary key not on the whole key.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Removing the partial dependency:
Above table can be normalized in second normal form by removing teacher’s name from the Mark table
adding it to Subject table.
Subject:
Subject_id Subjectname Teacher
101 Math Bishnu
102 Science Umesh
103 Nepali Janvi

Mark:
Score_id Student_id Subject_id Marks
1 15 101 55
2 15 102 65
3 16 103 88

Summary:
 For table to be in second normal form, it should be in first normal form.
 Partial dependency exists, when non primary key attribute depends only on a part of
primary key instead of complete primary key.
 Partial dependency can be removed by breaking a table and removing attributes causing
partial dependency.

C. 3NF (Third Normal Form):

A table is said to be in third normal form, if it is second normal form and it doesn’t have any
transitive dependency in primary key. The elements that are not dependent on primary key are removed.
Transitive dependency occurs in table when a non-primary key attribute depends upon another non
primary key attribute. All non-primary key attribute must dependent on primary key attribute or
attributes.
Transitive Dependency?
Transitive Dependency occurs when a non-primary key attribute depends upon another non primary key
attribute instead of primary key attribute or primary key.
For instance:
In the above table Mark, lets add some more information such as Exam_name and Full_mark.
Score_id Student_id Subject_id marks Exam_name Full_marks
1 15 101 55 First Term 500
2 15 102 65 First Term 500
3 16 103 88 Second Term 300
In above table, student_id and subject_id are the primary key. The column exam_name depends on both
student_id and subject_id. But, the Full_marks depends on the Exam_name. The first term exam might
have 500 full mark but the second term may have 300 or others. Here exam_name is neither primary key
nor the part of primary key still, Full_mark depends on it. So, here full_mark which is non-primary key
attribute depends on another nonprimary key attribute known as Exam_name. This situation is known as
transitive dependency.

17
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

Removing Transitive Dependency:

Again, table should be broken into small individual tables to remove it. So we need to remove those
fields which are creating transitive dependency. Which looks like.
Score Table:
Score_Id Student_Id Subject_Id Marks Exam_Id
1 15 101 55 11
2 15 102 65 12
3 16 103 88 13

Exam Table:
Exam_ID Exam_Name Full_Marks
11 First Term 500
12 Second Term 300

Benefits of removing transitive dependency:

 Amount of data duplication is reduced.
 Data integrity is achieved.
Note: Normalization does not eliminate data redundancy. Instead, it reduces the redundancy.

Example of normalization:

Un-normalized Table:
Employee Id Name Address Department
101 Ram Kathmandu Sales
102 Bikky Bhaktapur Marketing, Export
103 Anusha Lalitpur import

First Normal Form:

Employee Id Name Address Department
101 Ram Kathmandu Sales
102 Bikky Bhaktapur Marketing
102 Bikky Bhaktapur Export
103 Anusha Lalitpur import

Second Normal Form:

Lets take a table employee having more than one department.
Employee Id Department Salary
101 Sales 20000
102 Marketing 25000
102 Export 25000
103 import 20000

Here the non-primary key attribute salary dependent on the employee id only. Here Employee id and
department are the candidate key. This violates the rule that “no non primary attribute is dependent on
the part of primary key or on the subset of candidate key.”
15
 To make table in 2NF we can break it as:
Employee Id Salary
101 20000
102 25000
103 20000

Employee Id Department
101 Sales
102 Marketing
102 Export
103 import

Third Normal Form:

Employee Id Name Department HoD
101 Rikesh HR Mukesh
102 Binita Marketing Mukesh
103 Jagdish Store Bikash

Here, Employee Id is the primary key and all other are non-primary key attributes. The non- primary key
attribute HoD is dependent on non-primary key attribute Department. Here, transitive dependency
occurs. To remove it we can decompose table as:
Employee Id Department Id Name
101 A10 Rikesh
102 A11 Binita
103 A12 Jagdish

Department ID Department HoD

A10 HR Mukesh
A11 Marketing Mukesh
A12 Store Bikash

Emp_code January
Emp_name February
Address March
Contact no. April
Date of birth May
Department June
Designation July
Basic_salary Daily_allowance
Travel_Allowance Gross_salary
Tax Provident _fund
 Normalized database

Employee Salary Month

Emp_code Basic_Salary January
Emp_name Travel_allowance February
Address Daily_allowance March
Contact no. Gross_salary April
Date of birth Provident_funt May
Department Tax June
Designation July
Example 2
Name Roll Class Sub_name Sub_marks Sub_name Sub_marks
Ram 1 11 Computer 95 Account 78
Sita 1 12 Computer 98 Account 80
Hari 2 11 Computer 80 Account 82
Shyam 2 12 Computer 92 Account 83

In above table, we can see that column of subject nome and marks are repeated which are eliminated in
1NF.

Name Roll Class Sub_name Sub_marks

Ram 1 11 Computer 95
Ram 1 11 Account 78
Sita 1 12 Computer 98

Sita 1 12 Account 80
Hari 2 11 Computer 80
Hari 2 11 Account 82
Shyam 2 12 Computer 92
Shyam 2 13 Account 83

In above table name depends upon roll no and class, subject name only depends upon class, subject marks
depends upon name and subject_name. Hence, above table can be decomposed as 2NF:

Subject Class Name Roll Class

Computer 11 Ram 1 11
Account 11 Sita 1 12
Computer 12 Hari 2 11
Account 12 Shyam 2 12
Name Sub_name Sub_marks
Ram Computer 95
Ram Account 78
Sita Computer 98
Sita Account 80
Hari Computer 80
Hari Account 82
Shyam Computer 92
Shyam Account 83
It removes the column that are not dependent on primary key using 3NF above table can be
decomposed as:

Sub_id Subject
C1 Computer
A1 Account
Class_id Class
XI 11
XII 12
Std_id Class Roll Class_id
1 Ram 1 XI
2 Sita 1 XII
3 Hari 2 XI
4 Shyam 2 XII
Std_id Sub_id Marks
1 C1 95
1 A1 78
2 C1 98
2 A1 80
3 C1 80
3 A1 82
4 C1 92
4 A1 83

Centralized database system Vs. Distributed database system:

Centralized database system:

 The database system where data and information are stored in the centralized server or
centralized database system.
 The data stored in database are accessed from different locations through several applications.
The information (data) is stored at a centralized location and the users from different locations
can access this data.
 This type of database contains application procedures that help the users to access the data even
from a remote location.
Advantages:
 It decreases risk of data manipulation. i.e. manipulation of data will not affect the core data.
 Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository.
 It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish data standards.
 It is less costly as fewer vendors are required to handle the data sets.

Disadvantages:
 The size of centralized database is large which increases the response time of fetching data.
 It is difficult to update the centralized database.
 If sever gets damaged entire data will be lost.
Distributed database system:
 Distributed database doesn’t store all data and information in the single but store on various sites
or places, which are connected by the help of communication, links which helps them to access
the distributed data easily.
 In distributed database various portions of a database are stored in multiple different locations
along with the application procedures which are replicated and distributed among various points
in a network.

Memory

Memory
Database

Location 1
Database

Communication
Channel Location 2

Location 3 Distributed Database System

Database

Memory
Advantages:
 The system can be expanded by including new computers and connecting them to the
distributed system.
 Distributed database is more reliable than centralized database.
 The performance and service are better.
 Large numbers of users are supported.
 One server failure will not affect the entire data set.

Disadvantages:
 It is difficult to administrate and manage the database
 It is expensive to set up.
 This database has high risk of hacking and data theft.

Different between centralize and distributed database system

Centralized database system Distributed database system

1. Simple type 1. Complex type
2. Located on particular location 2. Located in many geographical locations.
3. Consists of only one server 3. Contains servers in several locations
4. Suitable for small organizations 4. Suitable for large organizations
5. Less chance of data lost 5. More chances of data hacking, lost
6. Maintenance is easy and security is high 6. Maintenance is not easy and security is low
7. Failure of system makes whole system 7. Failure of one server does not make the whole
down system down
8. There is no feature of load balancing 8. There is feature of load balancing
9. Data traffic rate is high 9. Data traffic rate is low
10. Cost of centralized database system is low 10. Cost of distributed database system is high

Data dictionary:
A data dictionary is a file which contains meta-data that is data about data. It also called information
system catalogue. It keeps all the data information about the database system such as location, size of
the database, tables, records, fields, user information, recovery system, etc.
Data integrity:
Data integrity referees to the validity or consistency of data in database. It ensures that the data should
be accurate and consistent.
Mainly there are 3 types of data integrity constraints used in the database system. They are as:
1. Domain integrity constraints: it defines a set range of data values for given specific data field. And
also determines whether null values are allowed or not in the data field.
2. Entity integrity constraints: it specify that all rows in a table have a unique identifier, known as the
primary key value and it never be null i.e. blank.
 3. Referential integrity constrains: it exists in a relationship between the two tables in a database. It
ensures that the relationship between the primary keys in the master table and foreign key in child
table are always maintained.

Data Security:

Data security is protection of data in database system against unauthorized access, modification, failure,
losses or destruction. The authorized access means only right people can get the right access to the
right data.

DBA (Database Administrator)

DBA is the most responsible person in an organization with sound knowledge of DBMS. He/she is the
overall administrator of the program. He/she has the maximum amount of privileges for accessing
database and defining the role of the employee which use the system. The main goal of DBA is to keep
the database server up to date, secure and provide information to the user on demand.

Qualities of good DBA

1. He/she should have sound and complete knowledge about DBMS and its operation.
2. He/she should be familiar with several DBMS packages such as MS Access, MY SQL, Oracle etc
3. He/she should have depth knowledge about the OS in which database server is running.
4. He/she should have good understanding of network architecture.
5. He/she should have good database designing skill.

Responsibilities

1. DBA has responsibility to install, monitor, and upgrade database server.

2. He/she should has responsibility to maintain database security by creating backup for recovery.
3. He/she has responsibility to conduct training on the uses of database.
4. DBA defines user privilege, relationships and manages form, reports in database.

The SQL statement for creating, dropping, and altering database and table
XAMPP provides a GUI environment to perform any operations on the database. However, it also
provides an option to use SQL statements to perform any operations SQL statements are used in the
SQL menu in phpMyAdmin. The SQL statements used in XAMPP also work well with most of the
databases.
Creating a database:
Syntax: CREATE DATABASE databasename;
Example: CREATE DATABASE School;
Dropping the database (deleting the database):
Syntax DROP DATABASE databasename:
Example: DROP DATABASE School:

Creating a table:
Syntax CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype, column2 datatype, column3 datatype….)
Example: CREATE TABLE Students (StudentID int, FName varchar(255), LName varchar(255), Address
varchar(255), Class varchar(255));

Altering table adding, deleting, or modifying columns in an existing table

Adding column Syntax:
Synatx:ALTER TABLE table name
ADD column_name datatype
Example: ALTER TABLE Students ADD Email varchar(255));
Deleting column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
Example: ALTER TABLE Students
DROP COLUMN Email

Modifying column (changing the data type of a column in a table)

Sytnax:
ALTER TABLE table name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype:
Example: ALTER TABLE Students
MODIFY COLUMN Class int

Deleting table
DROP TABLE table_name,
SQL statement to insert, select, update and delete data
Syntax Example: DROP TABLE Students:

Inserting data
Syntax
INSERT INTO table name (column1, column2 column3,...) Example: INSERT INTO Students (StudentID,
FName, LName, Address, Class)
VALUES (valuel, value2, value3.);
VALUES ('101', 'Ram', Sharma', Pokhara', 7);
Selecting data iselecting data from a database);
Syntax SELECT column1, FROM table name column2.
Example: SELECT * FROM Students; (This will select all the columns from the table Students] SELECT
FNAME. LNAME FROM Students: [This will select only the First Name and Last
Name from the table Students.]

Selecting data using conditions

Syntax SELECT column1, column2....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org 
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

REFERENCE NOTE

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-2- Data Communication and Networking - 9 Marks

1. What is Computer Network? Explain advantages and disadvantages of computer network.

2. Discuss different types of computer network on the basis of size.
3. What do you mean by network topology? Explain the different types of network topologies.
4. Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
5. Define network architecture. Differentiate between client server and peer to peer networks.
6. Differentiate between Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex.
7. Differentiate between internet and intranet.
8. What is Internet addressing? Discuss Network Tool.
9. What do you mean by transmission media? Explain the different types of transmission media used
in computer network?
10. What do you mean by OSI reference model? Explain the different layers of OSI reference model.
11. Define the following terms : a) Repeater b) Bridge c) Protocol d) Router e) Satellite
f) Microwave System g) subnet Mask h) MAC address i) Coaxial Cable
j) Fiber Optic Cable

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Unit 2- Data Communication and Networking

Concept of Communication System
The exchange of data and information between sender and receiver through any given medium following
a common rule is known as communication. So, telecommunication is the art of communicating at a
distance. Telephone, radio and television are the main and popular media of tele-communication.

Data Transmission
Data may be transferred from one device to another by means of some communication media. The
electromagnetic or light waves that transfer data from one device to another device in encoded form are
called signals. Data transmissions across the network can occur in two forms i.e.:
a. Analog signal
b. Digital signal
Analog Signal
The transfer of data in the form of electrical signals or continuous waves is called analog signal or analog
data transmission. An analog signal is measured in volts and its frequency is in hertz (Hz).

Digital Signal
The transfer of data in the form of digit is called digital signal or digital data transmission. Digital signals
consist of binary digits 0 & 1. Electrical pulses are used to represent binary digits. Data transmission
between computers is in the form of digital signals.

Modulation
The modulation is the process of changing or encoding the carrier wave at certain amplitude (height) and
frequency (timing) is called modulation.
The process of changing some characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave in
accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation. Modulation means to change.
There are three types of modulation:
a. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation is an increase or decrease of the carrier
voltage (Ec), will all other factors remaining constant.
b. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency modulation is a change in the carrier frequency (fc) with
all other factors remaining constant.
c. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase modulation is a change in the carrier phase angle (θ). The phase
angle cannot change without also affecting a change in frequency. Therefore, phase modulation
is in reality a second form of frequency modulation.

Block diagram of Communication System

Exchanging of data, information and message is known as communication in simple term. The devices,
equipment and other necessary things which play vital role in the communication of message form source
to destination are known as communication equipment. These equipment may be computer, mobile, fax
and other devices. When all these communication equipment combine together for exchanging the
message, then they form the communication system. Line telephony, radio, television broadcast, mobile
communication, computer communication etc. are the common examples of communication system. In
the communication, initially the message, data are originated from the information source and sent to

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

destination passing several stages. The block diagram of general communication system is described
below:

Information Input Output

Transmitter Channel Receiver Transduc er
Sources Transducer

Sound picture Information in Information in

Noise
speech data etc. electrical form original form

Elements of Communication System

a. Information Source:
Information source is the place or device which generates the information in communication system. The
information may be in different forms such as text, data, speech, pictures, words etc. these information
are send to the destination through the communication system. Main role of Information source is to
generate the required message which has to be transmitted.
b. Input Transducer:
Input Transducer is an important device which convert one form of energy into another form. In some
cases, the message generated form the information source may not be electrical in nature. At that time
input transducer is responsible for converting such messages into electrical form. For instance,
microphone converts analog sound in electrical signals.

C. Transmitter:

As the name suggests transmitter is responsible for transmitting and processing the electrical signals
through the communication channel. In long distance radio communication, signal amplification is
necessary for transferring data. Transmitter processes the signals such as restriction of range of audio
frequencies, amplification and modulation of signals. All these processes are done just to ease the
transmission of signals through the channel.
D. Transmission channel or channel:
Transmission channel is the transmission medium through data signals or information passes from source
to destination. It is the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the receiver.
It provides the connection between the sender / transmitter or receiver. Communication channel may be
wired/ guided or wireless/unguided. The wired medium or also called point to point channels where
devices are connected through the cables. Whereas wireless medium connect devices wirelessly through
electromagnetic wave signals.
Sometime unwanted signal tend to interfere with the information that unwanted signal is called noise.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

E. Receiver:

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as
the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in
transmitter.

F. Output Transducer/Destination:

The transducer presented at output side of the communication system is called output transducer. It is
responsible of converting electrical signals into non electrical signals like sound. It is also known as
destination and is responsible for converting message signals into its original form from the electrical
form. For instance, speaker is a destination or transducer in voice communication.

Elements of Data communication System

Data communication is the process of exchanging data among the computing devices. Data may be in
different form like file, text, image, sound etc. These data are transmitted between a source and a
destination. Source device is responsible for generating data and destination device is responsible for
receiving the data generated by source. Communication like, email, IRC, VOIP etc. are examples of data
communication. Data communication is the transmission of electronic from one computing device to
another. The data communication comprises of following elements:

1. Sender (source): It is the device that generates and sends that message.
2. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from the sender
to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or
wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
3. Receiver (sink): It is the device that receives the message.
4. Data: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both the sender
and the receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

Message
Protocol Protocol

Transmission medium

Fi g: Ima ge of data communication

The data communication takes place between two devices connected together either by wired or
wireless media. The sender device generates the data message and send it through the
communication channel using some protocol. After the message is sent the receiver receives the
message using the similar protocol.
6. Encoder: The computer works with digital signals. The communicational channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to send data through a communication channel, the digital signals are
encoded into analog signals or into a form which can be transmitted through transmission
medium. This is called encoding. The device that carries out this function is called encoder.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

7. Decoder: The Computer works with digital signals. The communication channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to receive data from a communication channel, the coded analog signals
or any other encoded form is converted back to digital signals. This is called decoding. The device
that carries out this function is called decoder.

Mode of Communication
Mode of communication normally refers to the ways in which communication takes place or data gets
transmitted between source and destination nodes. Modes of data transmission direct the direction,
mechanism of data flow between devices.
1. Simplex Communication:
In this type of communication data transmission takes place only in one direction. It is also called a
unidirectional communication mode.
Radio, Television, Newspaper and keyboard to CPU Communication are some of the most common
example of simplex communication.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in only one direction.
 The sender sends data and receiver receives only.
 There is not bidirectional communication.
 Listeners cannot reply immediately.
 Radio and television broadcast are its examples.

2. Duplex Communication:
In duplex communication, mode data transmission is possible from both directions. The receiver can
immediately respond to the sender. The duplex communication can be categorized into two groups.
a. Half Duplex:
In this type of communication mode data can be transmitted in both directions, but only in one direction
at a time. Both sender and receiver cannot transfer the data at a time. While sending data it cannot
receive it and while receiving data it cannot send.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in both direction but single direction at one time.
 Receiving end acts as mere listener while sender sends data and vice versa.
 The communication is slower.
 Willkie Talkie used by the police man is the best example of half-duplex communication mode.

b. Full Duplex
Full Duplex communications allows data to flow the information at the same time. Speaking on telephone
of full Duplex communication mode in which both the sender and receiver can speak simultaneously.
Bidirectional communication at the same time is called full duplex communication mode.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in both direction at the same time.
 When one end sends data other end can receive as well as send data.
 Communication is faster.
 Telephone is an example of full duplex mode.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

S.N. Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

1 It is a uni-directional It is a two way directional It is a two way directional
communication communication but one at a communication simultaneously.
time.
2 Sender can send the data but Sender can send the data and Sender can send the data and
can't receive the data in it. also can receive the data but also can receive the data
one at time in it. simultaneously in it.
3 It provides less performance It provides less performance It providers better performance
than half duplex and full duplex. than full duplex. than simplex and half duplex
mode.
4 Examples: radio and newspaper Examples: Walky-talky and Examples: smart phone and
wireless handset land line phones.
Computer Network:
 It is defined as the collection of two or more autonomous computers which are interconnected
together for sharing resources with the help of transmission media and set of protocols.
 A computer network is a logical or physical interconnection between two or more computers such
that they could communicate with each other.
 A computer network is the group of two or more computers or computing devices interconnected
together for communicating, sharing information, hardware, software and data.
Services provided by the computer network.
 Data sharing
 Print service
 File service
 Database service
 Application service

Advantages of Computer Network

1. Sharing resources: Software and hardware resources such as processor, storage devices, printers,
scanner, etc. can be shared among us using computer network. It helps to minimize the
operational cost of an organization.
2. Saving Cost: Sharing of hardware and software resource avoids duplication, helps in optimal
utilization of all types of resource like printer, disks, database etc.
3. Faster and cheaper communication: communication in modern days has become very faster and
cheaper to send information to a long distance through network.
4. Centralized control: all network resources such as computers, printer file, database, etc can be
managed and controlled by a central connecting computer also known as the server.
5. Enterprises and chain organization developed: One office or head of the organization can easily
visualize and monitor offices and staffs geographically located in different places through
videoconference, CC camera etc.
6. Backup and recovery: server is used to keep data as backup. It maintains backup of all individual
computer information.
7. Remote and mobile access: a remote user can access resources from the distance using computer
network.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
1. Expensive: In order to install computer network, we require some extra cost to purchase
networking devices such as hubs, switch, cables, etc.
2. Security problems: network security is the most challenging job for network administrator in order
to protect network resources from authorized users and physical destructions.
3. Needs technical person: it is very difficult to install and operate good computer network.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Types of Computer Network

On the basis of size computer networks can be classified into three categories:
1. PAN (Personal Area Network): The computer network formed around a person is called Personal Area
Network (PAN).
 It is personal device network within a limited area.
 It consists of a computer, mobile, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). It can be used for
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.
Advantages
1. It can be relatively secure and safe.
2. It offers short- range up to ten meters.
Disadvantages
1. It may establish a bad connection to other network
2. It is limited within shorter distances.
2. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is privately owned small size network. It spans only in small
geographical area such as within a room, office, buildings or up to few kilometers (2 to 3 Km). It
connects the network resources such as computers, faxes, printers and various networking
devices.
Advantages of LAN
1. It is cheaper to establish.
2. Data transmission is faster than MAN and WAN.
3. It has higher security to resources of the network
4. It is eager to establish, manages of the network and operate
Disadvantages of LAN
1. It is limited only to a small area.
2. It can connect less number of computers comparatively.
3. Cannot be used as distributed network.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN can be either public or privately owned network. Its size is
bigger than LAN and smaller than WAN. It spans within one metropolitan city or larger geographical
area. It can connect large number of computers and heterogeneous multiple LANs within a city
maximum, up to 100Km.
Advantages of MAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer than LAN.
3. We can use guided as well as unguided type of transmission media.
Disadvantages of MAN
1. It is expensive to set up then LAN.
2. Transmission speed slower compared to LAN.
3. It is complex to establish, manage and provides security.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is basically public type heterogeneous network. It is the largest sized
network and connects millions of computers, thousands of LANs, hundreds of MANs around the
countries, continents and even the whole world.
Advantage of WAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN and MAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer compared to LAN and MAN.
3. Using WAN communication can be done over a large distance.
Disadvantage of WAN
1. It is expensive to establish, manage and operate.
2. It is the slowest type of network compared to that of LAN and MAN.
3. Highly qualified manpower are required to establish and run these type of network.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Differentiate between LAN and WAN

S.N. Local Area Network (LAN) S.N. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1 Area covered within a local site. 1 Distance up to thousands of K.M.
2 Higher data transfer rates (10 Mbps to 1Gbps 2 Data transfer rate is less
even more).
3 It has low error rates. 3 It has higher error rates.
4 It uses simple protocol, low cost devices and 4 It uses complex protocols, expensive
low cost installation. devices and high cost installation.
5 It can support limited number of hosts. 5 It can support large number of hosts.
6 Eg. Star, cellular topologies etc. 6 Eg. Internet and intranet
7 Generally, LANs use wireless or digital 7 WANs use digital or analog signal
transmission. transmission.
Comparison of LAN, MAN and WAN
S.N. LAN MAN WAN
1 The computer network The computer network The computer network
limited over small spread over the city or spread over the world is
geographical area such as country is known as known as WAN.
building or room. MAN
2 It is owned by an private It can be owned by private There is no single ownership
organization or public organizations. or WAN

3 The bandwidth of LAN is The data transmission rate The data transmission rate is
high. i.e. data transmission is slower in comparison to slowest in comparison to
rate. LAN. LAN and MAN.

4 There is less congestion in There is more congestion in There is more congestion in

LAN. MAN. comparison to LAN and
WAN.
5 It is easy to design and It’s design and maintenance It’s design and maintenance
maintain. is difficult than LAN. is difficult than LAN and
MAN.
6 There is more fault tolerance. There is less fault tolerance. There is also less fault
tolerance.
7 It is used in school, college, It is used in city, towns. It is used for countries,
hospital …etc. continent and globe.
8 Transmission channels are Transmission channel are Communication channel
normally twisted pair cables. fiber optics, coax cable. ranges from fiber optics
cables to communication
satellites.
9 It Stands for Local Area It stands of Wide Area It stands for Metropolitan
Network Network Area Network.

Transmission media:
A transmission media is defined as the means of communication between two networking devices that
helps to transfer data from sender to receiver and vice versa.
 Transmission channel is the path through which data are transmitted from source to destination.
 The path through which data transmit form source to destination is known as communication
media.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

1) Bound (guided)/ Wired media
 Guided Media are those communication channel which directly link with each other through cables or
other physical media.
 Data are transmitted in closed path through transmission media.
 Data gets transmitted through wires or cables in guided media.
 In guided media there is direct connection between source and destination nodes.
 Guided media has high bandwidth, low cost and high security.
 Data transmission is faster than wireless.
 The most commonly used guided media are: Twisted Pair cable, Coaxial Cable and Fiber Optics.

2) Unbound ( unguided) / Wireless media

 The data transmitted in this medium is through electromagnetic waves so
that any physical wire or cable is not required for the transmission.
 Unguided media transmission is bounded by geographical areas.
 Different types of unguided media are: Microwave, Radio wave, satellite
communication, Bluetooth, Infrared, Wi-Fi, Li-Fi.

S.N. Guided Transmission Medium S.N. Unguided Transmission Medium

1 Signal is directed and contained by the 1 It has no physical medium for the
physical limits of the medium. transmission of electromagnetic signals.
2 It is called wired communication or 2 It is called wireless communication or
bounded transmission media. unbounded transmission media.
3 The signal energy propagates through 3 The signal energy propagates through air in
wires in guided media. unguided media.
4 It types are twisted pair cable, coaxial 4 It types are radio wave, microwave and
cable and fiber optic cable. infrared.
5 Examples: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable 5 Examples: Microwave or radio links and
and fiber optic cables. infrared light.
1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: The transmission of data and information
from source to destination by using physical medium like wires are called bounded transmission
media. Its types are as follows.
1) Twisted pair cable
i) Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP)
ii) Unshielded Twisted pair cable (UTP)
2) Coaxial Cable: 2.1. Thinnet 2.2 Thicnet
3) Fiber optics
Twisted pair cable: A pair of copper wires is twisted to each other in a helical path making the same
structure as a DNA molecule.
- The reason for twisting is to reduce electrical interference.
- It is the cheapest and easily available wire.
- It is mostly used in telephone systems.
Advantages
1. It is cheaper than other cables.
2. It is light and thin. So, it is flexible for LAN.
3. It can travel data in short distance with higher bandwidth.
Disadvantage
1. It is only used for short distance transmission.
2. It can be affected by electrical and magnetic field.
3. It is slower type of transmission media compared to other cables.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Shielded Twisted Pair cable is identical to UTP but it contains the extra shield covering the each pairs of
cables. The installation of STP is comparatively difficult than UTP and they are more expensive than UTP
but has high bandwidth.
Features of STP Cable
» Better performance and high data transfer rate.
» Eliminates cross talk
» Faster than UTP
» More expensive
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
UTP is a commonly used cable because it is easy to install and is suitable for data and voice transmission. Unlike
STP, UTP cable doesn’t have the extra protection shield.
Features:
 Less expensive.
 Easy to install.
 High speed capacity.
 Susceptible to external interference.
 Lower capacity and performance than STP.
 Short distance transmission.
S.N. UTP S.N. STP
1 Electromagnetic interference and noise is more 1 STP cable reduce electrical noise within the
in UTP cable and from outside of the cable.
2 It offers speed or throughput of about 10 to 1000 2 It offers speed or throughput of about 10 to
Mbps. 100 Mbps.
3 It offers maximum cable length of about 100 3 It supports maximum segment of length
meters. about 100 meters.
4 UTP is widely used for data transmission within 4 STP is mainly used for connection of
short distance and is very popular for home enterprises over a long distance.
network connecting.
5 The cost of UTP is less when compared to that of 5 STP is costlier than UTP.
STP.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other components
engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily used by cable TV companies to connect their
satellite antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses.
Coaxial cable contains two conductors inner and outer, which are separated by an insulator. These two
conductors lies parallel to each other. The inner conductor is made up of copper wire which is covered by
an inner insulator. The inner insulator is again covered by outer conductor or metal foil. Outer metal
wrapping is used as a protection against noise and as the second conductor which completes the circuit.
The outer conductor is covered with an insulating cover.
Advantages:
1. It is faster and reliable than twisted pair cable.
2. It can transfer data over medium range of distance.
Disadvantages
1. It is not appropriate for relatively larger distance.
2. It is expensive than twisted pair cable.
3. It is rarely used in computer network.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Coaxial cable is of two types:

(a) Baseband transmission (Thin net): It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at
high speed.
(b) Broadband transmission (Thick net): It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Fiber Optics:
It is the most advanced media in communication, which uses light rather than electricity to transmit
information. Optical fiber is very thin media, which is measured in microns and is very hard to identify
with our necked eye. They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking, and
telecommunications. Fiber optic cables support much of the world's internet, cable television, and
telephone systems.
Features:
o » Data are transmitted in the form of light signals.
o » It is made up of glasses or plastics cover with fiber to protect.
o » It is difficult to install.
o » It has high bandwidth.
o » Data can transfer longer and faster than twisted pair and coax cable.
Advantages:
1. It has higher bandwidth that means it can handle large volume of data.
2. This medium can be used for long distance transmission.
3. It is the most secured and error free transmission medium.
Disadvantages
1. It is one of the expensive type of transmission media.
2. It is not used for short distance transmission.
3. Highly qualified and technical manpower are required to operate on fiber optics.
4. Difficult to install and Fragile in nature

2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:

Unbound transmission is also called wireless or unguided media. If there is no physical connectors
(wires) between the two communicating device is called wireless transmission media. Its types are as
follows.
1. Radio Wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared
4. Satellite Communication:

1. Radio wave:
Radio wave are the signals ranging frequency in between 3 KHz and 1 GHz.
When the antenna transmits the radio wave; they are propagated in all directions. Due to this the
sending and receiving antenna doesn’t need to be in line of sight position. Antenna is responsible for
converting outgoing data packets into radio waves and vice-versa.
Features:
 It is wireless communication technology that transmits voice or data over the air using a lower
frequency band than microwaves.
 The signal is travel in up and down manner so that it can reach any place until the strength of
waves falls.
 AM and FM radios and cordless phones use radio waves for transmission.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

2. Microwave:
Microwave, in contrast, have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher
frequency than radio wave and therefore, they can handle larger amounts of data. There are, of course,
problems with microwaves attenuation and environmental interference.
 Microwave transmission is the line of sight transmission.
 The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station.
 The microwave is unidirectional. 
 This sets the limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography.
 The microwave is another type of electromagnetic waves that have a frequency range of 1 GHz to
300 GHz.
 In this transmission, whenever the signals are transmitted through an antenna, the signals can make
narrow to focus to a particular point. And in this transmission, there is a requirement of proper
alignment of sending antenna and receiving antenna.

3. Infrared:
Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared communications use
light. So, they are not bound by the limitations of electricity. They are normally used for short range
communication such as in communication of remote and TV, Ac etc.

Satellite Transmission:
These are the artificial satellites which are placed in the space for the purpose of communication
between different antennas available of on the earth. These artificial satellites facilitate the transmission
of signals between stations of the earth. They relays and amplifies radio telecommunication by creating
communication channel between source transmitter and destination transmitter.

Transmission Impairments Terminologies

(Jitter, Singing, Echo, Crosstalk, Distortion, Noise, Bandwidth and Number of receivers)

Jitter:
 When we make a call over internet with anyone and suddenly line drops and their voice starts
breaking up, its called jitter.
 Jitter is defined as a variation in the delay of received packets.
 Jitter is when there is a time delay in the sending of these data packets over your network
connection.
Singing:
 Singing is the result of sustained oscillations due to positive feedback in telephone amplifiers
or amplifying circuits.
 Singing may be regarded as echo that is completely out of control. This can occur at the
frequency at which the circuit is resonant.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Echo:
 Echo in telephone systems is the return of a talker's voice. It is most apparent to the talker himself
or herself. Secondarily, it can also be an annoyance to the listener.
 Echo is a major annoyance to the telephone user. It affects the talker more than the listener. Two
factors determine the degree of annoyance of echo: its loudness and its length of delay.
Crosstalk:
 Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one telecommunication
signal affecting a signal in an adjacent circuit.
 It is an effect a wire on another. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the transmission
medium acts as the receiving antenna. Just like in telephone system, it is a common experience
to hear conversation of other people in the background. This is known as cross talk.
Distortion:
 Distortion is the change in the form or shape of the signal. Signals are made up of different
frequencies are composite signals.
 Distortion occurs in these composite signals. Any change in a signal that alters the basic
waveform or the relationship between various frequency components is called distortion. It is
usually a degradation of the signal.
Noise:
 Noise is another impairment in data communication. It is another problem of data
communication. During data communication there are some random or unwanted signals mix
up with the original signal is called noise.
 Noises can corrupt the signals in many ways along with the distortion introduced by the
transmission media.
Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth is the amount of data transmitted through the transmission channel at certain
period of time. High bandwidth means higher bits of data are transmitted and low bandwidth
means less bits of data are transmitted through the communication channel.
 The bandwidth of analog device is measured in Hertz (Hz) and bandwidth of digital device is
measured in bps (bits per second). It is also known as data holding capacity of transmission
channel.
Receiver:
 Receiver, in electronics, any of various devices that accept signals, such as radio waves, and
convert them (frequently with amplification) into a useful form. Examples are telephone
receivers, which transform electrical impulses into audio signals, and radio or television
receivers, which accept electromagnetic waves and convert them into sound or television
pictures.

Network architecture:
Network architecture refers to the various services provided by the network and it also deals with how
data is transmitted from one computer to others.
1. Client server network: An arrangement of computers to resource sharing and communicate each
other through a central device (server) to all workstations (clients) is called client server architecture
one or more computers in the network act as server which provides services to other computers which
are called clients.
 The server is a high capacity high speed computer with a large memory.
 Server contains the network operating system.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 The central server manages, organize, and coordinate all network clients on the network.
 The most common service is provided by different servers are file services, print services,
 Message services and database services.
Advantages
1. Centralized administration is possible through this network.
2. High security can be provided by suing appropriate server.
3. It is appropriate for large organization.
4. Data recovery and backup process is easier.
Disadvantages
1. If server fails whole network is affected.
2. It is expensive due to use of dedicated server.
3. It is complex to establish and manage.
4. Experienced administrator is required to operate.

2. Peer-peer network: In peer-to-peer architecture computers are connected individually in pair (one-
to-one connection). A peer-to-peer network is the type of network in which all computers in the
network act both a client and a server i.e. all computers can both request and provide services.
 Each workstations act as both a client and a server.
 There is no central repository for information and no central server to maintain.
 Peer to peer network are generally simpler and less expensive.
 A peer to peer network is also known as a distributed network.
 Peer to peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions
task or workstations between peers.
 Peers are equally privileged and equal participants in the application.
 Each node shares its sources with other nodes in the network.
Advantages
1. It is simple cheap and easier to set up.
2. Since there is no dedicated server, user can manage their own server.
3. Failure of a computer in a network doesn't effect the other computer in a network.

Disadvantages
1. Data security is very poor in this type of architecture.
2. Data recovery and backup is difficult.
3. It is not appropriate for large scale organization.
4. Network administration is difficult it without dedicated Server.

Difference between Client Server and Peer to Peer

Client Server Peer to peer
1. It is also known as centralized or server based
1. It is also known as distributed network
network.
2. It has central server computer. 2. There is no central server computer.
3. The central server manages, organize, and 3. Peers are equally privileged and equal
coordinate all network clients on the network. participants in the application.
4. Peer to peer network are generally
4. Client server network are more expensive.
simpler and less expensive.
5. It has high security. 5. It is less security.
6. Data and information is shared around
6. If server crashes there is a chance of data loss.
the network, so less chance of data loss.
7. Example, Google server, Yahoo server and 7. Example One to one computer and
Bank etc. Bluetooth connectivity etc.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Network or LAN topology and it's types

Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. It shows the geographical representation
of all the links and linking devices, also called nodes. It is the shaped of Network.
The main objectives of the network topology is to find out the most economical and efficient way of
transmission channel.
Its types are as:
1. Bus Topology: Computers are connected to a single continuous cable that is called 'bus'. It acts as
backbone. It is based on client server network architecture.

Fig. bus topology

Advantages
- It is simple and easy to setup and extend the network.
- It required less cable.
- If any computer in the network downs, then it does not affect the whole network.
- We can easily connect and disconnect any number of computers in the bus.
Disadvantages.
- Data traffic is very high in bus.
- If there is problem in main cable then entire network goes down.
- It is very difficult to find out the fault in the bus.

2. Star Topology:- Computers in the network are connected to each other with the help of central
connecting device hub or switch or server. It is based on client server architecture. It is the most
popular and widely used topology for LAN.

Fig. Star topology

Advantages
- It is simple, reliable and easy to set up and re-configuration.
- It is flexible to connect new computer and remove existing computer in the network.
- It is very easy to find out fault.
- If any computer in the network goes down, then other computers can continue their functions.
Disadvantages
- It requires very large amount of cables.
- It is expensive topology.
- If there is any problem in central device hub or switch then the entire network will be down.
- The data traffic is high in central device hub.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

3. Ring Topology:- Computers are interconnected to each other by making a closed circular structure
that means each computer is connected to other two adjacent computer in either network
architecture.

Fig. Ring Topology

Advantages
- It simple and inexpensive topology.
- There is less chance of data collision because of unidirectional data transmission.
- There is no server so each computer has equal access facilities to the resources.
- Its performance is better than bus topology for small size network.
Disadvantages
- It is not flexible topology so it is difficult for adding and removing new nodes.
- It is not suitable for large size network.
- If there is problem in any computer or connection then the entire network goes down.
- It is very difficult to find out the errors in the network.
4. Mesh Topology:- Every computer in the network has point to point connection to all other
computers by using multiport connector. It is also based on peer to peer architecture.

Fig. mesh topology

Advantages
- It is fastest and most reliable topology.
- Failure in any computer or transmission media does not affect the rest of the network.
- There is less amount of data traffic due to multiple paths.
Disadvantages
- It is very much complex and most expensive topology.
- It is difficult to find an error in the network.
- It is difficult to add and remove nodes in the network so it is not flexible.
- It requires maximum amount of cables and multiport connectors.

5. Tree Topology:- Tree topology is the extension of bus or star topology. Data can flow from top to
bottom and vice versa.

Fig. Tree Topology

Advantages
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

- It is easy to manage network as per our needs.

- It is very flexible so we can add and remove any number of nodes.
- It is easier to find the fault nodes or hubs in the network.
Disadvantages
- The failure of root node will cause the failure of entire network.
- It is expensive because it needs large number of cable and network device.
- The data traffic is high at root nodes.
6. Hybrid topology: if two or more topologies are combined together then it is called hybrid
topology. So it is very difficult to design and to implement the hybrid topology. It is expensive too.

Advantages
 Reliable
 Scalable
 Flexible
 Effective
Disadvantages
 Complexity of design
 Costly connecting devices
 Costly infrastructure

OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model

It is based on a proposal developed by the international organization for standardization (ISO). The model
is called ISO OSI reference model, because it deals with connecting open system i.e. the system that are
open for communication with other system.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

1. Physical Layer: This layer concerned with transmission of bit it determines voltage level for 0 & 1. It
also determines the data rate of the system. This layer involves standardized protocol dealing with
electrical & signaling interface.
2. Data Link Layer: It handles error in physical layer. This layer ensures the correct delivery of frame to
the destination address. It consists of 2 parts or 2 sub-layers. i.e.
i. Logic Link Control
ii. Media Access Control
3. Network Layer: This layer is concerned with transmission of packet. N/w layer protocol chooses the
best path to send a package called routing. Two protocols are widely used in n/w layer.
i. X.25 Protocol
ii. Internet Protocol
4. Transport Layer: It provides the mechanism for the exchange of data between end systems. It ensures
that the data received is in fact in order. Following jobs are performed by this layer.
i. Port Addressing
ii. Segmentation & Reassemble
iii. Connection Control
5. Session Layer: It is responsible for requesting logical connection to be established for communication
process. This logical connection is termed as session. It also provides data synchronization between two
communication terminals.
6. Presentation layer: This layer translates format data to adapt to the needs of the application layer &
nodes at both receiving & sending end of communication process. It handles data communication,
formatting, encryption, decryption, etc.
7. Application Layer: It is the top-most layer of OSI model & provides user access to the n/w. It provides
services that support user application, such as database access, email & file transfer, etc.

Network Connecting devices:

The devices of computer network which are used to connect network is called the network connecting
devices. We can connect two or more networks together to create larger network. A LANs can be
connected others LANs, MANs or WAN.

4. Network Interface Boards or Network Interface Card (NIC):

The NIC contains the electronic circuitry needed to ensure the reliable communications between
workstations and servers. The NIC is the electronic interface between the computer and the LAN cabling.
The card itself uses a bus-specific edge connector to plug into the computer motherboard. On the exposed
side of the NIC, there are cabling ports that plug directly into the LAN cabling.
5. Repeaters:
As the name implies, repeaters repeat network data. In general, repeaters operate at the electronic level
and contain no real intelligence. A repeater accepts weak signals, electrically regenerates them and then
sends the messages on their way. There are two types of repeaters: amplifiers and signal-regenerating
repeaters.
3. Hubs:
Technically speaking, a hub is simply a multi-port repeater. In addition to regenerating network data, hubs
add form and function to the layout of the LAN. In many topologies, the hub is the central component of
the network transmission media. There are three types of hubs. They are the passive hub, active hub and
intelligent hub.
4. Bride:
It is a device, which connects different network segments and passes data with the same communication
protocols. It is the connecting device between two or more hubs.
- It operates at layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of OSI Model.
- It reduces unnecessary traffic problem by controlling broadcasting.
- Bridges are more intelligent than hubs because they maintain MAC address tables in them and
forward data looking on it.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

- Bridge collect and pass packets between 2 networks segments.

5. Router:
A router transmits information from one network to another. The router selects the best path to route a
message, based on the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on
collisions and smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
- Direct signal traffic efficiently.
- Route message between any two protocols.
- Route message between different topologies.
- Route message across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling.
6. Gateways:
Gateways are just like routers but much more complex and powerful than routers. They are slower than
router and expensive. A gateway has all the features of router and bridges but it can translate instruction
set on sending network into receiving network.
- Gateways make communication possible between different architecture and environments.
- Gateways having higher layer functionalities and works on multiple layer protocols.
7. Wi-Fi:-
The term Wi-Fi suggests wireless Fidelity. It is hardware and software devices. It is wireless technology
and network connecting device. Wi-Fi is not a technical term. The technical term of Wi-Fi is "IEEE802.11"
- It has limited range.
- Wi-Fi is used in many personal computers, video game consoles, MP3 players, smart phones, printers,
digital camera, laptops computers and other devices.
- Wi-Fi is used to create wireless LAN to connect computer system.
8. Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchange data over short distance from fixed and mobile
devices. Bluetooth is used to create personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security.
9. Infared (IR):
Infared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light and below
the red light. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 100 GHz to 100 THz
and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room.

Some basic terms

Internet
The Internet is an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of computers linking
business, education institutions, government agencies, and individuals together.

Used / application of internet

1. Search information
2. E-mail service
3. Communication
4. File Transfer
5. Remote login
6. Publishing of articles, reports, and newsletter.
7. Online education
8. Online shopping.
9. Entertainment.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Sub Net Mask

The subnet mask number helps to define the relationship between the host (computers, routers switches,
etc.) and the rest of the network. As the name indicates, the subnet mask is used to subdivide a network
into smaller, more manageable chunks.

Gateway
A gateway is a network node that servers as an access point to another network, often involving not only
a change of addressing but also a different networking technology.

IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP Address) is an unique identification number assigned to each devices
connected in a network that uses Internet protocol for communication. The typical IP address looks like
216.27.67.137
IP address are expressed in decimal as above which is easier for us to remember, but computers
communicate in binary. So same IP address looks like

11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001

IP address has four sets of number separated by a period ( . ), These sets are Called Octets. IP address
perform mainly two functions. One is identification of Network and Identification of particular host in
that network.

MAC address
Media Access Control (MAC) address also known as hardware or physical address is unique number
associated with a network adapter (NIC). It is used to uniquely identify each device (node) of a network.
MAC address is usually assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface card (NIC) and are stored in
its ROM. All NIC developed contains unique MAC address. It is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit in
length) and are Witten in following formats.

MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of the address contains ID number of the adapter regulated by an Internet standards body
and other half represent the number assigned by the manufacturer. For example: 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
The prefix 00A0C9 indicates manufactures Intel Corporation and 14C829 indicates a particular host.

Intranet:

An intranet is a private network that uses internet protocols, to securely share part of an organization's
information between its employees. An intranet is a Local Area Network or Wide Area Network that uses
TCP/IP protocol but, belongs to a corporation, school, or organization.

The intranet is accessible only to the organization's workers. If the intranet is connected the Internet,
then it is secured by a firewall to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to it.

Advantages of an Intranet

1. Workforce productivity: Employees can easily access and share information in-between their
workgroups which enhances productivity

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

2. Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information available to employees in any time.

3. Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization.

Extranet:

An extranet is a private intranet that can be accessed by outside users over the secure channel. To gain
entrance to the extranet's resource, an external user must log on to the networks by providing a valid
user ID and password. The extranet is a combination of the public Internet and the closed intranet.

Difference between Internet and Intranet?

Intranet Internet

It is a private network. It is a public network.

Intranet users are your own employees who know a lot Internet user know much less about
about the company, its organizational structure and your company and also care less
special terminology. about it.

The intranet is used for everyday work inside the The Internet is mainly used to find
company. out information.

The intranet will have many official draft reports, project

Internet have all types of
progress reports, human resource information, and other
information based on requirements.
detailed information.

Internet has tremendous amount of

Intranet has less amount of information.
information.

Intranet can work on low and mid-bandwidth. Internet requires higher band width.

Network Tool
Network tools are used for supporting easier and effective network connections. Some of the network
tools are:
1. Packet tracer:
Packet Tracer is an innovative and powerful network simulator that can be used for a practice build
own network with routers, switches, wireless, and much more. It allows to experiment with network
behaviour, build models and to ask "what if" questions. It is used to trace the movement of data
packets in data communication. Packet Tracer provides simulation, visualization, authoring,
assessment, and collaboration capabilities to facilitate the teaching and learning of complex
technology concepts.

2. Remote login: Remote login allows a user terminal to connect to a host computer via a network or
direct telecommunications link, and to interact with that host computer as if the user terminal were
directly connected to that host computer. Remote Login is a process in which user can login into a
remote site i.e. computer, and use services that are available on the remote computer. With the help
of remote login a user can understand result of transferring result of processing from the remote
computer to the local computer.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Protocols:
A communication protocol is a formal description of digital message formats and the rules for exchanging
that message in between computer systems. Protocols define a set of formal rules describing how to
transmit data especially across a network.

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP/IP is a layered set of protocols TCP is
reliable, but complex transport-layer protocol. It is stream connection-oriented and reliable transport
protocol. TCP/IP is the protocol used by Internet. It adds connection-oriented and reliability features. TCP
is responsible for making sure that the data is transmitted to other end. It keeps track of what is sent, and
re transmits any data that has not reached its destination. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal
communication protocol used for transmitting data packets across and network using the Internet
Protocol Suite. Internet exist due to TCP/IP.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for transferring data between client and server over
TCP/IP (Internet). Hence, it is responsible for uploading and downloading files to and from the server.

3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is simple, connection less, unreliable transport protocol. It
performs very limited error checking. It is mainly used for transmitting multimedia data, which requires
faster transmission and error checking is not used.

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is a standard protocol for transmitting electronic mail
(email) by the internet. It is a Internet mail protocol. It is a TCP/IP protocol used to send emails

5. POP (Post Office Protocol): POP is also a protocol for transmitting email. It is simple but has limited
functionality. It is an application layer Internet standard protocol used by clients to access e-mail from a
server over a TCP/IP connection i.e. internet. POP3 (POP version 3) is used at present. POP3 is supported
by most modern webmail services such as Gmail and Yahoomail.

6. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP networking protocol for distributed, collaborative,
hypermedia information systems. It is used transmitting hypertext or HTML based document. It is the
foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web used by web browser to communication with
respective servers.

7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTPS is combination of Protocol with the SSL/TLS
protocol to provide encrypted identification of a network. HTTPS connections are often used in World
Wide Web for sensitive transactions. The main objective of HTTPS is to create a secure channel over an
insecure network

Layer Protocols
Application FTP, TFTP, Telnet, Gopher, HTTP
Presentation SMTP, NFS
Session Telnet, SNMP
Trasport TCP, UDP
Network IP
Data Link ARP, RARP, RIP
Physical Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Bibliography

 Balaguruswamy, E. Programming in ANSI C. Tata McGraw-Hill

 Evans, P. (2001) Information and Communication Technology, 2 edition Payne Call way
Publishers.
 French, C.S. (1996). Computer Science, 5% edition, W.M. Print Ltd.
 Gottfried, B. Programming with C, Tata McGraw-Hill,
 Jaiswal, S. (2001). Information Technology Today, 3rd edition, Galgotia Publication
 Kanetkar, Y. Let Us C, 8th edition, BPB Publication
 Lafore, R. Object Oriented Programming in C++, Golgotia Publication.
 Lafore, R. Turbo C. Golgotia Publication.
 Laudon, K.C. & Laudon, J.P. Management Information Systems, Managing Digital Firm, 9 edition,
Prentice-Hall, India. Shrestha, P.R., Bhusal, R., Khanal, R. (2077). Essentials of Computer Science.
Kathmandu Asmita Books Publisher and Distributors (P) Ltd.
 Silberscratz, HF & Korth, S. Database System Concepts, 4th edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
 Stephen, D., (1999). Information Systems for You, 2nd edition, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
 Tanenbaum, A.S., Computer Networks, 4th edition, Prentice Hall,
 William, S. Data and Computer Communication, 6th edition, Prentice Hall

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org

The End

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Grade: XII

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit 3- Web Technology II
1. What is web technology? Explain different data types used in JavaScript.
2. Differentiate between client side scripting and Server-side scripting.
3. What is event handling in JavaScript? Give one example.
4. What is JQuery? Write its features and Write a program to displaying a message "Hello Class 12" using JQuery.
5. What is JavaScript? How can you add JavaScript to an HTML page? Describe with example.
6. What is jQuery? Write its features.
7. What is Java Script function? Explain with calling function examples.
8. What is PHP? Write the advantages of PHP.
9. Explain the different operators used in PHP.
10. What are the features of PHP? Write a PHP program to display the largest among three numbers.
11. Define SQL? Write down the SQL queries to create a database, create a table in the database, insert data in the table,
and query the data to display it.
12. Write down the server side script to create a database, connect with it, create a table and insert data in it.
Practical Programs
1. Write a java Script to display 1 to 10 using for loop, while loop and do while loop.
2. Create a Page with a button with value "Computer" on clicking the button your page should" Computer Science".
3. Write a JavaScript program to display "Welcome Class-12" using onload event.
4. Design a form with username, address, e-mail, password and submit button. Validated the form using jQuery.
5. Design a form with username and password and submit button. Write a PHP code to get value of username and
password using a) $_POST variable and b) $_GET variable.
6. Write a PHP program to check if a string is a palindrome or not.
7. Write a Java Script program to calculate the factorial of a given number.
8. Write a java script program to input three number and find largest one using java and PHP.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Web technology

Introduction
Web Technology is the tools and techniques which enables two or more computing devices to
communicate over a network i.e. Internet.

Web Technology consist of two words, the web refers to the World Wide Web generally known as World
Wide Web.

WWW is the cyber space containing webpages, documents, and any other resources which are identified
and located with the help of their URLs.

Technology refers to the tools and techniques that makes these resources available on the Web such as,
web browsers to view content of web, Programming languages and frameworks for the development of
websites, Database to store data at back end, protocols for communicating on the web, multimedia
elements etc.

Web development

It is the process of designing and developing website which are hosted through internet or intranet. The
process of developing web can range from developing static page to a complex such as web based
application social media sites, E-commerce.

Web development includes web design, web content development, client side scripting, server side
scripting, web engineering etc. Since, web development consists of several inter-related task which can
be accomplish by different types of developer who focuses on different aspect of web creation.

Frontend Backend
Client Side Server Side
Website Design Database
HTML PHP
CSS Java
JavaScript Python
AJAX Ruby
UI/UX Servers
Some UI technologies Some Backend technologies
Ruby .NET
Scripting Language:
 JavaScript is a scripting language. A scripting language is a lightweight programming language.
JavaScript code can be inserted into any HTML page, and it can be executed by all types of web
browsers.

 JavaScript is used to make web pages interactive. It runs on your visitor's computer and doesn't
require constant downloads from your website. JavaScript and Java are completely different
language, both in concept and design.
Unlike HTML, JavaScript is case sensitive-therefore watch your capitalization closely when you write
JavaScript statements, create or call variables, objects and functions.
A scripting language is a programming language designed for integrating and communicating with other
programming language. It is used in server side as well as client side. Some of the most widely used
scripting language are JavaScript, VBScript, PHP, Perl, Python, Ruby etc.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Application Areas of Scripting Language

 Dynamic web applications
 Game application and Multimedia
 Scripting like Ruby and Python are used in statistics and research
 To automate the process
 Used to create plug ins and extensions for existing applications.

Some of the popular Language are

1. Python: Python is a very popular and demanding programming language now because it is suitable
for developing very simple to complex applications. It is also used to connect database systems.
Python has simple English like syntax.
2. Perl: Practical Extraction and Reporting Language, first released in 1987 is a powerful language
with advance features. Perl is a stable, cross platform programming language. It is a general-
purpose programming language originally developed for text manipulation and now used for a
wide range of tasks including system administration, web development, network programming,
GUI development, and more.
3. Ruby: Ruby is a dynamic, open source programming language with a focus on simplicity and
productivity. It has an elegant syntax that is natural to read and easy to write.
4. Bash: A Bash script is a plain text file which contains a series of commands. It is widely available on
various operating systems and is a default command interpreter on most GNU/Linux systems.
5. Node.js: Node.js is used to create dynamic page contents. It can create, open, read, write, delete,
and close file on the server.
6. ASP.net: It is used to develop dynamic websites, web applications, and web services. ASP.NET is a
web application framework developed and marketed by Microsoft to allow programmers to build
dynamic web sites.
7. VBScript: Visual Basic Script (VBScript) is an open source web programming language developed
by Microsoft. It is superset of JavaScript and adds optional static typing class based object oriented
programming VBScript is lightweight scripting language. As VBScript is only used by IE browsers
JavaScript is preferred over VBScript.
8. JavaScript: JavaScript is most well-known and widely used scripting language for web pages. All
java script files are stored in file having is extension. JavaScript and Java programming language
are two different things: JavaScript is generally used for making websites interactive and dynamic.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

9. jQuery: JQuery is a JavaScript library that simplifies writing code and enables rapid web
development. JQuery simplifies HTML document traversing and manipulation, and browser event
handling. The main concept of jQuery is "write less, do more".
10. PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) is widely used scripting language. PHP scripts are executed on
the server. It is used to manage dynamic content, databases, session tracking and building e-
commerce sites. It is integrated with a popular database MySQL.

S.N. Scripting Language S.N. Programming Language

1 Scripting language are platform-specific. 1 Programming language are platform-
independent.
2 Most of the scripting languages are 2 Most of the programming language are
interpreted. complied.
3 Scripting language runs slower than 3 Programming languages runs faster than
programming language. scripting language.
4 Developer has to write less code compared 4 Developer has to write much code
to programming language. compared to scripting language.
5 We cannot create standalone application 5 We can create standalone application with
with scripting language only. programming language only.
6 Examples, JavaScript, VBScript, Python, 6 Examples, C, C++, Java etc.
Perl, ASP etc.
7 Scripting languages run inside other 7 It is not dependent on other programs to
programs. It is dependent on other run. It is independent.
programming language.

Server side and client side programming

Client-Side Scripting programming

Client-side scripting is performed to generate a code that can run on the client side i.e (front end) browser
without needing the server-side (back end) processing. Basically, client-side scripts are placed inside an
HTML document.

The client-side scripting can be used to layout the content of the web. For example, when a user makes a
request through web browser for a webpage to the server, it just sent the HTML and CSS as plain text, and
the browser interprets and renders the content of web in the client end (user).

Client-side scripting is designed to run as a scripting language which can be executed by web browser.
Front end developer is someone who design and develop client side of a website. Generally he or she
works in user interface (UI) of a website. Front end developer must be at least fluent in three different
languages i.e. HTML, CSS, JavaScript whereas, there are several other libraries which can be used for front
end development.

Advantages of Client side Scripting:

1. Immediate response to users
2. Enhance the appearance of websites
3. More responsive design and interaction with the user
4. It does not need to send requests to the server hence reduces the load on server
5. Loading time of a page is faster
6. Reduces the network traffic
7. It is reusable

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Disadvantages of Client side Scripting:

1. All browsers may not support client side script
2. The code is not secure because anyone can look at the code
3. Users can disable the client side scripts so required content may not be displayed
4. Database connection is not possible with client side scripting.
5. Dynamic content cannot be displayed.

Server-Side Scripting programming

Server-side scripting also known as back-end runs on the server where the application is hosted. Server-
side is used to serve content depending upon the user request. Back end helps to create dynamic web
based application that allows user to interact and communicate with the application. Back end language
also helps to connect front end with data base. So that, User can store and retrieve data as per the
requirement. Back-end developer is responsible for server-side programming. Some of the popular
server-side (back-end) scripting language are ASP, JavaScript (using SSJS (Server-side JavaScript e.g.
node.js), Perl, PHP, Ruby, Python etc.

The client-side scripting emphasizes making the interface of the web application or website (UI) more
appealing and functional. Whereas, server-side scripting emphasizes on data accessing methods, error
handling and fast processing etc.

Advantages
1) You can create dynamic pages.
2) Can connect to database that resides on the web server.
3) Can access files from the server to client browser Users are not able to block the contents from
server
4) The actual code is not visible to the client
5) Authentication and verification of user is possible
6) It supports many databases like MySQL Oracle,
7) Efficient storage and delivery of information
8) Customized user experience.
9) Controlled access to content
10) Notification and communication
11) Users do not need to download plug-in like java or flash
12) The content management system (CMS) makes editing simpler

Disadvantages of Server side Scripting

1. The scripting software has to be installed on the server.
2. The script takes more time to execute.
3. It requires a large amount of memory space in the server computer.
4. Implementation cost is high
5. If a lot of users are accessing server data, server may crash due to overload

Note: Full-stack developer understand both Front end and back end development process. They can
accomplish entire project. Full stack developer must have expertise in client site and server site Scripting
language. Moreover, he/she has a great knowledge of integrating database with the application.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<head>
<title> Inline javascript Example</title>
<body>
<form>
<center><input type="button" value="ClickMe" onclick="alert('Button Clicked: ')">
</center></form>
</body>
</html>

Comparison between Client-side and Server-side Scripting

This section elaborates the fundamental differences between client-side and server-side scripts:
1. The client-side script is executed at the front-end in the client’s browser while the server-side script
is executed at the back end with a web server.
2. The client-side script is visible to the user of the web browser while the server-side script is hidden.
3. The client-side script is not secure while the server-side script is secure.
4. The client-side script does not need to interact with the server while the server-side script needs a
web server to be processed.
5. The client-side script is executed on a local computer while the server-side script is executed on a
remote computer.
6. The client-side script has a faster response time than the server-side script.
7. Client-side script is executed after the browser receives the web pages sent by the server while the
server-side script cannot execute the client-side script.
8. The client-side script cannot connect with the database while the server-side script can connect
with the database present on the server-side.
9. The client-side script cannot access the files while the server-side script can access and manipulate
the files present at the webserver.
10. The client-side script helps create interactive web pages while the server-side script helps create
web pages with dynamic data.

S.N. Server Side Scripting S.N. Client side scripting

1 The Server executes the server side 1 The client (web browser) executes the
scripting. client side scripting.
2 It can be used to connect database 2 It cannot be used to connect to the
on the web server. database on the web server.
3 Server side scripting response is 3 Client side scripting response is faster.
slower.
4 Source code is not visible to the user 4 Source code is visible to user so it is
so it is secure. relatively insecure.
5 Users can not block server side 5 Users can block client side scripting
scripting.
6 Examples: PHP, ASP.NET, ASP, Ruby 6 Examples: JavaScript, VBScript
on rails, Python, Perl.
7 It does not depend on client. Any 7 It depends on browser and version of the
server side technology can be used. browser.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Internet Technology
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol
suite to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide
Web, electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.

Static Website:
Static Web pages are very simple. It is written in languages such as HTML, JavaScript, CSS, etc. Static
websites are the websites that doesn’t change the content or layout dynamically with every request to
the web server. Static websites display exactly the same information whenever anyone visits it. User
sees the updated content of Static Website only when a web author manually updates them with a text
editor or any web editing tool used for creating websites. Static webpages do not have to be simple
plain text. They can feature multiple design and even videos.

Features of Static Websites:

 Static websites are the simplest kind of website that you can build.
 Every viewer will see the exactly same text, multimedia design or video every time he/she visits the
website until you alter that page’s source code.
 Static websites are written with the help of HTML and CSS.
 The only form of interactively on a static website is hyperlink.
 Static website can be used for the information that doesn’t change substantially over months or
even years.
 Static pages are easy and simple to understand, secure, less prone to technology errors and
breakdown and easily visible by search engines.
 HTML was the first tool with which people had begun to create static web pages.
 Static websites provide flexibility.
 Lightweight.
 Static websites perform faster and well than dynamic ones.
Advantages of Static websites
 Static websites are highly cost-effective for publishing.
 They require less coding and technical knowledge.
 Static websites are easier to make.
 Static websites are quick to develop.
 Static websites are cheap to host.
 A static website contains data which is immutable.
 Static websites are beginner level. A programmer with knowledge of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
can build static websites.
 It’s easy to create and host online.
 Static websites provide security.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Disadvantages of Static Websites:

 Requires web development expertise to update site.
 Site not as useful for the user.
 Content can get stagnant.
 Send the same response for every request.
 Dynamic functionality works only on the client side.

Dynamic website:
Dynamic websites are those websites that changes the content or layout with every request to the
webserver. These websites have the capability of producing different content for different visitors from
the same source code file. There are two kinds of dynamic web pages i.e. client side scripting and server
side scripting. The client-side web pages changes according to your activity on the web page. On the
server-side, web pages are changed whenever a web page is loaded.

Example: login & signup pages, application & submission forms, inquiry and shopping cart pages. A
Typical Architecture of dynamic website

There are different languages used to create dynamic web pages like PHP, ASP, .NET and JSP.
Whenever a dynamic page loads in browser, it requests the database to give information depending
upon user’s input. On receiving information from the database, the resulting web page is applied to
the user after applying the styling codes.

Features of dynamic webpage:

 These websites are very flexible.
 In these websites the content can be quickly changed on the user’s computer without new page
request to the web browser.
 In these websites the owner have the ability to simply update and add new content to the site.
 These websites are featured with content management system, e-commerce system and intranet
or extranet facilities.
 Most of the dynamic web content, is assembled on the web using server-scripting languages.
Advantages of dynamic webpage:
 It provides more functional websites.
 It is very easy to update.
 It helps in the search engines because new content brings people back to the site.
 These are interactive websites because these can be customized.
 These websites can work as a system to allow staff or users to collaborate.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 It’s easy to modify or update data.

 It provides a user-friendly interactive interface for users.
 Proves smooth navigation.
 provide interactive user interface
 It provides a better user experience.
 It provides real-time data.
Disadvantages of dynamic webpages:
 These types of websites are complex.
 These are more expensive to develop.
 Hosting of these websites is also costlier.
 It requires a rapid, high-end web server.
 High production costs.
 Slow to load content.
 Client will require a skilled programmer to build a dynamic website.
 Hosting a website is costly as compared to a dynamic website.
 Low speed compared to a static website
Application of Dynamic Website:
 Online booking system:
 E-commerce website.
 Voting or polls,
 Forums
 E-newsletter.

JavaScript
JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language. It is designed for creating network-centric
applications. It is complimentary to and integrated with Java. JavaScript is very easy to implement because
it is integrated with HTML. It is open and cross-platform.
This tutorial has been prepared for JavaScript beginners to help them understand the basic functionality
of JavaScript to build dynamic web pages and web applications.
Features
 JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language.
 Designed for creating network-centric applications.
 Complementary to and integrated with Java.
 Complementary to and integrated with HTML.
 It is case sensitive language.
 JavaScript is supportable in operating system.
 It provides good control to the users over the web browsers.
<script>
document.write("Hello JavaScript by JavaScript");
</script>

Advantages of JavaScript
1. Less server interaction: You can validate user input before sending the page off to the server. This
saves server traffic, which means fewer loads on your server.
2. Easy to learn: By learning few commands and simple rules of syntax, you can easily build
applications using JavaScript.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

3. Immediate feedback to the visitors: They don't have to wait for a page reload to see if they have
forgotten to enter something.
4. Increased interactivity: You can create interfaces that react when the user hovers over them with
a mouse or activates them via the keyboard.
5. Quick Development: Scripts can be developed in short period of time
6. Richer interfaces: You can use JavaScript to include such items as drag-and-drop components and
sliders to give a Rich Interface to your site visitors.
7. Transmitting information: About the users' reading habits and browsing activities to various
websites. Web pages frequently do this for web analytics, ad tracking personalization or other
purposes.
8. Easy Debugging and Testing: As JavaScript is interpreted line by line, it is easy to find error and
make changes.
9. Interactive content, for example games, and playing audio and video.
10. Validating input values of a Web form to make sure that they are acceptable before being
submitted to the server.

Uses of JavaScript
 Client side validation
 Dynamic drop down menus.
 Displaying date and time.
 Displaying pop-up windows and dialog boxes
 Displaying clocks.
 Event handling.
 Developing Mobile applications
 Creating web browser based games.
 Building web servers
 Adding interactivity to website.

Adding JavaScript to HTML

JavaScript, also known as JS, is one of the scripting (client-side scripting) languages, that is usually used in
web development to create modern and interactive web-pages. The term "script" is used to refer to the
languages that are not standalone in nature and here it refers to JavaScript which run on the client
machine.
In other words, we can say that the term scripting is used for languages that require the support of another
language to get executed. For example, JavaScript programs cannot get executed without the help
of HTML or without integrated into HTML code.
1. Embedding code
2. Inline code
3. External file

1. Embedding code:-
To add the JavaScript code into the HTML pages, we can use the <script>. .... </script> tag of the HTML that
wrap around JavaScript code inside the HTML program. Users can also define JavaScript code in
the <body> tag

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

(or we can say body section) or <head> tag

because it completely depends on the structure of the web page that the users use.

<html>
<head>
<title> page title</title>
<script>
document.write("Welcome to Java Script Programming");
</script>
</head>
<body>
<p>In this example we saw how to add JavaScript in the head section </p>
</body>
</html>
We can also define the JavaScript code in the <body> tags or body section.
Let's understand through an example.
<html>
<head>
<title> Body Section Example</title> </head>
<body>
<script>
document.write("Welcome to Javatpoint");
</script>
<p> In this example we saw how to add JavaScript in the body section </p>
</body>
</html>

2. Inline code:-
Generally, this method is used when we have to call a function in the HTML event attributes. There are
many cases (or events) in which we have to add JavaScript code directly eg., OnMover event, OnClick, etc.
Let's see with the help of an example, how we can add JavaScript directly in the html without using
the <script>. </script> tag.
Let's look at the example.
<html>
<head>
<title> Inline code example</title> </head>
<body>
<p>
<a href="#" onClick="alert('Welcome !');">Click Me</a>
<button onclick="alert('Hello Class 12')">Click Here</button>
</p>
<p> In this example we saw how to use inline JavaScript or directly in an HTML tag.
</p> </body> </html>
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

3. External file:-
We can also create a separate file to hold the code of JavaScript with the (.js) extension and later
incorporate/include it into our HTML document using the src attribute of the <script> tag. It becomes very
helpful if we want to use the same code in multiple HTML documents. It also saves us from the task of
writing the same code over and over again and makes it easier to maintain web pages.

In this example, we will see how we can include an external JavaScript file in an HTML document.
Let's understand through a simple example.
<html>
<head>
<title>Including a External JavaScript File</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
<input type="button" value="Result" onclick="display()"/>
</form>
<script src="hello.js">
</script>
</body>
</html>
Now let's create separate JavaScript file = Hello.js
function display()
{
alert("Hello Friends!");
}

JavaScript Fundamentals

Script
JavaScript statements are written within <script>…..</script>. The <script> tag alerts the browser
program to start interpreting all the statements between these tags as a script. A simple syntax of your
JavaScript will appear as follows:
Syntax: <script>
block of Statements
</script>
Statements:
JavaScript statements are composed of Values, Operators, Expressions, Keywords, and Comments. The
program consists of many statements. The statements are executed, one by one, in the same order as
they are written. It is often called JavaScript code.
var area = l*b;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript comments
The JavaScript comments are meaningful way to deliver message. It is used to add information about the
code, warnings or suggestions so that end user can easily interpret the code.
The JavaScript comment is ignored by the JavaScript engine i.e. embedded in the browser.
There are two types of comments in JavaScript.
1. Single-line Comment
2. Multi-line Comment

1. Single line Comment

It is represented by double forward slashes (//). It can be used before and after the statement.
Let’s see the example of single-line comment i.e. added before the statement.
<script>
// It is single line comment
document.write("hello javascript");
</script>
Let’s see the example of single-line comment i.e. added after the statement.
<script>
var a=10;
var b=20;
var c=a+b; //It adds values of a and b variable
document.write(c); //prints sum of 10 and 20
</script>

2. Multi line Comment

It can be used to add single as well as multi line comments. So, it is more convenient.
It is represented by forward slash with asterisk then asterisk with forward slash. For example:
/* your comment here */
It can be used before, after and middle of the statement.
<script>
/* It is multi line comment.
It will not be displayed */
document.write("Example of javascript multiline comment");
</script>

Whitespace and Line Breaks:

JavaScript ignores spaces, tabs, and newlines that appear in JavaScript programs. To make a code
readable and understandable, formatting and indenting the code by using several spaces, tabs, and
newlines can be used freely in the program.
Case Sensitivity:
JavaScript is a case-sensitive language. The keywords, variables, functions names, and any other
identifiers must always be typed with a consistent capitalization of letters. So the identifiers Time and
TIME will convey different meanings in JavaScript.
Output:
Java Script can "display" data in different ways: It defines the ways to display the output of a given code.
The output can be display by using four different ways which are listed below:

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Basic Display function in JavaScript

1. Document.wirte
Using document.write( ), the output can be displayed in browser page.
<html>
<head> <title> Display functions in Javascript </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Output with document.write</h1> <br>
Hello Class 12 <br>
<script>
document.write(7+5)
</script>
<input type="button" value="Click Me" onclick="document.write(7+5)">
</body>
</html>

Inner HTML
Using inner HTML, the output can be displayed into the HTML element. The innerHTML property sets or
returns the HTML content (inner HTML) of an element.
<p id="demo"></p>
<script>
document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = "Hello JavaScript!";
</script>

2. Window. Alert
Using window.alert( ), the output can be displayed into an alert box. window.confirm() and
window.prompt() are also other method to output into an alert box.
<html>
<head> <title> Display functions in Javascript </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Output Message with window alert</h1> <br>
<script>
alert(7+5);
</script>
</body></html>
3. Console.log
Using console.log( ), the output can be displayed into the browser console. To use console of web
browser, right click in web browser and select inspect. The console will display.
<html>
<head> <title>Display functions in Javascript </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Demo of console.log</h1> <br>
<script>

Console.log("7+5");
</script>
</body>
</html>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Reserved Words:
Lists of all the reserved words in JavaScript are given in the following table. They cannot be used as Java
Script variables, functions, methods, loop labels, or any object names.
Abstract Else instance of Switch
boolean enum int synchronized
break export interface this
byte extends long throw
Case False Native Throws
Catch Final New transient
Char Finally Null True
Class Float Package Try
Const For Private Type of
Continue Function Protected Var
Debugger Go to Public Void
Default If Return Volatile
Delete Implements Short While
Do Import Static With
Double In Super

JavaScript Data Types

JavaScript provides different data types to hold different types of values. There are two types of data types
in JavaScript.
1. Primitive data type
2. Non-primitive (reference) data type
JavaScript is a dynamic type language, means you don't need to specify type of the variable because it is
dynamically used by JavaScript engine. You need to use var here to specify the data type. It can hold any
type of values such as numbers, strings etc. For example:
var a=40; //holding number
var b="Rahul"; //holding string
JavaScript primitive data types
There are five types of primitive data types in JavaScript. They are as follows:

Data Type Description

1. String represents sequence of characters e.g. var str="hello";
2. Number represents numeric values e.g. var a=100;
3. Boolean represents Boolean value either false or true
4. Undefined represents undefined value. E.g. var address="Bharaptur"
address= undefined
5. Null represents null i.e. no value at all.

JavaScript non-primitive (reference) data types

The non-primitive data types are as follows:
Data Type Description
1. Object represents instance through which we can access members
2. Array represents group of similar values
3. RegExp represents regular expression

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript Variable
1. JavaScript Local variable
2. JavaScript Global variable

A JavaScript variable is simply a name of storage location. There are two types of variables in JavaScript:
local variable and global variable.
There are some rules while declaring a JavaScript variable (also known as identifiers).
1. Name must start with a letter (a to z or A to Z), underscore ( _ ), or dollar( $ ) sign.
2. After first letter we can use digits (0 to 9), for example value1.
3. Reserved words cannot be used as names.
4. JavaScript variables are case sensitive, for example x and X are different variables.
Correct JavaScript variables
1. var x = 10;
2. var _value="Hari";
Incorrect JavaScript variables
1. var 123=30;
2. var *aa=320;
Example of JavaScript variable
Let’s see a simple example of JavaScript variable.
<html>
<head>
<title> Example of Variable </title>
<body>
<script>
var x = 10;
var y = 20;
var z=x+y;
document.write(z);
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Operators
JavaScript operators are symbols that are used to perform operations on operands. For example:
var sum=10+20;
Here, + is the arithmetic operator and = is the assignment operator.
There are following types of operators in JavaScript.
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison (Relational) Operators
3. Bitwise Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Special Operators
7. Unary Operator
8. String Operator
9. Conditional Operator

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations on the operands. The following operators
are known as JavaScript arithmetic operators.
Operator Description Example
1) + Addition 10+20 = 30
2) - Subtraction 20-10 = 10
3) * Multiplication 10*20 = 200
4) / Division 20/10 = 2
5) % Modulus (Remainder) 20%10 = 0
6) ++ Increment var a=10; a++; Now a = 11
7) -- Decrement var a=10; a--; Now a = 9

Examples
<html>
<body>
<h2>Arithmetic Operations</h2>
<p>A typical arithmetic operation takes two numbers (or expressions) and produces a new
number.</p>
<p id="Hello"></p>
<script>
let a = 3;
let x = (100 + 50) * a;
document.getElementById("Hello").innerHTML=x; // document.write(x); OR window.alert(x);
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Comparison Operators

The JavaScript comparison operator compares the two operands. The comparison operators are as
follows:

Operator Description Example

1) == Is equal to 10==20 = false
2) != Not equal to 10!=20 = true
3) > Greater than 20>10 = true
4) >= Greater than or equal to 20>=10 = true
5) < Less than 20<10 = false
6) <= Less than or equal to 20<=10 = false

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<body>
<h1>JavaScript Operators</h1>
<h2>The + Operator</h2>
<p>The + operator concatenates (adds) strings.</p>
<script>
let text1 = "Rajesh";
let text2 = "Hamal";
let text3 = text1 + " " + text2;
document.write(text3);
</script>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<body>
<h1>JavaScript Arithmetic</h1>
<h2>The += Operator</h2>
<script>
var x = 10;
x += 5;
document.write(x);
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Bitwise Operators

The bitwise operators perform bitwise operations on operands. The bitwise operators are as follows:

Operator Description Example

1) & Bitwise AND (10==20 & 20==33) = false
2) | Bitwise OR (10==20 | 20==33) = false
3) ^ Bitwise XOR (10==20 ^ 20==33) = false
4) ~ Bitwise NOT (~10) = -10
5) << Bitwise Left Shift (10<<2) = 40
6) >> Bitwise Right Shift (10>>2) = 2
7) >>> Bitwise Right Shift with Zero (10>>>2) = 2

JavaScript Logical Operators

The following operators are known as JavaScript logical operators.

Operator Description Example

1) && Logical AND (10==20 && 20==33) = false
2) || Logical OR (10==20 || 20==33) = false
3) ! Logical Not !(10==20) = true

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript Assignment Operators

The following operators are known as JavaScript assignment operators.
Operator Description Example
1) = Assign 10+10 = 20
2) += Add and assign var a=10; a+=20; Now a = 30
3) -= Subtract and assign var a=20; a-=10; Now a = 10
4) *= Multiply and assign var a=10; a*=20; Now a = 200
5) /= Divide and assign var a=10; a/=2; Now a = 5
6) %= Modulus and assign var a=10; a%=2; Now a = 0

JavaScript Special Operators

The following operators are known as JavaScript special operators.

Operator Description
1) (?:) Conditional Operator returns value based on the condition. It is like if-else.
2) , Comma Operator allows multiple expressions to be evaluated as single
statement.
3) Delete Delete Operator deletes a property from the object.
4) In In Operator checks if object has the given property
5) Instanceof checks if the object is an instance of given type
6) new creates an instance (object)
7) typeof checks the type of object.
8) Void it discards the expression's return value.

JavaScript Bitwise Operators

Bit operators work on 32 bits numbers.
Any numeric operand in the operation is converted into a 32 bit number. The result is converted back to
a JavaScript number.
Operator Description Example Same as Result Decimal
& AND 5&1 0101 & 0001 0001 1
| OR 5|1 0101 | 0001 0101 5
~ NOT ~5 ~0101 1010 10
^ XOR 5^1 0101 ^ 0001 0100 4
<< left shift 5 << 1 0101 << 1 1010 10
>> right shift 5 >> 1 0101 >> 1 0010 2

Functions and Function Return

A JavaScript function is a block of code designed to perform a particular task. A function is a go of reusable
code which can be called anywhere in your program. This eliminates the need of writing the same code
again and again. It helps programmers in writing modular codes. Function allow a programmer to divide a
big program into a number of small and manageable function.

Advantages of Using Function:

 You can't do anything in JavaScript without function.
 Functions increases code reusability.
 Function helps to structure the code properly.
 Functions make code less complex.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 Functions make code more readable and extendable.

 Functions can be called anywhere in the program.
 Functions helps program developers to write the modular codes.
 Function also allows a programmer to divide a big program into a number of small and
manageable functions.

Function Definition
Before we use a function, we need to define it. The most common way to define a function in JavaScript
is by using the function keyword, followed by a unique function name, a list di parameters (that might be
empty), and a statement block surrounded by curly braces.

Syntax:
<script type="text/javascript">
function function_name (parameter-list)
{
//statements
}
</script>

Calling a Function
The code written inside a function does not execute unless it is called. To call a function somewhere later
in the script, you would simply need to write the name of that function as shown in the following code.
<html>
<title>
</title>
<head>
<script type="text/javascript">
function Hello()
{
document.write ("Hello Class 12");
}
</script>
</head>
<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function </p>
<form>
<input type="button" onclick="Hello()" value= "Click Here">
</form>
</body>
</html>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Example 2
<html>
<body>
<script>
function showMessage()
{
document.write ("Hello Class 12");
document.write ("Good Morning");
}
showMessage()
</script>
</body>
</html>

Function Parameters
A function can take multiple parameters separated by comma. The function parameters can have value
of any data type.
<html>
<body>
<h2> Function with Parameters </h2>
<script>
var a= 3
var b= 4
add(a,b);
function add(a,b)
{
var sum=a+b;
document.write("sum of two number is="+sum); // OR alert("sum of two number is="+sum);
}
</script>
</body>
<html>

Function Return
The return statement is used to return a particular value from the function to the function caller. The
function will stop executing when the return statement is called. The return statement should be the last
statement in a function because the code after the return statement will be unreachable.

<html>
<head>
<title> Example of Function Return</title> </head>
<body>
<h1> Example of the JavaScript's return statement </h1>
<script>
var a=12;
var b= 20;
var res = fun(a, b);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

function fun(x, y)
{
var r= x*y;
return (r);
}
document.write(res);
</script>
</body>
</html>

Above program is a simple example of using the return statement. Here, returning the result of the
product of two numbers and returned the value to the function caller.
The variable res is the function caller; it calls the function fun() and passes two parameters as the
arguments of the function.
The result will be store in the res variable. Final output 240 is the product of arguments 12 and 20.

Control Structures
1. If-else
2. switch case
3. for loop
4. while loop
5. do while loop
The JavaScript if-else statement is used to execute the code whether condition is true or false. There are
three forms of if statement in JavaScript.
1. If Statement
2. If else statement
3. if else if statement

JavaScript If statement
It evaluates the content only if expression is true. The signature of JavaScript if statement is given below.
if(expression)
{
//content to be evaluated
}

Let’s see the simple example of if statement in JavaScript.

<script>
var a=20;
if(a>10)
{
document.write("value of a is greater than 10");
}
</script>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<head>
<title> Number to check Positive or not </title>
</head>
<body>
<script type= "text/javascript">
var num= prompt("Enter Number");
if (num>0)
{
document.write("Given number is Positive");
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript If...else Statement

It evaluates the content whether condition is true of false. The syntax of JavaScript if-else statement is
given below.

if(expression)
{
//content to be evaluated if condition is true
}
else
{
//content to be evaluated if condition is false
}

<html>
<body>
<script>
var num= prompt("Enter Number");
if (num>0)
{
document.write("Given number is Positive");
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

else
{
document.write("Given number is Negative");
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

Let’s see the example of if-else statement in JavaScript to find out the even or odd number.

<script>
var a=17;
if(a%2==0)
{
document.write("a is even number");
}
else
{
document.write("a is odd number");
}
</script>
<html>
<body>
<script>
var num= prompt("Enter Number");
var x=num%2;
if (x==0)
{
document.write("Given number is Even");
}
else
{
document.write("Given number is Odd");
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript If...else if statement

It evaluates the content only if expression is true from several expressions. The signature of JavaScript if
else if statement is given below.

if(expression1)
{
//content to be evaluated if expression1 is true
}
else if(expression2)
{
//content to be evaluated if expression2 is true
}
else if(expression3)
{
//content to be evaluated if expression3 is true
}
else
{
//content to be evaluated if no expression is true
}
Let’s see the simple example of if else if statement in JavaScript.

<script>
var a=20;
if(a==10)
{
document.write("a is equal to 10");
}
else if(a==15)
{
document.write("a is equal to 15");
}
else if(a==20)
{
document.write("a is equal to 20");
}
else
{
document.write("a is not equal to 10, 15 or 20");
}
</script>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Write a Program to input a number and check that is positive, negative or not.
<html>
<body>
<script>
var a=prompt("Enter Number");
if(a>0)
{
document.write("Number is positive");
}
else if(a<0)
{
document.write("Number is Negative");
}
else
{
document.write("Number is Zero");
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Switch

The JavaScript switch statement is used to execute one code from multiple expressions. It is just
like else if statement that allow us to choose only one option among the many given options. But
it is convenient than if..else..if because it can be used with numbers, characters etc.

The signature of JavaScript switch statement is given below.

switch(expression)
{
case value1:
code to be executed;
break;
case value2:
code to be executed;
break;
......
default:
code to be executed if above values are not matched;
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Let’s see the simple example of switch statement in JavaScript.

<html>
<head>
<script>
var grade='B';
var result;
switch(grade)
{
case 'A':
result="A Grade";
break;
case 'B':
result="B Grade";
break;
case 'C':
result="C Grade";
break;
default:
result="No Grade";
}
document.write(result);
</script>
</head>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> Switch Case Example For to find Name of the day.</title>
</head>
<body>
<script>
var n=prompt("Enter a number between 1 and 7");
switch(n)
{
case(n="1");
document.write("The day is Sunday");
break;
case(n="2");
document.write("The day is Monday");
break;
case(n="3");
document.write("The day is Tuesday");
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

break;
case(n="4");
document.write("The day is Wednesday");
break;
case(n="5");
document.write("The day is Thursday");
break;
case(n="6");
document.write("The day is Friday");
break;
default:
document.write("Invalid day");
break;
</script>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Loops / Iterations

The processing of repeatedly executing the block of statements is called iteration or looping. Loops are
used to repeat the execution of a block of code. The JavaScript loops are used to iterate the piece of
code using for, while, do while. It makes the code compact. It is mostly used in array.
There are four types of loops in JavaScript.
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do-while loop
1) JavaScript For loop
For loop is used to execute a set of statements for given number of times. The JavaScript for loop iterates
the elements for the fixed number of times. It should be used if number of iteration is known. The syntax
of for loop is given below.
for (initialization; condition; increment)
{
code to be executed
}
Let’s see the simple example of for loop in JavaScript.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<head>
<script>
for (i=1; i<=5; i++)
{
document.write(i + "<br/>") // OR document.write(i);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

</script>
</head>
</html>
Output: 12345
JavaScript While loop:
The while loop is an entry controlled loop in which condition is checked before the execution of loop.
Syntax
while (condition)
{
// code block to be executed
}
Example, WAP to display even number from 1 to 20.
<script>
var i=2;
while (i<=20)
{
document.write(i);
i=i+2;
}
</script>

JavaScript do while loop

The JavaScript do while loop iterates the elements for the infinite number of times like while loop. But,
code is executed at least once whether condition is true or false. The syntax of do while loop is given
below.
do
{
code to be executed
}while (condition);
Example,
<script>
var i=1;
do{
document.write(i + "<br/>");
i=i+2;
}while (i<=20);
</script>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Some JavaScript Program Examples

1. Write a JavaScript program to input two numbers and find out its sum.
<html>
<head>
<script type=”text/javascript”>
var a = prompt(“Enter the first number”);
var b = prompt(“Enter the second number”);
a = parseInt(a);
b = parseInt(b);
var sum=a+b
document.write(sum)
</head>
<body>
</body>
</html>

Or
<html>
<head>
<title> To find out sum of Given two numbers </title>
<script type="text/JavaScript">
function add()
{
var a,b,c;
a=Number(document.getElementaryById("first").value);
b=Number(document.getElementaryById("second").value);
c=a+b;
document.getElementaryById("answer").value=c;
}
</script>
</head>
<body>
Enter the First Numebr: <input id="first"> <br>
Enter the Second Number: <input id="second"> <br> <hr>
<button onclick="add()"> Addition </button>
<input id="answer">
</body>
</html>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Object based Programming with Java Script and Event Handling

Object
Object is a non-primitive data type in JavaScript. Object is like any other variable but it is quite differ from
variable. The variable can hold only one value but object can hold multiple values. The object holds
multiple values in terms of properties and methods. Properties can hold values of primitive data types
and methods are functions.
An object is defined simple way as like a variable. The object is defined with a unique object name and
the curly brackets { } is used to include properties and methods. The variables within the object is known
as properties and the function within the object is known as methods. The properties or method are
written as name: value pairs. The name and value separated by a colon. The period ‘.’ is used to access
value to object.

Syntax:
var object_name = { name: value1, name2: value2, nameN: valueN };
Example
<html>
<body>
<script>
var emp={id:101,name:"Ram Prasad",salary:50000}
document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary
document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary);
</script>
</body>
</html>
In the above example, object name is defined as emp and it has three properties id, name and salary. The
value of object can be accessed easily using object name period and properties name.

Creating Objects in JavaScript

There are 3 ways to create objects.
1. By object literal
2. By creating instance of Object directly (using new keyword)
3. By using an object constructor (using new keyword)

1) JavaScript Object by object literal

The syntax of creating object using object literal is given below:

object={property1:value1,property2:value2 .... propertyN:valueN}

As you can see, property and value is separated by : (colon). Let’s see the simple example of creating object
in JavaScript.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>

<body>
<h2>JavaScript Objects</h2>
<p>Creating a JavaScript Object:</p>
<p id="demo"></p>
<script>
const person = {firstName: "John", lastName: "Doe", age: 50, eyeColor: "blue"};

document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = person.firstName + " is " + person.age + "

years old.";
</script>
</body>

</html>

<html>
<head>
< title></title>
< script>
var vehicle = {
color:"green",
weight:50,
height:5,
move:function()
{
document.write("vehicle moves");
}
};
vehicle.move();
</script>
</head>
<body>
</body>
</html>

In the above example, method is defined as move. The method can be accessed easily using
object name period and method name.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

2) By creating instance of Object

The syntax of creating object directly is given below:
var objectname=new Object();
Here, new keyword is used to create object. Let’s see the example of creating object directly.
<html>
<body>
<script>
var study=new Object();
study.roll=10;
study.name="Rajesh Hamal";
study.class=12;
document.write(study.roll +"<br>");
document.write(study.name +"<br>");
document.write(study.class);
</script>
</body>
</html>

3) By using an Object constructor

Here, you need to create function with arguments. Each argument value can be assigned in the current
object by using this keyword.
The this keyword refers to the current object.
The example of creating object by object constructor is given below.
<script>
function emp(id,name,salary)
{
this.id=id;
this.name=name;
this.salary=salary;
}
e=new emp(103,"Anjan Bista",30000);
document.write(e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
</script

Document Object Model

The document object represents the whole html document. When html document is loaded in the
browser, it becomes a document object. It is the root element that represents the html document. It has
properties and methods. By the help of document object, we can add dynamic content to our web page.
As mentioned earlier, it is the object of window. So window.document is same as a document

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Properties of document object

Let's see the properties of document object that can be accessed and modified by the document object.

JavaScript gets all the power it needs to create dynamic HTML:

 JavaScript can change all the HTML elements in the page

 JavaScript can change all the HTML attributes in the page
 JavaScript can change all the CSS styles on the page
 JavaScript can remove existing HTML elements and attributes
 JavaScript can add new HTML elements and attributes
 JavaScript can react to all existing HTML events in the page
 JavaScript can create new HTML events in the page

Methods of document object

We can access and change the contents of document by its methods. The important methods of document
object are as follows:
Method Description
write("string") writes the given string on the doucment.
writeln("string") writes the given string on the doucment with newline character at the end.
getElementById() returns the element having the given id value.
getElementsByName() returns all the elements having the given name value.
getElementsByTagName() returns all the elements having the given tag name.
getElementsByClassName() returns all the elements having the given class name.

Accessing field value by document object

In this example, we are going to get the value of input text by user. Here, we are
using document.form1.name.value to get the value of name field. Here, document is the root element
that represents the html document. form1 is the name of the form. name is the attribute name of the
input text. value is the property, that returns the value of the input text.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Let's see the simple example of document object that prints name with welcome message.

<script type="text/javascript">
function printvalue()
{
var name=document.form1.name.value;
alert("Welcome: "+name);
}
</script>
<form name="form1">
Enter Name:<input type="text" name="name"/>
<input type="button" onclick="printvalue()" value="print name"/>
</form>

1. getElementById( )
The document.getElementById() method returns the element of specified id. We can use
document.getElementById() method to get value of the input text. But we need to define id for the
input field.
Example
<html>
<body>
<p id="demo"></p>
<p id="try"></p>
<script>
var x="How are you"
document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = x;
document.getElementById("try").innerHTML= " I am fine and you"
</script>
In the example above, getElementById is a method, while innerHTML is a property.

Let's see the simple example of document.getElementById() method that prints cube of the given
number.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<script>
function getcube()
{
var n=document.getElementById("number").value;
alert(n*n*n);
}
</script>
<form>
Enter No:<input type="text" id="number" name="number"/><br/>
<input type="button" value="cube" onclick="getcube()"/>
</form>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

2. getElementsByName()

The document.getElementsByName() method returns all the element of specified name. The syntax of
the getElementsByName() method is given below:
document.getElementsByName("name") Here, name is required.
Example of document.getElementsByName() method

In this example, we going to count total number of genders. Here, we are using getElementsByName()
method to get all the genders.
<script>
function totalelements()
{
var g=document.getElementsByName("gender");
alert("Total Genders:"+g.length);
}
</script>
<form>
Male:<input type="radio" name="gender" value="male">
Female:<input type="radio" name="gender" value="female">

<input type="button" onclick="totalelements()" value="Total Genders">

</form>
3. document.getElementsByTagName()
The document.getElementsByTagName() method returns all the element of specified tag name.
The syntax of the getElementsByTagName() method is given below:
document.getElementsByTagName("name")
Here, name is required.
Example of document.getElementsByTagName() method
In this example, we going to count total number of paragraphs used in the document. To do this, we have
called the document.getElementsByTagName("p") method that returns the total paragraphs.

<script type="text/javascript">
function countpara()
{
var totalpara=document.getElementsByTagName("p");
alert("total p tags are: "+totalpara.length);
}
</script>
<p>This is a pragraph</p>
<p>Here we are going to count total number of paragraphs by getElementByTagName() method.
</p>
<p>Let's see the simple example</p>
<button onclick="countpara()">count paragraph</button>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Another example of document.getElementsByTagName() method

In this example, we going to count total number of h2 and h3 tags used in the document.
<script type="text/javascript">
function counth2()
{
var totalh2=document.getElementsByTagName("h2");
alert("total h2 tags are: "+totalh2.length);
}
function counth3()
{
var totalh3=document.getElementsByTagName("h3");
alert("total h3 tags are: "+totalh3.length);
}
</script>
<h2>This is h2 tag</h2>
<h2>This is h2 tag</h2>
<h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
<h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
<h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
<button onclick="counth2()">count h2</button>
<button onclick="counth3()">count h3</button>

Javascript - innerHTML
The innerHTML property can be used to write the dynamic html on the html document.
It is used mostly in the web pages to generate the dynamic html such as registration form,
comment form, links etc.
Example of innerHTML property
In this example, we are going to create the html form when user clicks on the button.
In this example, we are dynamically writing the html form inside the div name having the id
mylocation. We are identifying this position by calling the document.getElementById() method.

<script type="text/javascript" >

function showcommentform()
{
var data="Name:<input type='text' name='name'><br>
Comment:<br><textarea rows='5' cols='80'></textarea>
<br><input type='submit' value='Post Comment'>";
document.getElementById('mylocation').innerHTML=data;
}
</script>
<form name="myForm">
<input type="button" value="comment" onclick="showcommentform()">
<div id="mylocation"></div> </form>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

JavaScript Events
The change in the state of an object is known as an Event. In html, there are various events which
represents that some activity is performed by the user or by the browser. When JavaScript code is included
in HTML, JavaScript react over these events and allow the execution. This process of reacting over the
events is called Event Handling. Thus, JavaScript handles the HTML events via Event Handlers.

For example, when a user clicks over the browser, add js code, which will execute the task to be performed
on the event.
Some of the HTML events and their event handlers are:
Mouse events:
Event Performed Event Handler Description
Click Onclick When mouse click on an element
Mouseover Onmouseover When the cursor of the mouse comes over the
element
Mouseout Onmouseout When the cursor of the mouse leaves an element
Mousedown Onmousedown When the mouse button is pressed over the element
Mouseup Onmouseup When the mouse button is released over the element
Mousemove Onmousemove When the mouse movement takes place.
Keyboard events:
Event Performed Event Handler Description
Keydown & Keyup onkeydown & onkeyup When the user press and then release the
key
Form events:
Event Performed Event Handler Description
Focus onfocus When the user focuses on an element
Submit onsubmit When the user submits the form
Blur Onblur When the focus is away from a form element
Change onchange When the user modifies or changes the value of a form
element
Window/Document events
Event Performed Event Handler Description
Load Onload When the browser finishes the loading of the page
Unload onunload When the visitor leaves the current webpage, the browser
unloads it
Resize Onresize When the visitor resizes the window of the browser
Let's discuss some examples over events and their handlers.

Click Event

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<head> Javascript Events </head>
<body>
<script>
function clickevent()
{
document.write("This is Java Click Events");
}
</script>
<form>
<input type="button" onclick="clickevent()" value="Click To View"/>
</form>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

</body>
</html>

Mouse Over Event

<html>
<head>
<h1> Javascript Events </h1>
</head>
<body>
<script>
function mouseoverevent()
{
alert("This is Java MouseOverEvent");
}
</script>
<p onmouseover="mouseoverevent()"> Keep Mouse's cursor over me</p>
</body>
</html>

Focus Event
<html>
<head> Javascript Events</head>
<body>
<h2> Enter something here</h2>
<input type="text" id="input1" onfocus="focusevent()"/>
<script>
function focusevent()
{
document.getElementById("input1").style.background=" aqua";
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

Keydown Event
<html>
<head> Javascript Events</head>
<body>
<h2> Enter something here</h2>
<input type="text" id="input1" onkeydown="keydownevent()"/>
<script>
function keydownevent()
{
document.getElementById("input1");
alert("Pressed a key");
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

Load event

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<head>Javascript Events</head>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

</br>
<body onload="window.alert('Page successfully loaded');">
<script>
document.write("The page is loaded successfully");
</script>
</body>
</html>

Image Object

Form Validation

It is important to validate the form submitted by the user because it can have inappropriate values. So,
validation is must to authenticate user.

JavaScript provides facility to validate the form on the client-side so data processing will be faster than
server-side validation. Most of the web developers prefer JavaScript form validation.

Through JavaScript, we can validate name, password, email, date, mobile numbers and more fields.

In this example, we are going to validate the name and password. The name can’t be empty and password
can’t be less than 6 characters long.

Here, we are validating the form on form submit. The user will not be forwarded to the next page until
given values are correct.

<html>
<body>
<script>
function validateform()
{
var name=document.myform.name.value;
var password=document.myform.password.value;

if (name==null || name=="")
{
alert("Name can't be blank");
return false;
}
else if(password.length<6)
{
alert("Password must be at least 6 characters long.");
return false;
}
}
</script>
<body>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<form name="myform" method="post"

action="http://www.javatpoint.com/javascriptpages/valid.jsp"
onsubmit="return validateform()" >
Name: <input type="text" name="name"><br/>
Password: <input type="password" name="password"><br/>
<input type="submit" value="register">
</form>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript Retype Password Validation

<script type="text/javascript">
function matchpass(){
var firstpassword=document.f1.password.value;
var secondpassword=document.f1.password2.value;

if(firstpassword==secondpassword){
return true;
}
else{
alert("password must be same!");
return false;
}
}
</script>

<form name="f1" action="register.jsp" onsubmit="return matchpass()">

Password:<input type="password" name="password" /><br/>
Re-enter Password:<input type="password" name="password2"/><br/>
<input type="submit">
</form>

Number Validation
Let's validate the textfield for numeric value only. Here, we are using isNaN() function.

<script>
function validate()
{
var num=document.myform.num.value;
if (isNaN(num))
{
document.getElementById("numloc").innerHTML="Enter Numeric value only";

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

return false;
}
Else
{
return true;
}
}
</script>
<form name="myform" onsubmit="return validate()" >
Number: <input type="text" name="num"><span id="numloc"></span><br/>
<input type="submit" value="submit">
</form>
JavaScript validation with image
Let’s see an interactive JavaScript form validation example that displays correct and incorrect
image if input is correct or incorrect.

<script>
function validate()
{
var name=document.f1.name.value;
var password=document.f1.password.value;
var status=false;

if(name.length<1)
{
document.getElementById("nameloc").innerHTML=
" <img src='unchecked.gif'/> Please enter your name";
status=false;
}
Else
{
document.getElementById("nameloc").innerHTML=" <img src='checked.gif'/>";
status=true;
}
if(password.length<6)
{
document.getElementById("passwordloc").innerHTML=
" <img src='unchecked.gif'/> Password must be at least 6 char long";
status=false;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

}
Else
{
document.getElementById("passwordloc").innerHTML=" <img src='checked.gif'/>";

}
return status;
}
</script>
<form name="f1" action="#" onsubmit="return validate()">
<table>
<tr><td>Enter Name:</td><td><input type="text" name="name"/>
<span id="nameloc"></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>Enter Password:</td><td><input type="password" name="password"
/>
<span id="passwordloc"></span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"><input type="submit" value="register"/></td></tr>
</table>
</form>
JavaScript email validation
We can validate the email by the help of JavaScript.

There are many criteria that need to be follow to validate the email id such as:

o Email id must contain the @ and . character

o There must be at least one character before and after the @.
o There must be at least two characters after. (Dot).

Let's see the simple example to validate the email field.

<script>
function validateemail()
{
var x=document.myform.email.value;
var atposition=x.indexOf("@");
var dotposition=x.lastIndexOf(".");
if (atposition<1 || dotposition<atposition+2 || dotposition+2>=x.length)
{
alert("Please enter a valid e-
mail address \n atpostion:"+atposition+"\n dotposition:"+dotposition);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

return false;
}
}
</script>
<body>
<form name="myform" method="post" action="#" onsubmit="return validateemail
();">
Email: <input type="text" name="email"><br/>
<input type="submit" value="register">
</form>

JavaScript Programs
1. This program adds 5 numbers and writes the answer as an HTML output.
<!doctype html>
<html> <body>
<script>
var i, n=5, sum=0; arr = new Array(1, 2, 3, 5, 9);
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + arr[i]; document.write(sum);
</script></body></html>
2. JavaScript program to check whether a number is a prime number or not. This program does
not take input from user.
<!doctype html>
<html>
<body> <script>
var num, i, c=0;
num=9;
for(i=2; i<num; i++)
{
if(num%2==0)
{
C++;
break;
}
}
if(c==0)
document.write(num+" is a Prime Number");
else
document.write(num+" is not a Prime Number");
</script> </body>
</html>

Data Format Validation:

Secondly, the data that is entered must be checked for correct form and value. Your code must include

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

appropriate logic to test the correctness of data.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>
<body>
<script>
function myFormValidate ( )
{
var name = document.myform.name.value; var password =
document.myform.password.value;
if (name==null || name=="")
{
alert("Please, Enter Name");
return false;
}
else if (password.length < 5)
{
alert ("Password must be at least 5 characters long.");
return false;
}
}
</script>
<body>
<form name = "myform" method = "post" action = "abc.php" onsubmit = "return myFormValidate ( )" >
Name: <input type = "text" name = "name"><br/>
Password: <input type = "password" name = "password"><br/>
<input type = "submit" value = "Login">
</form>
</body>
</html>

JQuery
JQuery is a fast, small, lightweight, "write less, do more", and feature-rich JavaScript library. It makes
things like HTML document traversal and manipulation, event handling animation, and Ajax much simpler
with an easy-to-use API (Application Programming Interface) that works across browsers. With a
combination of versatility and extensibility, jQuery has changed the way that millions of people write
JavaScript.
JQuery is a JavaScript library. The purpose of jQuery is to make it much easier to use JavaScript on your
website. JQuery simplifies a lot of the complicated things from JavaScript like AJAX (Asynchronous
JavaScript and XML) calls and DOM (Document Object Model) manipulation. Some of the biggest
companies which uses jQuery on the Web are
1. Google 2. Microsoft 3. IBM
Features of jQuery:
Some of important feature of jQuery are listed as follows:
1. The jQuery is very small, fast, lightweight JavaScript library
2. It is very fast and extensible.
3. It has a lot of built-in animation effects which can use directly in websites.
4. It is used to improve the performance of an application.
5. It is used to develop browser's compatible web applications effectively.
6. It uses mostly new features of new browsers.
7. It is platform-independent.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

8. It is used to develop a responsive web application.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Server Side Scripting Using PHP:

Server side script are discrete blocks of program code that execute on a web server (as opposed to a web
client) computer. They are generally
used to create Dynamic web pages.
This means that the page displayed to
the user does not exist as a document
on the server in its own right, and is
only brought into existence in
response to a user request. Often, a
server-side script provides the
interface between a web-based user
interface and a database that resides
on a web server. PHP is a server side
scripting language used to create
dynamic web pages. PHP is well suited
for web development. PHP stands for
hypertext preprocessor. It is an
interpreted language. It is embedded
in HTML. It is an open source language.

Some important points need to be notice about PHP are as followed:

1. PHP stands for Hypertext Preprocessor.

2. PHP is an interpreted language, i.e., there is no need for compilation.
3. PHP is faster than other scripting languages, for example, ASP and JSP.
4. PHP is a server-side scripting language, which is used to manage the dynamic content of the
website.
5. PHP can be embedded into HTML.
6. PHP is an object-oriented language.
7. PHP is an open-source scripting language.
8. PHP is simple and easy to learn language.

Features of PHP Characteristics of PHP

1. Simple 1. Simplicity
2. Interpreted 2. Efficiency
3. Faster 3. Security
4. Open Source 4. Flexibility
5. Platform Independent 5. Familiarity
6. Case Sensitive
7. Error Reporting Advantages of PHP / what problem does it
8. Real-Time Access Monitoring solve.
9. Loosely Typed Language 1. PHP is Free
2. PHP is Cross Platform
3. PHP is widely used
4. PHP hides its complexity
5. PHP is built for Web Programming

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Introduction to PHP:

PHP is an open-source, interpreted, and object-oriented scripting language that can be executed at the
server-side. PHP is well suited for web development. Therefore, it is used to develop web applications (an
application that executes on the server and generates the dynamic page.).

Before learning PHP, you must have the basic knowledge of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. So, learn these
technologies for better implementation of PHP.

HTML - HTML is used to design static webpage.

CSS - CSS helps to make the webpage content more effective and attractive.

JavaScript - JavaScript is used to design an interactive website.

PHP is widely used in web development nowadays. PHP can develop dynamic websites easily. But you
must have the basic the knowledge of following technologies for web development as well.

1. HTML
2. CSS
3. JavaScript
4. Ajax
5. XML and JSON
6. jQuery

Why use PHP / Strengths of PHP

PHP is a server-side scripting language, which is used to design the dynamic web applications with MySQL
database.

1. It handles dynamic content, database as well as session tracking for the website.
2. You can create sessions in PHP.
3. It can access cookies variable and also set cookies.
4. It helps to encrypt the data and apply validation.
5. PHP supports several protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), POP3 (Post office
Protocol-3), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access
Protocol), IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol), and many more.
6. Using PHP language, you can control the user to access some pages of your website.
7. As PHP is easy to install and set up, this is the main reason why PHP is the best language to learn.
8. PHP can handle the forms, such as - collect the data from users using forms, save it into the
database, and return useful information to the user. For example - Registration form.

Weaknesses of PHP
1. PHP's main strength flexibility is also its weakness. It can be a little too forgiving of errors.
2. With no strict rules, inexperienced programmers have the freedom to create some very bad
solutions to simple problems.
3. Bad packages that got popular in the community are still reused when developers are trying
something new or rushed for time. Some of these mistakes lead to security risks.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

4. As a mature tool PHP has some legacy baggage. There are lots of internal consistencies, especially
surrounding references and values.
5. This is mostly due to updates, which add features that clash with earlier features,
6. PHP is an interpreted language, which can reduce speed.
7. PHP 7 increased performance over previous versions by a significant amount while maintaining
most language compatibility.
8. The changes didn't affect the learning curve or existing applications much while improving
performance. Still, it executes more slowly than compiled languages.
9. Scaling and maintaining PHP is a complicated endeavor.
10. Context matters a great deal in dynamically typed languages, so tracking down errors gets harder
the larger an application grows.
11. Experienced PHP developers can mitigate this problem y planning for scalability, but there's only
so much they can do to reduce maintenance issues down the road.

Common uses of PHP

1. PHP performs system functions, i.e., from files on a system it can create, open, read, write, and
close them.
2. PHP can handle forms, i.e., gather data from files, save data to a file, through email we can send
data, return data to the user.
3. We add, delete, and modify elements within the database through PHP.
4. Access cookies variables and set cookies.
5. Using PHP, we can restrict users to access some pages of your website.
6. It can encrypt data.

3.15 Object Oriented Programming with Server Side Scripting

Object Oriented is an approach to software development that models application around real world
objects such as employees, cars, bank accounts, etc. A class defines the properties and methods of a real
world object. An object is an occurrence of a class. There are three major principles of OOP are:

1. Encapsulation: This is concerned with hiding the implementation details and only exposing the
methods. It used to reduce software development complexity.

2. Inheritance: This is concerned with the relationship between classes. The main purpose of inheritance
is the re-usability.

3. Polymorphism: This is concerned with having a single form but many different implementation ways.
The main purpose of polymorphism is to simplify maintaining applications and making them more
extendable.

PHP in Object oriented programming PHP is an object oriented scripting language. It supports all of the
above principles. The above principles are achieved via:

Encapsulation - using "get" and "set" methods.

Inheritance - using extends keyword.

Polymorphism - using implements keyword

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Hardware and Software Requirements

Hardware
Hardware requirement are not much, we just need a laptop or desktop computer. PHP 5.5+ require a
computer with at least window 2008/vista.
The computer with Pentium IV processor, RAM 2GB, hard disk 256 GB, color monitor or above is more
than enough.
Software
To run PHP code, we need the following software on our local machine.
1. Browser
2. Web server (eg. Apache)
3. PHP (interpreter)
4. MySQL Database (it is optional)

Basics of PHP:
Setting up the environment
To run PHP a web development is needed. This needs a PHP compatible web server and interpreter.
Package like WAMP, LAMP, and XAMP etc. can be used which includes a web server.

Writing the code and running the script

PHP scripts are plain text. A PHP script begins with <?php and ends with ?>. The PHP code is saved with
extension. PHP and is saved in the root directory of web server.

Basic PHP Syntax

A PHP script can be placed anywhere in the document. A PHP script starts with <?php and ends with ?>:
<?php
// PHP code goes here
?>
 The default file extension for PHP files is ".php".
 A PHP file normally contains HTML tags, and some PHP scripting code.
 Below, we have an example of a simple PHP file, with a PHP script that uses a built-in PHP
function "echo" to output the text "Hello World!" on a web page:
<html>
<body>

<h1>My first PHP page</h1>

<?php
echo "Hello Class 12";
?>

</body>
</html>

Note: PHP statements end with a semicolon (;).

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

PHP Case Sensitivity

In PHP, keywords (e.g. if, else, while, echo, etc.), classes, functions, and user-defined functions are not
case-sensitive.
In the example below, all three echo statements below are equal and legal:
<html>
<body>

<?php
ECHO "Hello Class 12<br>";
echo "Hello Class 12<br>";
EcHo "Hello Class 12<br>";
?>

</body>
</html>

Comments in PHP
Comments are used to make code more readable. There are two types of comments –single line and multi-
line comments. A single line comments starts with // while multi-line comment begins with /* and end
with */.

<html>
<body>

<?php
// This is a single-line comment

# This is also a single-line comment

?>

</body>
</html>

<html>
<body>

<?php
/*
This is a multiple-lines comment block
that spans over multiple
lines
*/
?>

</body>
</html>
Loosely typed language: PHP is a loosely typed language, it means PHP automatically converts the
variable to its correct data type.

PHP Variables
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume).

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Rules for PHP variables:

 A variable starts with the $ sign, followed by the name of the variable
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive ($age and $AGE are two different variables)
PHP Variable: Declaring string, integer, and float
Let's see the example to store string, integer, and float values in PHP variables.
<?php
$str="hello string";
$x=200;
$y=44.6;
echo "string is: $str <br/>";
echo "integer is: $x <br/>";
echo "float is: $y <br/>";
?>

PHP Variable Scope

The scope of a variable is defined as its range in the program under which it can be accessed. In other
words, "The scope of a variable is the portion of the program within which it is defined and can be
accessed."
PHP has three types of variable scopes:
1. Local variable 2. Global variable 3. Static variable
Local variable
The variables that are declared within a function are called local variables for that function. These local
variables have their scope only in that particular function in which they are declared. This means that
these variables cannot be accessed outside the function, as they have local scope.
A variable declaration outside the function with the same name is completely different from the variable
declared inside the function. Let's understand the local variables with the help of an example:

Global variable
The global variables are the variables that are declared outside the function. These variables can be
accessed anywhere in the program. To access the global variable within a function, use the GLOBAL
keyword before the variable. However, these variables can be directly accessed or used outside the
function without any keyword. Therefore there is no need to use any keyword to access a global variable
outside the function.
Let's understand the global variables with the help of an example:
<?php
function local_var()
{
$num = 45; //local variable
echo "Local variable declared inside the function is: ". $num;
}
local_var();
?>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<?php
$name = "Sanaya Sharma"; //Global Variable
function global_var()
{
global $name;
echo "Variable inside the function: ". $name;
echo "</br>";
}
global_var();
echo "Variable outside the function: ". $name;
?>

Basic Programming in PHP

PHP echo and print Statements
We frequently use the echo statement to display the output. There are two basic ways to get the output
in PHP:

o echo
o print

echo and print are language constructs, and they never behave like a function. Therefore, there is no
requirement for parentheses. However, both the statements can be used with or without parentheses.
We can use these statements to output variables or strings.

<?php
echo "<h2>PHP is Fun!</h2>";
echo "Hello world!<br>";
echo "I'm about to learn PHP!<br>";
echo "This ", "string ", "was ", "made ", "with multiple parameters."; <br> <hr>

print "<h2>PHP is Case Sensitive!</h2>";

print "Hello Class 12!<br>";
print "I'm about to learn PHP!";
?>

Difference between echo and print

echo
o echo is a statement, which is used to display the output.
o echo can be used with or without parentheses.
o echo does not return any value.
o We can pass multiple strings separated by comma (,) in echo.
o echo is faster than print statement.
print
o print is also a statement, used as an alternative to echo at many times to display the output.
o print can be used with or without parentheses.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

o print always returns an integer value, which is 1.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

o Using print, we cannot pass multiple arguments.

o print is slower than echo statement.

PHP Data Types

Variables can store data of different types, and different data types can do different things. PHP
supports the following data types:
1. String
2. Integer
3. Float (floating point numbers - also called double)
4. Boolean
5. Array
6. Object
7. NULL
8. Resource

PHP Data Types: Compound Types

It can hold multiple values. There are 2 compound data types in PHP.
1. array
2. object
PHP Data Types: Special Types
There are 2 special data types in PHP.
1. resource
2. NULL
PHP Boolean
Booleans are the simplest data type works like switch. It holds only two values: TRUE (1) or FALSE (0). It is
often used with conditional statements. If the condition is correct, it returns TRUE otherwise FALSE.
Example:
<?php
if (TRUE)
echo "This condition is TRUE.";
if (FALSE)
echo "This condition is FALSE.";
?>
Output:
This condition is TRUE.

PHP Integer
Integer means numeric data with a negative or positive sign. It holds only whole numbers, i.e., numbers
without fractional part or decimal points.
Rules for integer:
o An integer can be either positive or negative.
o An integer must not contain decimal point.
o Integer can be decimal (base 10), octal (base 8), or hexadecimal (base 16).
o The range of an integer must be lie between 2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 i.e., -2^31 to 2^31.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Example:
<?php
$dec1 = 34;
$oct1 = 0243;
$hexa1 = 0x45;
echo "Decimal number: " .$dec1. "</br>";
echo "Octal number: " .$oct1. "</br>";
echo "HexaDecimal number: " .$hexa1. "</br>";
?>

Output:
Decimal number: 34
Octal number: 163
Hexadecimal number: 69
PHP Float
A floating-point number is a number with a decimal point. Unlike integer, it can hold numbers with a
fractional or decimal point, including a negative or positive sign.
Example:
<?php
$n1 = 19.34;
$n2 = 54.472;
$sum = $n1 + $n2;
echo "Addition of floating numbers: " .$sum;
?>
Output:
Addition of floating numbers: 73.812

PHP String
A string is a non-numeric data type. It holds letters or any alphabets, numbers, and even special characters.
String values must be enclosed either within single quotes or in double quotes. But both are treated
differently. To clarify this, see the example below:
Example:
<?php
$company = "Javatpoint";
//both single and double quote statements will treat different
echo "Hello $company";
echo "</br>";
echo 'Hello $company';
?>
Output:
Hello Javatpoint
Hello $company

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

PHP Array
An array is a compound data type. It can store multiple values of same data type in a single variable.
Example:
<?php
$bikes = array ("Royal Enfield", "Yamaha", "KTM");
var_dump($bikes); //the var_dump() function returns the datatype and values
echo "</br>";
echo "Array Element1: $bikes[0] </br>";
echo "Array Element2: $bikes[1] </br>";
echo "Array Element3: $bikes[2] </br>";
?>
Output:
array(3) { [0]=> string(13) "Royal Enfield" [1]=> string(6) "Yamaha" [2]=> string(3) "KTM" }
Array Element1: Royal Enfield
Array Element2: Yamaha
Array Element3: KTM
PHP object
Objects are the instances of user-defined classes that can store both values and functions. They must be
explicitly declared.
Example:
<?php
class bike {
function model() {
$model_name = "Royal Enfield";
echo "Bike Model: " .$model_name;
}
}
$obj = new bike();
$obj -> model();
?>
Output:
Bike Model: Royal Enfield

PHP Resource
Resources are not the exact data type in PHP. Basically, these are used to store some function calls or
references to external PHP resources. For example - a database call. It is an external resource.
This is an advanced topic of PHP, so we will discuss it later in detail with examples.

PHP Null
Null is a special data type that has only one value: NULL. There is a convention of writing it in capital letters
as it is case sensitive.
The special type of data type NULL defined a variable with no value.
Example:

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<?php
$n = NULL;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

echo $n; //it will not give any output

?>

PHP Operators
PHP Operator is a symbol i.e used to perform operations on operands. In simple words, operators are used
to perform operations on variables or values. For example:
$num=10+20; //+ is the operator and 10,20 are operands
In the above example, + is the binary + operator, 10 and 20 are operands and $num is variable.
PHP Operators can be categorized in following forms:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Assignment Operators
3. Bitwise Operators
4. Comparison Operators
5. Incrementing/Decrementing Operators
6. Logical Operators
7. String Operators
8. Array Operators
9. Type Operators
10. Execution Operators

Arithmetic Operators
The PHP arithmetic operators are used to perform common arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, etc. with numeric values.
Operator Name Example Explanation
+ Addition $a + $b Sum of operands
- Subtraction $a - $b Difference of operands
* Multiplication $a * $b Product of operands
/ Division $a / $b Quotient of operands
% Modulus $a % $b Remainder of operands
** Exponentiation $a ** $b $a raised to the power $b

Assignment Operators
The assignment operators are used to assign value to different variables. The basic assignment operator
is "=".
Operator Name Example Explanation
= Assign $a = $b The value of right operand is
assigned to the left operand.
+= Add then Assign $a += $b Addition same as $a = $a + $b
-= Subtract then Assign $a -= $b Subtraction same as $a = $a - $b
*= Multiply then Assign $a *= $b Multiplication same as $a = $a * $b
/= Divide then Assign $a /= $b Find quotient same as $a = $a / $b
(quotient)

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

%= Divide then Assign $a %= $b Find remainder same as $a = $a % $b

(remainder)

Bitwise Operators
The bitwise operators are used to perform bit-level operations on operands. These operators allow the
evaluation and manipulation of specific bits within the integer.
Operator Name Example Explanation
& And $a & $b Bits that are 1 in both $a and $b are set to 1, otherwise 0.
| Or (Inclusive or) $a | $b Bits that are 1 in either $a or $b are set to 1
^ Xor (Exclusive or) $a ^ $b Bits that are 1 in either $a or $b are set to 0.
~ Not ~$a Bits that are 1 set to 0 and bits that are 0 are set to 1
<< Shift left $a << $b Left shift the bits of operand $a $b steps
>> Shift right $a >> $b Right shift the bits of $a operand by $b number of places

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators allow comparing two values, such as number or string. Below the list of comparison
operators are given:
Operator Name Example Explanation
== Equal $a == $b Return TRUE if $a is equal to $b
=== Identical $a === $b Return TRUE if $a is equal to $b, and they are of same
data type
!== Not identical $a !== $b Return TRUE if $a is not equal to $b, and they are not
of same data type
!= Not equal $a != $b Return TRUE if $a is not equal to $b
<> Not equal $a <> $b Return TRUE if $a is not equal to $b
< Less than $a < $b Return TRUE if $a is less than $b
> Greater than $a > $b Return TRUE if $a is greater than $b
<= Less than or $a <= $b Return TRUE if $a is less than or equal $b
equal to
>= Greater than $a >= $b Return TRUE if $a is greater than or equal $b
or equal to
<=> Spaceship $a <=>$b Return -1 if $a is less than $b
Return 0 if $a is equal $b
Return 1 if $a is greater than $b

Incrementing/Decrementing Operators
The increment and decrement operators are used to increase and decrease the value of a variable.
Operator Name Example Explanation
++ Increment ++$a Increment the value of $a by one, then return $a
$a++ Return $a, then increment the value of $a by one
-- Decrement --$a Decrement the value of $a by one, then return $a
$a-- Return $a, then decrement the value of $a by one

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Logical Operators
The logical operators are used to perform bit-level operations on operands. These operators allow the
evaluation and manipulation of specific bits within the integer.
Operator Name Example Explanation
And And $a and $b Return TRUE if both $a and $b are true
Or Or $a or $b Return TRUE if either $a or $b is true
Xor Xor $a xor $b Return TRUE if either $ or $b is true but not both
! Not ! $a Return TRUE if $a is not true
&& And $a && $b Return TRUE if either $a and $b are true
|| Or $a || $b Return TRUE if either $a or $b is true

PHP Form Handling

We can create and use forms in PHP. To get form data, we need to use PHP super global $_GET and
$_POST. The form request may be get or post. To retrieve data from get request, we need to use $_GET,
for post request $_POST.
PHP Get Form
Get request is the default form request. The data passed through get request is visible on the URL browser
so it is not secured. You can send limited amount of data through get request.
Let's see a simple example to receive data from get request in PHP.
File: form1.html
<form action="welcome.php" method="get">
Name: <input type="text" name="name"/>
<input type="submit" value="visit"/>
</form>
File: welcome.php

<?php
$name=$_GET["name"];//receiving name field value in $name variable
echo "Welcome, $name";
?>

PHP Post Form

Post request is widely used to submit form that have large amount of data such as file upload, image
upload, login form, registration form etc.

The data passed through post request is not visible on the URL browser so it is secured. You can send large
amount of data through post request.

Let's see a simple example to receive data from post request in PHP.

File: form1.html

<html>
<head> <title> Post Method </title>
</head>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<body>
<form action="login.php" method="post">
<table>
<tr><td>Name:</td><td> <input type="text" name="name"/></td></tr>
<tr><td>Password:</td><td> <input type="password" name="password"/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"><input type="submit" value="login"/> </td></tr>
</table>
</form> </body> </html>
File: login.php

<?php
$name=$_POST["name"];
$password=$_POST["password"];
echo "Welcome: $name, your password is: $password";
?>

S.N. GET Method S.N. POST Method

1 Only limited amount of data can be sent 1 Large amount of data can be sent because
because is sent in header. data is sent in body.
2 GET request is not secured because data is 2 POST request is secured because data is not
exposed in URL bar. exposed in URL bar.
3 GET request can be bookmarked. 3 POST request cannot be bookmarked.
4 GET is essentially used for fetching the 4 The purpose of POST method is to update
information. the data.
5 It can be cached. 5 It cannot be cached.
6 GET method is the default method if the 6 POST method must be specified in the form.
method is not specified in the form. It is not default method.

PHP Programs
1. Write a php code to enter your name and display it.
<html>
<head>
<title> Your name </title>
</head>
<body>
<B> Enter your Name</B> <br/>
<form method="POST">
<input type="text" name="name"/> <br/>
<input type="submit" value="submit"/>
</form>
<?php
$name=$_POST['name'];
echo "Your Name=$name";
?>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

</body>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<html>

2. Write a php code to display the factorial of a number given by user.

<html>
<head>
<title> Your name </title>
</head>
<body>
<B> Factorial Calculaiton</B> <br/>
<form method="POST">
Input a Number: <input type="Number" name="number"/> <br/>
<input type="submit" value="Calculate"/>
</form>
<?php
$n=$_POST['number'];
$fact=1;
for($i=1; $i<=$n;$i++)
{
$fact=$fact*$i;
}
echo "The factorial of $n=$fact";
?>
</body>
</html>
3. Write a php code to display all even numbers up to 50.
<html>
<head>
<title> Your name </title>
</head>
<body>
<B> Display Even number up to 50</B> <br/> <hr>
<?php
$a=2;
for($i=1;$i<=25;$i++)
{
echo "$a, ";
$a=$a+2;
}
?>
</body>
</html>
4. Write a PHP code to display the simple interest.
<html>
<head>
<title> Calculate simple Interest </title>
</head>
<body>
<B> Calculate Simple Interest</B> <br/>

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

<form method="POST">

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Enter Principal:<input type="Number" name="p"/> <br/>

Enter Time:<input type="Number" name="t"/> <br/>
Enter Rate: <input type="Number" name="r"/> <br/>
<input type="submit" value="Calculate SI"/>
</form>
<?php
$p=$_POST['p'];
$t=$_POST['t'];
$r=$_POST['r'];
$si=($p*$t*$r)/100;
echo "Simple Interest=$si";
?>
</body>
<html>

Database Connectivity
Database: To organize the data in systematic and manageable form, the database is required. The
database is the system where data and information are stored and organized systematically.
 The stored data can be retrieved easily when required.
 Data are stored in tabular form.
 The number of columns and rows forms the table.
The column of the table is known as a field that has a unique field name and the row of the table is known
as records which represent individual information. Each table has a unique field known as a primary key.
Each of the records of the primary field is different which make distinct from other records for
identification.
MySQL is the most popular database system used with PHP. With PHP, we can connect to and manipulate
MYSQL databases. It is a database system used on the web that runs on a server. It can be used for
organized databases for both small and large applications. It is comparatively more fast, reliable, and easy
to use than other databases. It uses standard SQL and compiles on a number of platforms.

<?php
$servername = "localhost";
$username = "username";
$password = "password";

// Create connection
$conn = new mysqli($servername, $username, $password);

// Check connection
if ($conn->connect_error) {
die("Connection failed: " . $conn->connect_error);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

echo "Connected successfully";

?>

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

COMPUTER SCIENCE
Grade: XII

PROGRAMMING IN C

REFERENCE NOTE

Unit Wise NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-4- Programming in C - 8 Marks

1.) What is C? Write its Features.

2.) What are advantages and disadvantages of C programming Languages?
3.) What is a Data type? Explain the type of data with examples.
4.) What is variable? Explain its types.
5.) What is operator? Write its types and explain any four them.
6.) What is control structure? Write different between break and continue statement with examples.
7.) What is looping? Write different between while and Do while loop with examples.
8.) Define the term array. What is string? Explain any four string handling function with example.
9.) What is functions? Write its features and describe its types.
10.) What is recursion technique? Explain with one example.
11.) What is concept of storage? Differentiate between automatic storage and external storage.
12.) What is a Structure? Explain with one examples.
13.) Differentiate between array and structure.
14.) Differentiate between structure and union.
15.) Differentiate between array and pointer.
16.) Define the term call by value and call by reference with examples.
17.) What is pointer? Explain with examples.
18.) Differentiate between Structure and Pointer.
19.) Differentiate between sequential access and random access techniques of data file.
20.) Differentiate between fprintf and fscanf function.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

IMP Selected C Programs

1. Write a program to input any three numbers and find out which one is largest numbers.
2. Write a program to display day using the switch statement depending upon the number entered.
i.e. input 1 for Sunday, 7 for Saturday.
3. Write a program to input a number and check whether it is prime or not.
4. Write a program to display the sum of even and odd numbers from 1 to 50.
5. Write a program to accept the age of 10 different employees and count the number of employee.
a. Whose age is more than or equal to 60
b. Whose age is less than 35
6. Write a program to enter elements for 3x3 matrixes and Display its sum.
7. Write a program to accept 10 different numbers in array and sort in descending order.
8. Write a program to input a number and find out that number is palindrome or not.
9. Write a program to input the names of N numbers of students and sort them in alphabetical order.
10. Write a program to read a number and make the sum of individual digits and print using recursion
technique.
11. Write a program that reads different names and address into the computer and rearrange the
names into alphabetical order using the structure variables.
12. Write a program to read N students record store them in data file and display the content in
appropriate format by using fprintf and fscanf function.

Unit 4- Programming in C
What is C? Explain its development process.
C is a high level language because no need for any architecture knowledge in normal English form.
C is a compiler because it can translate the whole program at a time so we can call compiler. C is structured
programming language. It is called also procedural oriented programming language, function oriented
language, module programming language. It is simple, reliable and easy to use.

What are the features of C? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
C is a computer language and a programming tool which has grown popular because programmers
preferred it. It is a tricky language but a masterful one.
The C programming languages has the following features:
i) It has small size.
ii) It has extensive use of function call.
iii) It is a strong structural language having powerful data definition methods.
iv) It has low level (Bit Wise) programming available.
v) It can handle low level activities.
vi) Pointer makes it very strong for memory manipulations.
vii) It has level constructors.
viii) It can produce efficient programs.
ix) It can be complied on variety of computers.
Advantage of C language
 It is machine independent programming language.
 It is easy to learn and implement C language.
 It can be implemented from mobile device to mainframe computers.
 It is the mother of all modern programming language.
Disadvantage of C Language
 There is no runtime checking.
 It has poor error detection systems.
 On large programs, it is hard to fix errors.
 It does not support modern programming methodologies oriented programming language.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

What is preprocessor? Explain with its types.

The compiler of C has a preprocessor built into it. Lines that begin with # are called pre-processor
directives. Each C program must start with proper header files (i.e.<stdio.h>) starting with '#', sign, 'include'
and a header file name enclosed within triangle brackets.
What is header file? List the header files with some functions, where are they used?
A file that is defined to be included at the beginning of a program in C language that contains the
definitions of data types and declarations of variables used by the functions in the program is called header
file.
• Header files commonly contain forward declarations of classes, subroutines, variables, and other
identifiers.
• The header file in c is called standard library functions.
• The entire header file has the extension .h
• A header file is used to define constants, variables, macros and functions that may be common to
several applications.
• The updating and reading data of any function can be performed by using the header files.
Some of the frequent used header files are explain below:
S.N. Header File Description Main Functions
1 stdio.h Standard input and output fpen(), fclose(), rename(), gets(), puts(),
getchar(), scanf(), printf() etc.
2 conio.h Old MS-DOS compiler header file, getch(), getche()
used for console input & output.
3 math.h Mathematical calculation in C sin(x), cos(x), log(x), pow(x,2), sqrt(x),
program. cbrt(x), ceil(x), floor(x) etc.
4 complex.h Complex arithmetic cpow(x,p), csqrt(x), ctan(x), ctanh(x),
cabs(x)
5 string.h String / Words manipulation strlen(y), strcpy(z,y), strcmp(z,y),
function strcat(z,y), strupr(y), strlwr(y) etc.
6 ctype.h Character manipulation type toupper(y), tolower(y), isupr(y), isspace(),
header file isalnu(y), toascii(y) etc.
7 stdlib.h General purpose standard rand(), malloc(), calloc(), abort(), exit()
library. abs(), free() etc.
Fundamentals of C
1) What are the character set used in C?
A group of alphabetic, numeric and other characters that have some relationship with C programming
language and recognized by compiler is called Character set. A character set can also contain additional
characters with other code values.
The keywords, identifiers and other variables are constructed by using character set. The character set
consists of following elements.
1) Alphabets: = Uppercase (i.e. A,B,.........Y,Z) and Lowercase (i.e. a,b,. ..........y,z)
2) Digits: = 0,1,2,. ............................. 8,9
3) Special Symbols =+-*/=(),{} <> ' " ! # % & _ ~ \ ; :?
4) White space characters:= blank, new line, tab etc.

2. Define the term identifier, keywords and Tokens.

Identifiers:- Identifiers can be defined as the name of the variables, functions, arrays, structures etc
created by the programmer. They are the fundamentals requirement of any language. The identifiers
are defined according to the following rules:
 Identifiers consists letters and digits.
 First character must be an alphabet or underscore.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 Upper case and lowercase are allowed but not same, i.e. Text not same as text.
 Only one special character underscores (_) will used.
For example, int a_b; Where a and _b are valid identifiers.
Keywords:-
Keywords are the reserved words which have standard, predefined meaning in C language. Keywords
cannot be used as names for the variables or other user defined program elements. There are 32 keywords
available in C. common examples are as follows.
auto double if static break else int
struct case enum long switch char extern
const float near typedef register union continue
far return unsigned default for short void
do goto signed while

Tokens:
In a C source code, the basic element recognized by the compiler is known as tokens. A token is source-
program text that the compiler does not break down into components elements.
 The keywords like int, float, if, for etc.
 Identifiers like main, printf, void etc.
 Constants like a,b,c etc.
 String literals like name, address, phone etc.,and
 Operators like &&, ! etc.
 Punctuation characters such as [ , ] , { , } , ( , ) , ; , : are also tokens.
2) Explain data types used in programming with examples.
Data types:
It is the set of keywords to declare variables. A set of data that specifies the possible range of values in a
program and stored in memory are called data types. Data types are used to define variables before use it.
Types of data types in C.
1) Primary data types
2) Secondary data types
Primary Data Types: The basic fundamental of data having unit feature on C programming is called Primary
Data Type. Example
Data Type Type Memory Require Format Specifies
Char Character 1 byte %C
Int Integer 4/2 byte %d
Float Floating point number 4 byte %f
Long Floating number 4 byte %ld
Double Large floating point number 8 byte %lf

long double Very large floating number 12 byte %lf

Variable:
Variable are simply names that can change the value while executing a program. It allocates memory
space inside a memory of computer. A variable can have only one value assigned to it in every time of
execution of the program. Its value can change in different executions.
⚫ Rules for variable declaration
 They must always begin with a letter, although some systems permit underscore as the first
character.
 White space is not allowed.
 A variable should not be a keyword.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 It should not contain any special characters.

Types of variable
1. Numeric Variable: The variable that store numeric data only is called numeric variable. The numeric
data may be whole number or fractional number. Examples are integer, floating point and double.
2. String Variable: The variable that stores character data only is called string variable. The string data
may be single character or string. Examples are character, array of character (string), table of string.
Constant variable:
A constant is fixed entity. It does not change its value during the entire program execution. Constants can
be classified as:
1. Integer constants 4. String constants
2. Floating point constants 5. Symbolic Constants
3. Character constants 6. Escape sequence constants
Specifier:
The input and output data are formatted by specific pattern. These Patterns are generated by using
specific tokens in C programs. These tokens used to format data are called specifier. Most of the specifier
used by printf and scanf functions. Types of mostly used specifier are explained below.
 Escape Sequence: They are a type of specifier. These non printable characters are used to format
text on the output screen. These escape sequence character are place after backslash \.
Escape sequence Name Meaning
\' Single quote It prints ' in output
\" Double quote It prints " in output
\n New line It creates new line in output display
\t Tab It creates tab or 8 spaces in place of \t

 Format Specifier: The output and input data are display and receive in specific pattern. Format
specifier uses the token % and character(s) after it. It is used to format for all types of data i.e.
integer, float, character and string.
Format Specifier Used by scanf() function
%d , % i Signed integer + or – number o to 9
%f Scans floating point numbers.
%s String, Collection of character i.e. word
%c Character, one single key stroke.

Operator:
An operator is a symbol that operates on a certain data type. The operator generally remains between the
two operands. An expression is a combination of variables, constants, and operators written according to
the syntax of the language. The data items that operators act upon are called operands.

Types of operator
1. Arithmetic Operator(Binary Operator)
2. Relational Operator (Comparison Operator)
3. Logical Operator (Boolean Operator)
4. Assignment Operator
5. Increment and Decrement Operators (Unary Operator)
6. Conditional Operator (Ternary Operator)
7. Bitwise Operator
8. Comma Operator
9. Size of Operator
1. Arithmetic Operator

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

The arithmetic operators perform arithmetic operations and can be classified into unary and binary
arithmetic operations. The arithmetic operators can operate on any built-in data type. A list of arithmetic
operators and their meanings are given below:
Operator Meaning
+ additional or unary plus
- subtraction or unary minus
* multiplication
/ division
% modulo division (returns remainder after division)
2. Relational Operator
The relational operators help to compare two similar quantities and depending on their relation, take some
decisions. If the condition is true, it evaluates to an integer 1 and zero if the condition is false. The basic
types of relational operator are:
Operator Meaning
< less than
> greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
== equal to
!= not equal to
3. Logical Operator
The logical operators are used to give logical value either true or false. They compare or evaluate logical
and relational expressions. There are three logical operators.
Operator Meaning Examples
&& Logical AND (a>b) && (a>c)
|| Logical OR (a>b) || (a>c)
! Logical NOT !(a==b)
4. Increment and Decrement Operators:
The increment and decrement operators are very commonly used in C language. The increment operators
and decrement operators are extensively used in the loops using structures such as for, while, do, etc. The
syntax of the operators is given below.
++<variable name> Pre increment
--<variable name> Pre decrement
<variable name>++ Post increment
<variable name)-- Post decrement
The pre increment operator increases the value of the variable by 1 and then the processing does whereas
post increment first processes and increase the value of it by 1.
5. Conditional Operator:
A conditional operator is very rarely used. This can be carried out with the conditional operator (? : ) An
expression that makes use of the conditional operator is called a conditional expression. This can replace
the if-else statement. The syntax of conditional operator is:

Expression_1 ? expression_2: expression_3

During evaluating the conditional expression, expression_1 is evaluated at the first step. If expression_1 is
true (nonzero), then expression_2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the conditional expression.
Library function:
The special functions that are well defined in C programming languages are called library functions such as
printf(), scanf(),strlen(), sqrt(), tolower(), toupper(), getchar(), putchar() etc.

Control Structure:
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Control structures are those programming constructs which control the flow of program statements
execution in a program. Types of Control Structure
i) Branching / Decision ( Selective Control Structure)
ii) Looping (Repetitive Control Structure)
iii) Jumping (Unconditional Control Structure)
1. Decision (Selective) Control Structure
It is mainly used for decision making. It is also called conditional statements. Selection is made on
the basis of condition. We have options to go when the given condition is true or false. The flow of
program statements execution is totally directed by the result obtained from checking condition.
Types
a) Conditional Statements
i. if statements:
It is used to execute an instruction or block of instructions only if a condition is fulfilled.
Syntax,
if(condition)
{
Statements;
}
E.g. WAP to read a number and find even or odd by using if().
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,r;
printf("enter the number");
scanf("%d",&a);
r=a%2;
if(r==0)
{
printf("number is even %d",a);
}
if(r!=0)
{
printf("number is odd %d",a);
}
getch();
}
ii. if else statements
If the condition is true then the if() portion statements are evaluated otherwise else part of the
statements are evaluated.
Syntax,
if( condition)
{
Block of statements;
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

else
{
Block of statements;
}
E.g. WAP input any two numbers and display the largest one.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("enter the number");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("enter the number");
scanf("%d",&b);
if(a>b)
{
printf("A is greatest number",a);
}
else
{
printf("B is greatest number",b);
}
getch();
}
iii. if() else if() statements
When we have two or more condition to be checked in a series we can use if else if statement. It is
also known as multiple conditional statement or multipath conditional statement /if else ladder.
Syntax,
if(conditiona 1)
{
Statements 1;
}
else if(condition 2)
{
Statement 2;
}
else if(condition n-1)
{
Statement n-1;
}
else
{
Statement n;
}
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

e.g. WAP to find the largest number among three input number .
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf("\n Enter any three number");
scanf("%d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b&&a>c)
{
printf("\n Largest number is %d",a);
}
else if(b>a&&b>c)
{
printf("\n Largest number is %d", b);
}
else
{
printf("\n Largest number is %d",c);
}
getch();
}

iv. Nested if else statements

An entire if else statement written within the body of if part or else part of another if else statement is
called nested if else statement. It is used when a condition is to be checked inside another condition at a
time in the same program to make decision.
Syntax,
if(condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
{
Statements 1;
}
else
{
Statements 2;
}
}
else
{
Statement 3;
}
E.g. WAP that reads marks of five subject and calculate total mark and percentage. Also awards
the division on the basis of following criteria.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Percentage division
p>=75 distinction
p>=60 and <75 first
p>=45 and <60 second
p>=35 and <45 third
otherwise failed
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main()
{
int eng,nep,comp,acc,eco,total;
Float per;
printf("Enter the five subject mark");
scanf("%d %d %d %d %d",&eng,&nep,&comp,&acc,&eco);
total=eng+nep+comp+acc+eco;
per=total/5;
if(eng>=35&&nep>=35&&comp>=35&&acc>=35%%eco>=35)
{
if(per>=75)
{
printf("\n Distinction");
else if(per>=60)
{
printf("\n First");
}
else if(per>=45)
{
printf("\n Second");
}
else
{
printf("\n Third");
}
}
else
{
printf("\n You are failed");
}
getch();
}

b) Switch case statements

The switch statement can be used instead of multiple if() else conditional statements. The switch
control statement is mainly used to generate menu based programs.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Syntax,
Switch(expression 1)
{
Case condition 1:
Statements ….
break;
.
.
Case condition n-1:
Statements…….
break;
default:
statement n;
}
E.g. WAP which reads any two integer values from user and calculates sum, difference and
product using switch case statement.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main()
{
int a,b,c,ch;
printf("enter the two number");
Scanf("%d",&a,&b);
printf("\n 1. Sum");
printf("\n 2. Difference");
printf("\n 3. Product");
printf("\n Enter your choice");
Scanf("%d",&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
c=a+b;
Printf("\n Sum of two number is %d,c);
break;
case 2:
c=a-b;
printf("\n difference of two number is %d,c);
break;
case 3:
c=a*b;
printf("\n product of two number is %d,c);
break;
default:
printf("\n Wrong choice");

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

getch();
}
1. Looping Statement
The looping statement is also called repetitive or iterative control structure. Looping statements are the
conditional control flow statements that repeats a certain portion of the program either a specified
number of times or until a particular condition is satisfied or true.
Types of loop
i) For Loop ii) While Loop iii) Do while Loop
1. For Loop:-
The execution of for loop until the condition is true. The for loop is a entry control loop because it
checks the condition at entry point.
Syntax,
for( initialization; condition; increment/ decrement)
{
// statements
}
1. Write a program to print the natural number from 1 to 10.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
printf("/n%d",i);
}
getch();
}
2. Write a program to display even number from 1 to 20 and display their sum also.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i, s=0;
for(i=1;i<=20; i=i+2)
{
printf("/n even number are %d",i);
s=s+i;
}
printf("sum of even number is %d", s);
getch();
}
3. Write a program to find out sum of the cubes of first 10 numbers.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

void main()
{
int i,c, sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
c=i*i*i;
sum=sum+c;
}
printf("/n sum of cube is %d", sum);
getch();
}

Nested for loop:

When for loop is declared inside another for loop is called nested for loop. The life of the inner for loop
is depending over the outer for loop. If the outer for loop condition is true then inner for loop is
evaluated. And will executes all the statements until condition is true if the inner for loop to be false
then the outer for loop condition is reevaluated and so on.
For example for( initialization; condition; increment/ decrement)
{
for( initialization; condition; increment/ decrement)
{
// statemetns
}
}

1. Display the following output. 2. WAP to display the following output.

10 20 30 40 50 55555
10 20 30 40 50 4444
10 20 30 40 50 333
10 20 30 40 50 22
10 20 30 40 50 1
Programs

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

# include<stdio.h> # include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h> # include<conio.h>
void main() void main()
{ {
int R,K; int R,K;
for (R=1;R<=5; R++) for (R=5;R<=1; R++)
{ {
for (K=10;K<=50;K=K+10) for (K=1;K<=R;K=K++)
{ {
printf("\n %d",K); printf("\n %d",R);
} }
printf("\n"); printf("\n");

} }
getch(); getch();
} }
While Loop:-
The while loop is also a entry control loop. While loop first checks whether the initial condition is
true or false and finding it to be true, it will enter the loop and execute the statement.
Syntax,
initialization;
while(condition)
{
// statement
increment/decrement
}
1. Write a program to print even number from 1 to 100.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
i=2
while<i<=100)
{
printf("%d\t", i)
i=i+2;
}
getch();
}
Do while loop:-
This loop is an exit control loop. This loop runs at least the once even though the termination
condition is set to false. This loop test the condition at exit point hence it is called exit control loop.
The syntax of the loop is similar to while loop.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

initialization;
do
{
// statement
increment/decrement
} while(condition);
1. Write a program to display odd number from 100 to 1.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
i=99;
do
{
printf("%d\t",i);
i=i-2;

}while(i>=0);
getch(); }
2. Write a program to read the employee name, address for the N employee and display by
using while loops.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
char ename[20],eadd[30];
printf("\n enter the how many employee number");
scanf("%d",& num);
while(num>0)
{
printf("\n enter the name, address");
scanf("%s%s",ename,eadd);
num=num-1;
printf("%s%s",ename,eadd);
}
getch();
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

S.N. While loop S.N. Do while loop

1 It is an entry controlled loop. 1 It is an exit controlled loop.
2 Testing starting in top 2 Testing started is bottom.
3 It has keyword while 3 It has keyword do and while.
4 If first condition true then the statement is 4 But in case at least one time executed
executed otherwise no. statement if the condition is false.
5 Loop is not terminated with semicolon. 5 Loop is terminated with a semicolon.
6 Syntax Syntax
while (expression) do
{ {
//statements //statements
} } while (expression);

The jump Statements

i) break statements
ii) continue statements
iii) goto statements
1) break statements:
The break statement is used to terminate loop or to exist form a switch. it can be used within a
for, while, do while switch statement.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
if(i==5)
{
break;
}
printf("%d",i);
}
getch();
} OUTPUT: 1,2,3,4
The continue Statement
It skips the remaining statements in the body a while, for or do ...... while structure it proceeds with
the next iteration of the loop. The continue statement is used to by pass the execution of the further
statements.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
for(num=1; num!=10; num++);
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

{
if(num==7)
{
continue;
}
printf("%d",num);
}
getch();
} OUTPUT: 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9
Go to statement:
The goto statement is used to send the pointer to the specified label. If the label is not
defined then the goto statement will not work.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
Lab:
printf("Enter a number");
scanf("%d", &num);
if(num<100)
{
printf("Mark can't be less then 100");
goto Lab:
}
else
{
printf("Valid mark");
}
getch();
}

Some important C programs

1. Reverse order
2. Factorial number
3. Fibonacci series
4. Prime or composite number
5. Even or odd number
6. Palindrome or not.
7. Sum of individual digits
8. Armstrong number or not
9. Multiplication table
10. Find list of prime number
11. Display perfect square number.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
1. WAP to input any value and display the that value in reverse order.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,r,n,x;
printf("enter a number");
scanf("%d",&n);
x=0;
while(n>0)
{
r=n%10;
x=x*10+r;
n=n/10;
}
printf("/n reverse number is%d",x);
getch();
}
2. WAP to input positive number and find its factorial number.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,f;
printf("enter a number");
scanf("%d", &n);
if (n>0)
{
f=1;
for(i=n;i>=1;i--)
{
f=f*i;
}
printf("/n The factorial value is %d",f);
}
else
{
printf("/n it is not a positive number");
}
getch();
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
3. WAP to display the Fibonacci series. 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 ................... n.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
Int i,n;
int x,y,z;
x=0,y=1,z=0;
printf("Enter the number");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%d",z);
z=x+y;
x=y;
y=z;
}
getch();
}
4.WAP read a number and to check the number is prime or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,num;
i=2;
printf("Enter the number");
scanf("%d",&num);
while(i<=num-1)
{
if(num%i==0)
{
printf("Not a prime number");
break;
}
i++;
}
printf("number is prime");
getch();
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
5.WAP to find out even number from 1 to 100 and find their sum also.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,sum=0;
for(i=2; i<=100;i+2)
{
printf("\n Even number are %d",i);
sum=sum+i;
}
printf("\n Sum of even numbers is %d",sum);
getch();
}
6.WAP to input a number and find out that number is palindrome or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,n,r,x;
x=0;
printf("\n Enter the any number");
scanf("%d",&n);
a=n;
while(n>0)
{
r=n%10;
x=x*10+r;
n=n/10;
}
if(a==x)
{
printf("Number is palindrome");
}
else
{
printf("Number is not palindrome");
}
getch();
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
7.WAP to input a positive number and find out the sum of its individual digits.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,r;n,x;
printf("\n Enter a number");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n>0)
{
x=0;
while(n>0)
{
r=n%10;
x=x+r;
n=n/10;
}
printf("\n the sum of digits is %d",x);
}
else
{
printf("\n It is not a positive number");
}
getch();
}
8.WAP to input a number and check it is Armstrong number or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,r,n,x,a;
printf("Enter a number");
scanf("%d",&n);
a=n;
if(n>0)
{
x=0;
while(n>0)
{
r=n%10;
x=x+r*r*r;
n=n/10;
}
if(a==x)
{

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
printf("\n Armstrong number is %d",a);
}
else
{
printf("\n Number is not Armstrong %d",a);
}
}
else
{
printf("\n It is not positive number");
}
getch();
}

9.WAP to display the multiplication table of given number.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int,i,n,m;
printf("Enter the value ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
m=n*i;
printf("\n %d * %d = %d",n,i,m);
}
getch();
}
10.WAP to display all prime numbers upto 1000.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,r,j,i;
for(j=1;j<=1000;j++)
{
for(i=2;i<j;i++)
{
if(j%i==0)
{
break;
}
}
if(i==j)

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
{
printf("\t%d",j);
}
getch();
}
11.WAP to display all perfect square numbers from 100 to 500.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int s,t;
printf("The square numbers between 100 to 500 are");
for(s=100;s<=500;s++)
{
for (t=1;t<=s;t++)
{
if(s==t*t)
{
printf("%d x %d = %d \n",s,s,t);
}
}
getch();
}
Arrays and String Function:
Arrays : An array is a collection of data of the similar type all of which are referred by a single variable
name. for example, instead of using 50 individual variables to store name of 50 students, we can use an
array to store name of 50 students.
Advantage of arrays.
- It is easier for handling similar types of data in a program.
- It is efficient for solving problems like sorting, searching, indexing etc.
- It is easier to solve matrix related problems.
- Graphics manipulations can be easily be done using array.
Disadvantages of arrays.
- It is not possible to hold dissimilar type of data in an array.
- It is difficult to visualize the multi dimensional array.
- It is static in nature so it is difficult to define the size of array during running time.
There are two types
1. One/signal dimensional: The values on an array variable assigned in one row and more than one
column are called signal dimensional array.
Syntax: type array_name[max. size];
Example int n[10];
int age[]= {18,12,19,20,16,16,17};
2. Two/Double dimensional: Two dimensional arrays are capable of storing data in multiple row and
columns.
Syntax: type array_name[No.Rows] [No.Cols];
Example int n[10][5];

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
int matrix[3][3]= {{0,1,2},{3,4,5},{6,7,8}};
Program: Write a program to read 50 students marks and display them.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int i, M[50];
printf("Enter the 50 student Marks"):
for(i=1; i<=50; i++)
{
scanf("%d",&M[i]);
}
printf("The numbers are:");
for(i=1; i<=50; i++)
{
printf("%d\t",M[i]);
}
}
Program: Write a program to input 5 numbers with constant values initialization in array to display the
sum.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int i,sum=0;
int num[5]={5,10,15,20,25};
for(I=0;I<5;I++)
{
printf("%d\t",num[i]);
sum=sum+num[I];
}
printf("\n Sum of 5 numbers is:%d",sum);
getch();
}
Program: Write a program to input the age of 20 students and count the number of students having age
in between 20 to 25.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i, age[10],c=0;
for(i=0;i<20;i++)
{
printf("enter age of students:");
scanf("%d",&age[I]);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
}
for(i=0;i<20;i++)
{
if(age[i]>=20&& age[i]<=25)
{
c++;
}
}
printf("Total number of students having age between 20 to 25 is %d",c);
getch();
}

Program: Write a program to find the largest number among 'n' numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main()
{
int i, n, num[100],max;
printf("\n Enter the size of array not more than 100");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter array elements");
scanf("%d",&num[i])
}
max=num[0];
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
if(num[i]>max)
{
max=num[i];
}
}
printf("\n Largest number in array is %d",max);
getch();
}
Program: Write a program to read a matrix, store it in array and display it.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
clrscr();
int I,J, matrix[3][4];
printf("Enter a matrix of 2x4:\n\n");
for(I=1; I<=3; I++)

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
{
for(J=1; J<=4; J++)
{
scanf("%d",&matrix[I][J]);
}
}
Printf("\n The elements of matirx are: \n\n"):
for(I=1; I<=3; I++)
{
for(J=1; J<=4; J++)
{
printf("%d\t",matrix[I][J]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Program: Write a program to calculate the average age of 10 students.

# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int avg, i, sum=0;
int age[10];
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
print("\n Enter age");
scanf("%d',&age[i]);
}
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
sum=sum+age[i];
avg=sum/10;
}
printf("\n Average age=%d", avg);
}
Program: Write a program to accept the age of 10 different employees and count the no. of employee.
i) Whose age is more than or equal to 60
ii) Whose age is less than 35
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int age[10];
int count1=0;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
int count2=0;
int i;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
printf("Enter the ages");
scanf("%d", &age[i]);
}
for (i=1; i<=10; i++){
if (age[i]>=60)
{
count1++;
}
else
{
if(age[i]<=35)
{
count2++;
}
}
}
printf("Employees above or equal to 60 %d",count1);
printf("Employees under or equal 35 %d",count2);
}
Program: Write a program to store N numbers in array and print out the sum with the entire array
variable.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int j, sum=0;
int n,num[10];
clrscr();
printf("Enter the how many no. you want to enter"):
scanf("%d",&n);
for (j=1; j<=n; j++)
{
printf("number stored %d",num[i]);
sum=sum+num[j];
}
printf("\n Sum is %d",sum);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Program: Write a program to accept 10 different numbers in array and sort in descending order.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
clrscr( ):
int array[10];
int i, j ;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
printf(" Enter the data serially);
scanf("%d",&array[i]);
}
int temp;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
for (j=i+1; j<=10; j++)
{
if (array[i] < array[j])
{
Temp=array[i];
array[i]=array[j];
array[j]= temp;
}
}
}
printf("Sorting data in descending order\n");
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
printf("%d\n",array[i]);
}
}
Program: Write a program to store twelve numbers in double dimensional array and print out the values
in table with row wise addition.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int j, k;
int num[3][4]={1,2,3,4,8,10,11,5,9,6,2,8}
clrscr();
printf("Data stored \t\t sum\n");
for (j=1; j<=3; j++)
{
int sum=0;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
for (k=1; k<=4; k++)
{
printf("%d \t",num[j][k]);
sum=sum+num[j]+[k];
}
printf("=%d',sum);
printf('\n");
}
}

Program: WAP to enter elements for 2x2 matrix and display its transpose.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a[2][2];
int i,j;
printf("\n Enter number for 2x2 matrices");
for(i=0;i<2;j++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
printf("Enter number");
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\n Transpose of Matrix is");
for(i=0;i<2;j++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
printf("%d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Program: WAP to enter elements for 3x3 matrix and display its sum.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int m1[3][3], m2[3][3],

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
int i,j;
printf("\n Enter number for 2x2 matrices");
for(i=0;i<3;j++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("Enter number for first matrix");
scanf("%d",&m1[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<3;j++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("Enter number for Second matrix");
scanf("%d",&m2[i][j]);
}
}

printf("\n Sum of Two Matrix is");

for(i=0;i<3;j++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("%d",m1[i][j]+ m2[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
String Function:
The strings are manipulated by specific string function. These are inbuilt functions and defined within
string.h header file.
1. strlen( ): It returns the number of character present in the string.
Syntax:strlen(string);
Program: Write a program to store string in array variable and find the length.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
# include<string.h>
void main( )
{
int length;
char n[ ]= "Everest";
clrscr();
length= strlen(n);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
printf("\n string=%s",n);
printf("\n length=%d",length);
}
2. strrev( ): It helps to reverse the character of the string.
Syntax:strrev(string);
3. strupr( ): It converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.
Syntax:strupr(string);
4. strlwr( ): It converts uppercase letters in string to lowercase.
Syntax:strlwr(string);
strcpy( ): It is used to copy the content of one string to
another.Syntax:strcpy(target,source);
5. strcat( ): It is used to concatenate source string to the target string.
Syntax:strcat(target,source); or strcat(source,target);
6. strcmp( ): It compares two strings on following basis.
Syntax:strcmp(string1,string2);

Program: Write a program to show use of trcpy,strrev,strupr and strlwr.

# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
# include<string.h>
void main( )
{
char source[25];
char target[25];
printf("Enter the any word"):
gets (source);
strcpy(target,source);
printf("Copied word is= %s \n",target);
printf("Reverse word is=%s \n",strrev(source));
printf("Word with capital letters= %s \n",strupr(source));
printf("Word with small letters= %s \n",strlwr(source));
}
Program: Write a program to read two strings in array and concatenate string.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
# include<string.h>
void main( )
{
clrscr( );
char source[10]= "Rajesh";
char target[10]= "Hamal";
strcat (source,target);
printf("\n %s", source);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Program: Write a program to read two strings in array and compare two strings and check that string is
palindrome or not.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
# include<string.h>
void main( )
{clrscr( );int a;
char string1[20];
char string2[20];
printf("Enter a word");
scanf("%s",string1);
strcpy(string2,string1);
a=strcmp(string2, strrev(string2));
if (a==0)
{
printf("palindrome");
}
else
{
printf("Not palindrome");
}
}
Function:
Functions are the building block of statements, which takes some data, manipulate them and can return a
value. Bug free function can be used repeatedly from other part of the program. There are two types of
functions:
1. Library Functions (built in or ready made): C has the facilities to provide library function for
performing some operation. These functions are present in the c library and they are predefined.
for eg.
a. scanf( );
b. printf( );
c. getchar( );
d. putchar( );
2. User Defined functions (Defined by user according to need): user can creates their own function
for performing this type of a function are called user define function.
Syntax of user defined functions
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
function ( );
..............
.............
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
function ( )
{
body of the function
}
WAP to calculate simple interest using function
#include
float interest(float); //function declaration
int main()
{ float si;
si=interest(); //function call
printf("Simple interst is %.2f\n",si);

}
float interest() //function definition
{
float p,t,r,i;
printf("Enter Principal, Time and Rate");
scanf("%f%f%f",&p,&t,&r);
i=(p*t*r)/100;
return i; //function return value
}
WAP to calculate area of rectangle using function.
#include
int area (void);
void main()
{
int a;
a = area();
printf(“area is %d”,a);

}
int area()
{
int l,b,ar;
printf(“Enter length and breadth”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&l,&b);
ar = l*b
return ar;
}
Advantage:
1. Big programs can be divided into smaller module using functions.
2. Program development will be faster.
3. Program debugging will be easier and faster.
4. Use of functions reduce program complexity.
5. Program length can be reduced through code reusability.
6. Use of functions enhance program readability.
7. Several developer can work on a single project.
8. Functions are used to create own header file i.e mero.h
9. Functions can be independently tested.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

With passing arguments

Program: Write a program to find out the area of circle through given radius as argument using function.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
float area(float);
void main( )
{clrscr(); float rad,res;
printf("enter the radius of a circle");
scanf("%f",rad)
res=area(rad)
printf("your required area is %f ",res);
}
float area(float a)
{
float mm,pi=3.14;
mm=pi*a*a;
return(mm);
}
Program: Write a program in C to create a function to pass two numbers as an argument and to return a
sum to the calling function.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
int add(int,int);
void main( );
{
clrscr();
int a,b,c;
printf("enter any two numbers");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
c=add(a,b);
printf("The sum of a and b is= %d",c);
}

int add(int x, int y)

{
int sum;
sum=x+y;
return(sum);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Without passing arguments
Program: Write a program to find out sum and square of two input number without passing arguments
function.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
int sum( );
int square( );
void main()
{
sum( );
square( );
}
int sum( )
{
int a,b, sum;
printf("enter any two number");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
sum=a+b;
printf("sum is=%d',sum);
return(sum);
}
int square( )
{
int a,b, square;
printf("enter any number");
scanf("%d%d",&a);
square=a*a;
printf("square is=%d',square);
return(square);
}

Recursive Function:
The function which performs recursion is called recursive function. Recursion is a process by which a
function calls itself repeatedly until some specified condition has been satisfied.
Those function which calls itself is known as recursive function and the concept of using recursive functions
to repeat the execution of statements as per the requirement is known as recursion. The criteria for
recursive functions are:
1. The function should call itself.
2. There should be terminating condition so that function calling will not be for infinite number of
time.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Program: Write a program to calculate factorials by using recursion process.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int fact(int);
void main( )
{
clrscr();
int
printf("
Enter a
number"
);
scanf("
%d",&n)
;
printf("The factorial of %d is %d",n,fact(n));
}
int fact(int n)
{
if(n<=1)
return (1)
else
{
return(n*fact(n-1)); or z=(n*fact(n-1));
} return z;
}
Program: Write a program read a number and make the sum of individual digits & print using recursion
technique.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int sum(int)
void main()
{
clrscr();
int n;
printf("Enter the any number");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("The sum of individual digits is %d",sum);
int sum(int n)
{
int a;
if(n>0)
{

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
a=n%10;
n=n/10;
ruturn(a+sum(n));
}
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

WAP to calculate sum of n-natural number using recursion/recursive function.

#include<stdio.h>
int sum (int);
void main()
{
int n,s;
printf("Enter any number");
scanf("%d",&n);
s = sum(n);
printf("Sum is %d\n",s);

}
int sum (int n)
{
if (n<=0)
return 0;
else
return (n+sum(n-1));
}

Accessing a Function:
There are two types of accessing a function.

1. Call by value: Only the values of arguments are same to the function and any change made to the
formal arguments do not change the actual arguments.
Program: Write a C program try to exchange two values by using call by value accessing function.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
int swap (int, int)
void main( )
{
int a,b;
a=10
b=20
printf("Value of a=%d and b=%d",a,b);
swap (a,b);
printf("Value of a=%d and b=%d",a,b);
}
int swap(int x, int y)
{
int r;
r=x;
x=y;
y=r;
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
2. Call by reference: When we pass address to a function the parameters receiving the address should
be pointer. The process of calling a function by using pointer to pass the address of the variable is
known as call by reference.
Program: Write a C program to exchange two values by using call by reference accessing function.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
int swap(int *, int *)
void main( )
{
int a,b;
a=10
b=20
printf("Value of a=%d and b=%d",a,b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf("Value of a=%d and b=%d",a,b);
}

int swap(int *x, int *y)

{
int r;
r=*x;
*x=*y;
*y=r;
}

Structure and Union

Structure:
Structure is a collection of variables under a single name. As an example, if we want to store data
with multiple data types like roll number, student name, address, phone number and class of a student
then C supports structure which allows us to wrap one or more variables with different data types. Each
variable in structure is called a structure member. To define a structure, we use struct keyword.
Syntax: struct struct_name
{
Structure_members(s);
};
Structure Declaration
struct student
{
int roll;
char name[50];
int age;
char section;
float height;
};

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
We can also declare a structure
struct student
{
int roll;
char name[50];
int age;
char section;
float height;
} s1,s2;
We can also declare array of variables at a time of declaring a structure as:
struct student
{
int roll;
char name[50];
int age;
char section;
float height;
} s[100];
Union:
Unions like structure contain members whose individual data types may differ from one another.
However the member that composes a union all share the same storage area within the computer memory
were as each member within a structure is assigned its own unique storage area.
Syntax Union union_name
{
Union_member (s);
}
S.N. Structure S.N. Union
1 Structure is designed by using 'struct' 1 Union is designed by using 'union' keyword.
keyword.
2 Syntax: struct structure_name 2 Syntax: union union_name
{ {
Data_type member1; Data_type member1;
Data_type member1; Data_type member1;
} }
3 All the member of the structure variable 3 Only one member of the union variable can be
can be processed at a given time. processed at a time because only one member
of the union variable can be active at a time.
4 We use structure variable if memory is 4 We use union variables if memory is less and
large and have to store values all of the have to store one variable in one of the
variables. declared variables or members.
5 Structures are broadly used in 5 Unions are not used broadly as much as
programming. structures.
6 Structure declaration takes large amount 6 Union declaration shares the same area of
of spaces to store data and values. memory to save storage space.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Example 1, Write a C program to read different structure variables and display them.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
struct student
{
int roll;
char name[30];
char section;
float height;
} s1
printf("\n Enter roll numer");
scanf("%d",&s1.roll );
printf("\n Enter name:");
gets(s1.name);
printf("\n Enter section:");
scanf("%c",&s1.section);
printf("\n Enter height");
scanf("%f,&s1.height);
printf("\n You have entered:\n);
printf(" Roll Numer %d Name is %s section %c and height is %f",
s1.roll,s1.name,s1.section,s.height);
}
Program: Write a program to input the employee name and their basic salary of n employees and display
the record in proper format.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main ()
{
struct employee
{
char name[10];
int salary;
};
struct employee e[100],t;
int i,j,n;
printf("\n How many records");
scanf("%d", &n);
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
{
printf("\n Enter name of employee");
gets(e[i].name);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

printf("\n Enter salary of employee:");

scanf("%d",&e[i].salary);
}
printf("\n Employee \t \t salary);
printf("\n ==============================");
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
{
printf("\n %s \t\t\t %d",e[i].name,e[i].salary);
}
printf("\n===============================");
}
Program: Write a program that reads different names and addresses into the computer and rearrange the
names into alphabetical order using the structure variables.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main ()
{
int i,j,n;
struct student
{
char name[50];
char address[50];
};
struct student s[200],t;
printf("\n how many records do you want store?");
scanf("%d",&n);
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
{
printf("\n Enter name of the student:");
gets(s[i].name);
printf("\n Enter address of the student:");
gets(s[i].address);
{
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
{
for (j=0; j<n-1; j++)
{
If(strcmpi (s[j].name,s[j+1].name)>0)
{
t=s[j];
s[j]=s[j+1];
s[j+1]=t;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

}
}
}
Printf("\n\n The records of the student after sorting\n");
Printf("\n Name of student Address ");
for (i=0; i<=n; i++)
{
printf("\n %s %s", s[i].name,s[i].address);
}
}
Pointer
A pointer is a variable that a points to a references a memory location where data is stored. Each memory
cell in the computer has an address which can be used to access its location. A pointer variable points to a
memory location rather than a value.
- We can access and change the contents of the memory location.
- A pointer variable contains the memory location of another variable.
- The asterisk tells the compiler that you are creating a pointer variable.
The pointer declaration syntax is as shown below.
Pointer_type *pointer_variable_name;
For e.g. int *p;
Address (&) and indirection (*) operator
The address (&) operator and immediately preceding variable returns the address of the variable
associated with it. Hence, the address of (&) operator returns the address of memory location in which the
variable is stored.
The indirection (*) operator is used to extract value from the memory location stored in the
particular memory location whose address is stored in pointer variable.
The syntax of declaring address operator to pointer variable is as follows.
Pointer_variable = &variable_name;
For Example
int *ptr, num=25;
ptr = &num;
Program: Write a complete program to display address and value of the pointer variable.
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int *p;
int age=17;
p=&age;
printf("\n Value of age is %d", age); output= 17
printf("\n Value of age is %d",*p); output=17
printf("\n Value of age is %d",*(&age)); output=17
printf("\n Address of age is %u",p); output=2686784
printf("\n Address of age is %u",&age); output=2686784
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Pointer to Arithmetic
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int *p;
int age= 17
p=&age;
printf(" \nValue of age is %d",age); output=17
printf("\n Increment on age is %d",++age); output=18
printf("\n Address of age is %u",p); output=2686784
printf("\n Increment in pointer is %u",++p); output=
}
Write a C program to increment pointer.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int n[ ]={10,20,30,40};
int *aptr=n;
int i;
printf("\n Pointer notation");
for (i=1; i<=4; i++);
{
printf("*(aptr+%d)=%d\n",i*(aptr+i)); output =10
} =20
} =30
=40
Assignment pointer value to function
Program: Write a program to pass pointer variable to function sum them and display after returning it.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Int add(int *p, int *k)
void main( )
{
int a,b,c=0;
printf("\n Enter two numbers");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
c=add(&a,&b);
printf("\n Sum of two numbers %d and %d is %d",a,b,c);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

add (int *x, int *y)

{
int r;
r=*x+*y;
return (r);
}
Array of pointers:
Program: Write a C program to assign array, place these array in pointer variable and display array value
along with its address.
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int i, arr[10];
Int *ptr[10];
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
Arr[i]=i;
}
for (i=1; i<=10; i<=10; i++)
{
ptr[i]=&arr[i];
}
for (i=0; i<=10; i++)
{
printf("\n value arr[%d] stored at address of %u",arr[i],ptr[i]);
}
}
Pointer to Pointer
Program: Write a program to demonstrate the use of pointer to pointers:
#include<stdio.h>
Void main( )
{
int a=10, *b, **c;
b=&a;
c=&b;
printf("\n Value of a is %d",a); output= 10
printf("\n Value of a is %d",*b); output= 10
printf("\n Value of a is %d",**c); output= 10
printf("\n address of a is %u",b); output= 2686788
printf("\n address of a is %u",&a); output= 2686788
printf("\n address of b is %u",c); output= 2686784
printf("\n address of b is%u", &b); output= 2686784
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Advantage of Pointer
- Runtime memory creation.
- Runtime memory deletion.
- Hard Access through pointer.
- Data Structure Based Pointer.
- Applications of Pointer Ms-word, Excel, Access, SQL.

Working with files

Data file much application required that information be written is stored on the memory device in the form
of a data file. Thus, data file access and alter that information whenever information in C.

Sequential and Random Access File

Sequential Access File:
The sequential access files allow reading the data from the file in one after another i.e. in sequence. There
is no predefined order for accessing data file. All the processes are declare and assigned by the compiler
during run time of the program.

Random Access File:

The random access files allow reading data from any location in the file. Sometimes, we need to read data
file from reverse, middle and from specific location. To achieve this, C defines a set of functions to
manipulate the position of the file. The inbuilt function fseek( ), lseek( ), rewind( ) and ftell( ) are the some
of the common examples of random access files.

Opening, Reading, Writing and Appending on/from Data File:

Once the file pointer has been declared, the next step is to open file. There is an inbuilt function to open a
file. The function fopen( ) is used to create a steam for use and links of new open file. This function return a
file pointer and takes two parameter one for name of file and other for mode for the file. The syntax is as
follows;
FILE *f;
f = fopen ("file_name.extension", "mode_of_open");

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
The modes of the data file are as follows:
S.N. Mode Description
1 "r" / "rt" It opens a text file to read only mode.
2 "w" / "wt" It creates a text file to write only mode.
3 "a" / "at" It appends text to already data containing file.
4 "r+t" It opens a text file for read and write mode.
5 "w+t" It creates a text file for read and write mode.
6 "a+t" It opens or creates a text file and read mode.
7 "rb" It opens a binary file for read only mode.
8 "wb" It creates a binary file for write only mode.
9 "ab" It opens or create a binary file for append mode.
10 "r+b" It opens a binary file for read and write mode.
11 "w+b" It creates a binary file for read and write mode.
12 "a+b" It opens or creates a binary file for append mode.

Functions
1. fputc= Store character into the file.
2. fputs= Store string in to the file.
3. fgetc= fetch character from the file.
4. fgets= fetch string from the file.
5. fwrite= store data (structure) in to the file.
6. fread= fetch data (structure) from the file.
7. fprintf= store data in to file.
8. fscanf= fetch variable from the file.

Opening a data file

Syntax:
FILE *fptr
fptr = fopen (“filename” , ”mode”)
Where, File name can be “library.txt”, “student.dat” ..etc
Mode:
“w” to write/store data in a data file.
“r” to display/read/retrieve/access data from a datafile.
“a” to add/append data in existing datafile.

Store/write data
Syntax:
fprintf(fptr , ”format specifiers” ,variables);
Eg; suppose if we want to store name, disease, age and bed number of a patient then, it is written
as
fprintf(fptr , ”%s %s %d %d”, n, d, a, b);
Where, variable are initialized as:
char n[10], d[10];
int a, b;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Program example
1) Create a datafile “patient.txt” and store name, disease, age and bed number of a patient.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10], d[10];
int a, b;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen(“patient.txt”,”w”);
printf("Enter name, disease, age and bed number");
scanf(“%s %s %d %d”, n, d, &a, &b);
fprintf(fptr,"%s %s %d %d\n”, n, d, a, b);
fclose(fptr);
}
[Note: This program will store only single record to store multiple record we have to use loop as following
programs.

2) Create a datafile “student.txt” and store name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject for few
students/n-students.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m, i, num;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","w");
printf("How many record?");
scanf("%d",&num);
for(i=1;i<=num;i++)
{
printf("Enter name class and 3 marks");
scanf("%s %d %d %d %d",n, &c, &e, &ne, &m);
fprintf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d \n",n, c, e, ne, m);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

3) Create a datafile “student.txt” and store name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject until user
press “y” / as per user requirement.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char n[10],ch[3];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","w");

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

do
{
printf("Enter name class and 3 marks");
scanf("%s %d %d %d %d",n, &c, &e, &ne, &m);
fprintf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d\n",n, c, e, ne, m);
printf("Press Y to continue");
scanf("%s",ch);
} while (strcmp(ch,"Y") == 0 || strcmp(ch,"y")==0);
fclose(fptr);
}

Add/Append data

1) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to add 200 more records.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m, i;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","a");
for(i=1;i<=200;i++)
{
printf("Enter name class and 3 marks");
scanf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, &c, &e, &ne, &m);
fprintf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d \n",n, c, e, ne, m);
}
fclose(fptr);
}
2) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to add more records until user press “y” / as per user requirement.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10], ch[3];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt”,”a”);
do
{
printf("Enter name class and 3 marks");
scanf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, &c, &e, &ne, &m);
fprintf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d\n", n, c, e, ne, m);
printf("Press Y to continue");

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
scanf("%s",ch);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

} while (strcmp(ch,"Y") == 0 || strcmp(ch,"y")==0);

fclose(fptr);
}

Read/Display/retrieve/access data from a datafile

Syntax:
fscanf(fptr , ”format specifiers” ,variables);
Eg; suppose if we want to display/read name, disease, age and bed number of a patient from data
file then, it is written as
fscanf(fptr , ”%s %s %d %d”, n, d, &a, &b);
Where, variable are initialized as:
char n[10], d[10];
int a,b;

EOF: End of file

1) A d#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
printf("Name\tPercentage\n");
while(fscanf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d",n,&c,&e,&ne,&m) != EOF)
{
printf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, c, e, ne, m);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

2) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to read and display only records whose name is Ram.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
while(fscanf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d",n,&c,&e,&ne,&m) != EOF)
{
strlwr(n);
if (strcmp(n,”ram”) == 0)
{
printf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, c, e, ne, m);

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

}
}
fclose(fptr);
}
3) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to read and display only records who pass in all subjects.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
while(fscanf(fptr,"%s %d %d %d %d",n,&c,&e,&ne,&m) != EOF)
{
if (e>=40 && ne>=40 && m>=40)
{
printf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, c, e, ne, m);
}
}
fclose(fptr);
}

4) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to read and display only records who fail in any one subject.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
while(fscanf(fptr, "%s %d %d %d %d", n, &c, &e, &ne, &m) != EOF)
{
if (e<40 || ne<40 || m<40)
{
printf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, c, e, ne, m);
}
}
fclose(fptr);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
5) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to read and display only name and percentage of all students
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
float p;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
while(fscanf(fptr, "%s %d %d %d %d", n, &c, &e, &ne, &m) != EOF)
{
p = (e+ne+m)/3;
printf("%s %f", n, p);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

6) A datafile “student.txt” contain name, class and marks obtained in 3 different subject of few students.
Write a C program to read and display only records of all students who secure distinction.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char n[10];
int c, e, ne, m;
float p;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("student.txt","r");
while(fscanf(fptr, "%s %d %d %d %d", n, &c, &e, &ne, &m) != EOF)
{
p = (e+ne+m)/3;
if (p>=80)
{
printf("%s %d %d %d %d", n, c, e, ne, m);
}
}
fclose(fptr);
}

Program: Write a program to read a line and store it in a data file and display the contents.
#include<stdio.h.
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
char I;
FILE *f, *q;

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

f = fopen("store.txt","w");
while((i=getchar())!='\n')
{
fputc(i, f);
}
fclose( f);
q=fopen ("store.txt","r");
while((i=fgetc(q))!=EOF)
{
Printf("%c",i);
}
}
Program: Write a C program to read N students record store them in data file and display the content in
appropriate format by using fprintf and fscanf function.
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
FILE *f;
f= fopen (''ratna.txt","w");
int i, rn, n;
char name[25], add[35];
printf("\n how many records?");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d student roll number, name and address:\n",n);
for (i=o; i<n; i++)
{
scanf("%d %s %s",&rn,name,add);
fprintf( f, "%d\t%s\t%s\n ",rn,name,add);
}
fclose(f);
printf("\n The %d data records",n);
f= fopen ("ratna.txt","r");
while (fscanf( f, "%d %s %s",&rn,name,add)!=EOF)
{
printf("\n %d\t%s\t%s",rn,name,add);
}
fclose(f);
}
Program: Write a program using C language that reads successive records from the new data file and
display each record on the screen in an appropriate format.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

{
struct student.
{
char name[50];
char add[80];
};
struct student s;
char next='Y' ;
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen ("C:\\student.txt","w");
while(next=='Y' || next=='y')
{
printf("\n Enter the name of the student");
gets(s.name);
printf("\n Enter the address of the student");
gets(s.add);
fwrite(&s, sizeof (s), 1, fp);
printf("\n Do you want to write next record (Y/N)");
}
fclose(fp);
fp=fopen ("C:\\student.txt", "r");
printf("\n Name of student Address");
while (fread (&s, sizeof(s), 1,f(p)==1)
{
printf("\n %s \t\t\t %s",s.name,s.add);
}
fclose (fp);

Program: Write a C program to read sentence until enter key pressed. Put every words in data file by
using fputs( ) fucnction and display the content of file by using fgets( ) function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main( )
{
Char a[20];
FILE *f;
f= fopen ("senten.doc", "w");
printf("\n Enter sentence");
gets(a)
while (strlen (gets(a))>0)
{
fputs(a,f);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

fclose(f);
f = fopen ("senten.doc", "r");
if (f== NULL)
printf("\n Cannot open the file");
else
{
While (fgets (a,19,f)!=NULL)
{
printf("%s",a);
}
}
fclose(f);
}
Program: Write a C program to read ages of N students, store them in age.txt file and find out the
average age after reading from data file.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main( )
{
int ag,n, i, sum=0;
float avg;
FILE *f;
f= fopen("age.txt", "w");
printf("\n How many student:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
{
printf("\n Enter %d student ages",i+1);
scanf("%d",&ag);
putw(ag,f);
}
fclose (f);
f= fopen ("age.txt", "r");
printf("\n Calculating average age from file");
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
{
sum=sum+getw(f);
}
avg = (float) sum / n ;
printf("\n Average age of %d student is %f", n, avg);
fclose(f);
}

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com
Program: Write C program to read already created data file student.txt and display it contents if it opens
otherwise print message "The file ……does not exists".
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h.
Void main( )
{
char i;
FILE *f;
f = fopen ("student.txt", "r");
If (f== NULL)
{
printf("\n The student.txt file does not exists");
}
else
{
while ( ( i=fgetc(f))!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",i);
}
}
fclose(f);

Some IMP Notes

S.N. Fwrite S.N. fprintf

1 Binary format writing 1 No binary format.
2 Size of data. 2 Size of data is not fix
3 Number of records. 3 No number of records.
4 We store the data in block form so not in 4 Format string used to store the data in the
format form. format form.
5 Fixed block size. 5 No block size.
S.N. Structure S.N. Pointer
1 Structure is use to store the 1 Where is pointer is use to store the
difference type of data member like address of another location (variable).
as char, int, float etc.
2 Structure is use to maintain the 2 Whereas pointer is use to create link list.
records.
3 Structure can't be use to access the 3 Pointer can be use to access the hardware.
hardware.
4 Structure can't be use to create 4 But pointer are use to create the memory
memory run time. runtime.
5 Structure can be declared as pointer 5 Pointer can be declared inside the
variable. structure.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

S.N. Break Keywords (Statement) S.N. Continue Keywords (Statement)

1 The break statement is use to terminate 1 The continue statement is used return the
the loop unconditionally. pointer at the beginning of the loop.
2 The break statement can also be use 2 But the continue can be use inside the
inside the switch statement. switch statement.
3 The break statement is use to terminate 3 The continue statement is use to repeat
the loop. set of statements.
4 Example 4 Example
void main( ) void main( )
{ {
int i; int num;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++) for (num=1; num!=10; num+1)
{ {
If (i==5) If(num==7)
{ {
break; continue;
} }
printf("%d",i); printf("%d",num);
} }
} }
Output= 1,2,3,4. Output= 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9.

S.N. Array S.N. Pointer

1 Array is create continue memory location with 1 Pointer creates only one block of
same type. memory but access all memory of
another variable.
2 Array takes huge of memory. 2 Pointer takes less and less memory.
3 Array is to be fixed at the time of declaration. 3 Whereas pointer size can be change at
the run time.
4 In array we can free the memory run time. 4 But using pointer the dynamic
allocated memory can be make free at
run time.
5 If we allocated huge sized of array and we get 5 But this problem can resolved by using
few information then unnecessary memory the pointer.
will be occupied.
6 Using array technique to accessing the array 6 It is easier than array.
elements is more different comparison to
pointer.

Web References:
3. https://www.javatpoint.com
4. https://www.w3schools.com
5. https://www.tutorialspoint.com
6. https://www.google.com
7. https://www.wikipedia.org

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

ObJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP)

REFERENCE NOTE

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-5- Object Oriented Programming (OOP) - 6 Marks

1) What is OOP? Describe its features.

2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using OOP?
3) Explain the term polymorphism and inheritance.
4) Difference between OOP and Structured Programming Language.
5) Explain the Class, Object and Encapsulation.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

UNIT 5. Object Oriented Programming

1. What are the programming methods or approaches of program development?
There are two approaches of program development. They are Procedure Oriented Programming and
Object-Oriented Programming. Procedure Oriented Programming is a conventional method of
programming and the Object-Oriented Programming is a modern or latest programming method.

2. What is Procedure Oriented Programming?

It is a conventional or old method of programming, in which the program is written into many small parts
and combined together. In this approach, the functions are created and the data is not very crucial.
Variables are created for the data handling and they are treated as the global and local variables. Creation
of the variables inside of the sub programs is known as local variable and the creation of the variables in
the main module is called the global variable. Global variables can be accessed from any modules but the
local variables can be accessed only within the local modules. The alteration of data is very high.

3. What are the features of Procedure Oriented Programming?

The characteristics or features are as follow:
a) A large program is broken down into small programs or procedures.
b) It focuses on the functions rather than the data.
c) Variables are created as local and global.
d) The possibility of data alteration is very high, which is the main disadvantage of this approach.
e) It follows top down method.

4. What is Object Oriented Programming?

It is a modern approach of programming. It is highly known as OOP in short form. In this method, all the
real world entities are treated as the objects and objects are collected in a class. Even the classes are
controlled by the Super class. And by the inheritance feature, the changes on the super class are easily
passed to its sub classes. Similarly, it was developed to overcome procedure oriented programming
method and the data is given high priority rather than the functions. Data can be hidden, so that the
possibility of data alteration is very less.

5. What are the characteristics of OOP?

a) Emphasis is given to the data.
b) Program are divided into multiple objects.
c) Functions and data are tied together in a single unit.
d) Data can be hidden to prevent accidental alteration.
e) It follows the bottom up approach.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

6. What are the differences between Procedure Oriented and Object Oriented
Programming?
Procedure Oriented Object Oriented

1. Emphasis is given to procedures. 1. Emphasis is given to data.

2. Programs are divided into multiple modules. 2. Programs are divided into multiple objects.

3. It follows top-down method. 3. It follows bottom-up method.

4. Generally data cannot be hidden. 4. Data can be hidden.

5. It does not model the real world perfectly. 5. It models the real world perfectly.

6. Maintenance is difficult. 6. Maintenance is easy.

7. Code reusability is difficult. 7. Code reusability is easy.

8. Examples: FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, C, etc. 8. Examples: C++, JAVA, Smalltalk, etc.

7. Write short notes on the following:

a) Object
All the entities of a program used in OOP method are called objects. Here entities represent a group of
people, teachers, students, books, cars, etc. Each entity or object does have an attribute called
characteristics and the behavior or functions. For example, a car can be an object. The colour like blue,
black, size, weight, etc. are the attributes or the characteristics, which distinguishes to it with other
objects and move, turn, etc. can be the functions.
b) Class
Class is a user defined data type in OOP, which defines the data types for all the objects, which run under
it. Or it collects the objects of its similar data types. For example, a class vehicle can have the objects like
car, bus, truck, etc. Similarly a class school can have students, teachers, staff, etc.
c) Abstraction
It is a feature of hiding internal detail of any object. It provides only the interface to the user, which makes
them easy to use but does not show the details of that object, how that works and how that is made. Due
to this feature, OOP has become very secure platform for its data from being accidental alteration.
d) Encapsulation
It is a process of combining the data and functions together. OOP gives more emphasis on the data rather
than the functions or procedures. Many functions can use the same data but the instruction given to the
function to use any particular data and combining them together is the encapsulation. Due to its unrelated
functions cannot use unnecessary data in the program.
e) Inheritance
Inheritance is the process of creating new classes based on the existing class. The new classes require the
features of the main class called the Super class and it is provided through the feature called Inheritance.
By the Inheritance feature Super class can coordinate with it’s sub classes. It models the real world. It
allows the extension and reuse of existing code without having to rewrite for the new created classes.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

f) Polymorphism
It is a feature of OOP, which refers to the way of operating the same operator in different ways and
different method or purpose. Operator overloading and the operation overloading are the examples or
Polymorphism. For example ‘+’ operator can be used for arithmetic operation and string concatenation
both. This facility or feature is an example of Polymorphism. It reduces the number or keywords or
operators.

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of OOP?

Advantages:
a) Code repetition is reduced by the various techniques like inheritance.
b) Data is more secure due to the data hiding feature called abstraction.
c) Existing classes can serve as library class for further enhancements.
d) Division of a program into multiple objects makes the software development easier.
e) Software complexity is less.
f) Upgrading and maintenance of software is easy.
g) It perfectly models the real world system.
h) Code re-usability is much easier than the conventional programming system.

Disadvantages
a) Compiler and runtime overhead is high.
b) Software developer should analyze the problem in object oriented way.
c) Requires the mastery in software engineering and programming methodology.
d) Useful only for the large and complex projects.

Application of OOP
1. Expert System
2. Artificial intelligence
3. Management information systems.
4. Decision support system.
5. Computer based training and education
6. Object- oriented database.
7. Computer games.
8. Mobile applications.
9. Internet based applications.
10. Designing user interface for software.
11. Security System.

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org 

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

SOFTWARE PROCESS MODEL

REFERENCE NOTE

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-6- Software Process Model - 6 Marks

1. What is SPM? Explain the major activities of Software Development Process in brief.
2. What is Software Development Model? Explain the types of SDM with advantages and disadvantage.
3. Who is the system analyst? Explain the role and characteristic of a system analyst.
4. Explain in detail about waterfall, prototyping and spiral model of software development.
5. What is prototyping? Write down its advantages and disadvantages.
6. Define SDLC. Explain different phases of SDLC in brief.
7. What do you mean by feasibility study? Why is it necessary before designing a system?
8. Define system testing. Different between black box testing and white box testing.
9. What is algorithm and flowchart? Write difference between system and program flowchart.
10. Differentiate between System analyst and System engineer.
11. Define the following terms. A) DFD B) ER diagram C) Case diagram D) UML E) System Flowchart

F) Documentation G) Algorithm H) Pseudo code I) Decision table and decision tree

J) Prototyping model K) Spiral Model

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Unit 1- Software Process Model (SPM)

Software Project Concept
Program:
The program is a sequence of instructions. It is the set or collection of instructions.
Instruction:
An instruction is a command given to the computer to perform a certain specified operation on given
data.
Software:
A set of programs written for a computer to perform a particular task is called software or the logical
components or set of procedures to routines or instructions are called software is the interface between
the computer and the user. It is a group of commands that tells the computer what to do and how to do
it.
Project:
A project is a well-defined task, which is a collection of several operations done in order to achieve a goal
(for example, software development and delivery).

Software Project Concept:

A software project is the complete procedure of software development from requirement identification
to testing and maintenance, carried out according to the execution methodologies, in a specified period
of time and budget in order to achieve intended software product.

Software Development Process

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 Software development process defines a sequence of tasks that must be carried out to build new
software.
 It groups the development activities into a sequence of phases.
 A phase in sequence can only commence on the previous phase has been completed.
 A report is produced at the end of each phase, describing what has been achieved and outlining
the plan for the next phase.
Fundamental activities for the software development process are
1. Software Specification: The functionality or software and constraints on its operations must
defined.
2. Software design and implementation: The software to meet the specifications must produce.
3. re must be validated to ensure that it does what the customerwants.
4. Software evolution: The software must evolve to meet changing customer needs.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

System:
System is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole. A system can
be described as a set of objects joined together for a common objective.

Development:
It is the process of step by step changing or growing of any program and system.
Information System:
Information system is a system which processes supplied/collected data and generates information that
can be used for decision making at different levels.

SDLC
SDLC (Software/System Development Life Cycle) is an organized way to develop a software/system.
System Development Phase or System Development Life Cycle or Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
is a methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace software/information systems.
 It is a systematic process of developing any software. It helps in establishing a system, or software
or project, or plan. It gives an overall list of processes and sub-processes required for developing a
system.
 SDLC consists of a set of development activities that have a prescribed order. It is the development
of software in chronological order.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC), which is also known as Application Development Life Cycle, is a
term used in system that describes the process of planning, creating, testing and deploying an information
system.
Importance and the necessity of SDLC
1. It helps to determine the needs of the user.
2. It supports constant communication between the developer and the user.
3. SDLC helps for easy identification of missing requirements.
4. It ensures that the software meets the needs of its users.
5. It supports proper analysis and design of the software.
6. It ensures proper development and testing.
7. Proper documentation support for future upgrade and maintenance.
8. It provide flexibility for adding features even after the software is developed.

SDLC Phases

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

The different phases of SDLC are as follows:

1. System Study or Preliminary Investigation and Feasibility study.

2. System analysis or Determination of system requirements.
3. System design.
4. System development or development of software.
5. System Testing.
6. System Implementation.
7. System Maintenance and Reviews or Evaluation.

System Study /
Maintenance & Feasibility Study
Review
System Analysis/
System Requirement
System
Implementation

System
System System Design
Testing Development

1. System study:
A system is intended to meet the needs of an organization. Thus the first step in the design is to
specify these needs or requirements. The top manager of the organization takes the basic decision
to use a computer based (information) system for managing the organization.
During this phase, the development team focuses on completing three tasks:
- Survey the system by collecting the inputs from various sources.
- Analyzing the current system (manual or automated) in depth and developing possible
solutions to the problem.
- Selecting to the best solution and defining its function with a feasibility study.
2. System analysis:
System analysis is the dissection of a system into its component pieces to study how those
component pieces interact and work.
 System analysis is a term that collectively describes the early phases of development.
 It is defined as those phases and activities that focus on the business problem, independent
of technology.
In this stage, the development team once again goes to the organization and studies very minutely
to collect all the drawbacks and details of information from the users, management and data
processing personnel.
Then the system analyst analyzes the information and proposes the following specifications.
i. Goals and objectives of the proposed system.
ii. Fundamental actions that must take place in the software.
iii. Outputs to be produced.
iv. Inputs to be used.
v. Processes to be performed.
vi. Interfaces to be provided.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

vii. Organizational and other constraints' to be met.

viii. Performanceequements to be met.

Feasibility study:
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It analyses the
proposed system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that how practical or beneficial
the system will be to the organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor
not.
Need of feasibility study
 It determines whether the system meets the goal of the clients or not.
 It determines the strength and limitations before starting to develop the system.
 It focuses on the boundary of the system's outline.
 It suggests new opportunities through the investigations process.
 It provide quality information for decision making.
 To provide documentation of the investigated system.

The different levels of feasibility study are as:

1) Economic feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The main objective of
economic feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both the development cost and the
operational cost and the benefits from the system.
2) Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software and the
support equipment for the complete development of the system.
3) Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the system. It is all about the
problems that may occur during operation of the system after its development.
4) Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the society towards the new
system. Generally, most of the traditional employees are not easily ready to upgrade them
with the new system.
5) Social Feasibility: It is a determination of whether a proposed system will be acceptable to the
people or not.
6) Management Feasibility: It is a determination of whether a proposed system will be
acceptable to management or not.
7) Schedule(Time) feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and estimate time
and resources required to complete each task. It determines the deadline to complete a
system and schedule the task accordingly.
8) Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the system is illegal then the
system designing is meaningless. Everything is measured whether it is legal or illegal. It
considers copyright law, foreign law, foreign trade, tax, etc.

System design:
The next step is to develop the logical design of the system. During this phase, the logic of the
system, namely, the information requirement of users, and use this to find the necessary
database.
System design is concerned with the design of new system. It involves designing of various things
such as output design, input design, files design, processing and general program design etc.

Logical Design: Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The system could be
designed on the basis of the requirements.

Physical Design: The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques is called
physical design. It is more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of the problem. It uses

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

algorithms, flowcharts, pseudo codes, decision table, decision tree, E-R diagram, Data flow
diagram etc.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The system could be designed on the
basis of the requirements.
The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques is called physical design. It is
more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of the problem.

To create the logical design different kinds of tools are used.

 Algorithm  Decision Table
 Flowchart  Decision Tree
 Pseudo codes  Data flow diagram
 Structured English  E-R diagram

3. System development: after designing a logical diagram of a system then next step is to convert
into program. This process is called system development. Flowchart, algorithm, Pseudo code, etc.
are the outlines the procedures for taking the input data and processing it into usable output.

4. System testing: it is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about

the quality of the product or service under test. System testing also provides an objective,
independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of
software implementation.
5. Implementation: implementation involves testing the installed system, converting from the old
system to the new one and training the users. This phase consists of implementation of the system
into a production environment, and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
6. Maintenance and review: it begins after the system is implemented. Like any system, there is an
ageing process that requires periodic maintenance of hardware and software. The content of the
review will include objectives met, cost, performance, standards and recommendation.

System Analyst:
System analyst is person who is involved in analyzing, designing, implementing and evaluating computer-
based information systems to support the decision making activities and operations of an organization.
A good system analyst is:
1. Understanding and commitment to the organization
2. People skills
3. Conceptual skills and
4. Technical skills
 A system analyst is information specialist. To be a system analyst, one must be knowledgeable
about the technical aspects of analyzing, designing and implementing computer-based systems. 
 A system analyst is a person who conducts a study, identifies activities and objectives and
determines a procedure to achieve the objectives.
Designing and implementing systems to suit organizational needs are the functions of the systems analyst.
One plays a major role in seeing the business benefits from computer technology.
An analyst is a person with unique skills. One uses these skills to coordinate the efforts of different types
of persons in an organization to achieve business goals.
The characteristics (attributes) of system analyst are as follows:
1. Knowledge of organization.
2. Technical Knowledge.
3. Interpersonal Communication Skill.
4. Character and Ethics.
5. Problem-Solving Skill.
1. Defining the problem
2. Analyzing the problem

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

3. Considering Many alternatives

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

4. Evaluating many alternatives

5. Choosing the best alternatives
6. System analysis and Design skills

The roles of system analyst area as follows:

1. Change event
2. Investigator and event
3. Architect
4. Psychologist
5. Motivator
6. Intermediary and diplomat
Duties and Responsibilities of System Analyst
1. Defining Requirements
2. Prioritizing Requirements
3. Analysis and Evaluation
4. Solving Problems
5. Drawing up functional specification
6. Designing System
7. Evaluating System

SDLC (System Development Life Cycle):

Describes in Details:
1. System study or Preliminary Investigation :
In this stage, the development team studies the present and identifies the drawbacks. They
interact with the users and gathers information from different sources to recognize the problems
of present system.
2. System Analysis:
In this stage, the development team once again goes to the organization and studies very
minutely to collect all the drawbacks and details of information from the users, management
and data processing personnel.
Then the system analyst analyzes the information and proposes the following specifications.
i. Goals and objectives of the proposed system.
ii. Fundamental actions that must take place in the software.
iii. Outputs to be produced.
iv. Inputs to be used.
v. Processes to be performed.
vi. Interfaces to be provided.
vii. Performance requirements to be met.
viii. Organizational and other constraints' to be met.
3. Feasibility study:
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It analyses the proposed
system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that how practical or beneficial the system will
be to the organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor not. Thus it is
necessary before system design.
The different levels of feasibility study are as:

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

1. Economic feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The main objective of
economic feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both the development cost and the operational
cost and the benefits from the system.
2. Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software and the support
equipment for the complete development of the system.
3. Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the system. It is all about the
problems that may occur during operation of the system after its development.
4. Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the society towards the new
system. Generally, most of the traditional employees are not easily ready to upgrade them with the
new system.
5. Schedule feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and estimate time and resources
required to complete each task. It determines the deadline to complete a system and schedule the
task accordingly.
6. Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the system is illegal then the system
designing is meaningless. Everything is measured whether it is legal or illegal. It considers copyright
law, foreign law, foreign trade, tax, etc.

4. System Design:
System design is concerned with the design of new system. It involves designing of various things
such as output design, input design, files design, processing and general program design etc. This
state consists of logical design and physical design of the system.
7. Logical Design: Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The
system could be designed on the basis of the requirements.
8. Physical Design: The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques
is called physical design. It is more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of
the problem. It uses algorithms, flowcharts, pseudo codes, decision table, decision
tree, E-R diagram, Data flow diagram etc.
System Design Tools:
The tools which are used to design the system in known as system design tools. They are used during
system analysis and design phase of the system development.
1. Algorithm: An algorithm is defined as the finite sequences of instructions for solving a problem.
2. Flowchart: A flowchart is the pictorial representation of an algorithm which is classified into two
types’ system flowchart and program flowchart. The different symbols used in system flowchart
are defined below:

I) System flowchart:
System flowchart describes the internal architecture of a system that describes how data are
moved inside the internal components of a system.
II) Program flowchart:
Program flowchart describes to solve the application types of real world problem.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

3. DFD (Data flow diagram):

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

DFD is the logical diagram to describe the flow of data inside the components of system. It is easier
to understand or grasp when being explained and most important to all, it is much more precise
and less ambiguous than a narrative one. The main components are: process, data store, data
flow, external entities.

Supplier Computer Purchase.dat

4. Context Diagram:
It is combination of many other DFD. It is the highest level of DFD. It contains only one process,
representing the entire system, the process is given the symbol circle. The external entities are
denoted by rectangle. The flow of data is described by arrow.

Apply for membership

Membership
Applicant Issue

Issue
Membership
Fig.: The Context diagram of library membership
5. ER (Entity Relationship) diagram:
The E-R diagram is an overall logical structure of a database that can be expressed graphically. It
was developed to facilitated database design and the simplicity and pictorial clarity of this
diagramming technique have done great help in the designing part of database. The main
components are attributes, entities and relationship.
The diagrammatic representation of entities attributes and their relationship is described by E-R
diagram.
⚫ The main components of ERD are
⚫ Entity: Customer

⚫ Attributes: CustomerID

⚫ Relationship:
Purchase
⚫ Lines:

Name Address
Cus. Goods Id Name

Customer Purchase Goods

Cont.No Rate ne
Purchase
Fig: ERD for customer and Goods Quantity
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

6. Case diagram
Computer aided software engineering tool is automatic computer based program that helps for
software engineering and SDLC process. It is very fast and effective tools for the development of
big scale software. It helps in analysis, design, implementation, testing and maintenance.
7. UML
Unified Modeling Language is a standardized general purpose modeling language in the field of
object-oriented software engineering. The standard is managed, and was created by, the object
management group. UML includes a set of graphic notation techniques to create visual models of
object-oriented software.
8. Decision Table:
A table allows us to identify the exact course of actions for given conditions in tabular form.
Decision table is a tabular representation of the logic of a decision, which specifies the possible
conditions for the decision and the resulting actions.
Parts of Decision Table.

9. Decision Tree:
Decision tree is also a technique to represent condition and actions in a diagrammatic form in
computer. A decision tree allows us to identify the exact course of actions for given conditions in
tree structures.
10. Pseudo Code:
It is a kind algorithm for solving a problem and the instructions of pseudo code are written by
using English phrase and mathematical expressions.

5. System Development:
Programmers begin to develop the program by using a suitable High Level Language. In System
developments following processes are done.
i. Convert logical structure in to programs in programming language.
ii. Database is created.
iii. User operational documents are written.
iv. Users are trained.
v. The internal documentation of a system is prepared.
6. System testing:
It is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the
product or service under test. System testing also provides an objective, independent view of the
software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software
implementation.
1. White box testing: white box testing of software is predicted on close examination of procedural
details. Logical path through the software and collaborations between components are tested by
providing test case that exercises specific sets of conditions or loops. It is used when the tester
has access it the internal data structures and algorithms including the code that implement these.
2. Black box testing: black box testing treats the software as a black box without any knowledge of
internal implementation. Black box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary

10
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

value analysis, specification based testing, etc. it is also called functional testing because it tests
whether a system is functioning or not.

7. Implementation:
Implementation involves testing the installed system, converting from the old system to the new
one and training the users. This phase consists of implementation of the system into a production
environment, and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
Types of Implementation:
1. Direct Conversion: All users stop using old system at the same time and then begin using the
new. This option is very fast, less costly but more risky.
2. Parallel conversion: Users continue to use old system while an increasing amount of data is
processed through the new system. Both the systems operate at the same time until the new
system works smoothly. This option is costly but safe approach.
3. Phased conversion: Users start using the new system component by component. This option
works only for systems that can be compartmentalized. This option is safe and conservative
approach.
4. Pilot conversion: Personnel in a single pilot-site use the new system, and then the entire
organization makes the switch. Although this option may take more time, it is very useful in
big organizations where a large number of people make the conversion.
8. Maintenance and review:
It begins after the system is implemented. Like any system, there is an ageing process that requires
periodic maintenance of hardware and software. The content of the review will include objectives
met, cost, performance, standards and recommendation.
Types of Maintenance
1. Corrective Maintenance: it corrects the run time errors during the operation.
2. Adaptive Maintenance: It modifies or adds new features in the system.
3. Perfective Maintenance: It makes the system perfect, up-to-date and improve the life of the
system.
System Development Model:
During software development or system development for organizations, a common process framework
is established, defining a small number of framework activities that are applicable to all software projects,
regardless of their size complexity. For a better paradigm of a software process, several models are
designed and implemented. It is the choice of system analyst which model is used to achieve the goal.
The different models are:
1. Waterfall model:
Waterfall model is a systematic and sequential model to develop software that begins with
requirements analysis to operation and maintenance. It describes a development method that is
liner and sequential. It is an oldest type of model for software engineering. The fundamental
processes of waterfall model are as follows:

Requirements Analysis

System design

Development

Testing
Operation &
Fig:- Waterfall Model Maintenance

11
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

1. Requirements analysis and definition: it is the first stage of waterfall model. In this stage, the
developer should identify the actual requirements of the given problem.
2. System design: in this stage the systems design process partition the requirements to either
hardware or software systems.
3. System Development: During this stage, the system design is converting into development.
4. Integration and system Testing: The individual program units or programs are integrated and
tested as a complete system to ensure that the software requirements have been met.
5. Operation and maintenance: in this stage, the system is installed to the desire location. The
maintenance involves correcting errors which were not discovered in earlier stages of the life
cycle, improving the implementation of system units and enhancing the system's service as
new requirements are discovered.

Advantages
1. It is simple model suitable for small size project.
2. It is less expensive.
Disadvantages
1. It has no back track mechanism.
2. It is not suitable for large size project.
3. It has lack of proper documentation.

2. Prototyping model:
It is the iterative process of system development which is more appropriate for developing new
system where there is no clear idea of requirements, inputs and outputs. These systems are then
continuously modified until the user is satisfied.

Identify user needs

Develop a Prototype

Prototype
acceptable

Use the prototype

1. Identify the user needs: the system analyst interviews the user to obtain an idea of what is
required from the system.
2. Develop a prototype: the system analyst, working uses one or more prototyping tools to
develop a prototype.
3. Determine if prototype is acceptable: the analyst educates the user in prototype use and
provides an opportunity from becoming familiar with the system.
4. Use the prototype: the prototype becomes the operational system.
Advantages
1. The users get a better understanding of the system being developed.
2. Errors can be detected much earlier as the system is made side by side.
3. Quicker user feedback is an available leading to better solutions of the system.
Disadvantages

12
Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

1. It leads to implementing and repairing way of building systems.

2. It may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the system may expand
beyond original plans.

3. Spiral system:
In this model, process is represented as a spiral rather than as a sequence of activities with
backtracking. It is a software development process combining the elements of both waterfall and
prototyping model. The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and complicated projects.
This is the most realistic model because it uses multidimensional approach for software
development. The activities in SDLC are organized in a spiral structure that has many cycles which
starts from the center of the spiral and goes out as it program and becomes matured. Each of the
complete spiral segment is divided into four different attributes knows as

Planning
Risk Analysis

Customer
Engineering
Evaluation

1. Planning: the project is reviewed and a decision made whether to continue with a further loop
of the spiral. If it is decided to continue, plans are drawn up for the next phase of the project.
2. Risk analysis: for each of the identified project risks, a detailed analysis is carried out. Steps
are taken to reduce the risk. For example, if there is a risk that the requirements are
inappropriate, a prototype system may be developed.
3. Software development (Engineering): after risk evaluation, a development model for the
system is chosen.
4. User evaluation: specific objectives for the phase of the project are defined by the evaluation
of users. Constraints on the process and the product are identified. And a detailed
management plan is drawn up. Advantages
- It emphasizes quality.
- It is effective for regular updating the system.
- It emphasizes risk reduction techniques.
Disadvantages
- Full scale risk analysis requires training, skill so it may appropriate only for large
projects.
- This model is relatively untested.

4. Agile Software Development

It is a software development method based on iterative and incremental development in which
requirement and solutions evolve though collaboration between self-organizing, cross functional
teams.

13
 Computer Science Reference Note for Grade-XII

Documentation:
Documentation is the process of collecting, organizing, storing and maintaining a complete record of
system and other documents used or prepared during the different phases of the life cycle of the system.
It consists of the detail description about software requirements specification, feasibility report, and
software designing report, description about input-output and processing mechanism, source code,
comments, manuals, guides and effective help desk.

Types of Documentation
1. Internal Documentation: It is used by the system analyst and the programmer during
development process. It is very useful for the development period and also useful in future for the
modification and maintenance for the software.
2. External Documentation: It is used by the user during the running time of the software. It includes
the detail description in terms of manuals, guide and help files. It is mainly deals with how to
effective use of software.

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org

14
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

RECENT TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY

REFERENCE NOTE

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit 7 Recent Trends in Technology
1. What is e-commerce? Explain its role to enhance the digital economy.
2. Write the impact of e-commerce technology in our society.
3. What is cloud computing and robotics?
4. Define term e-learning and virtual reality.
5. What is AI? Write its applications.
6. What is big data? Write its advantage and disadvantages.
7. What is e-governance? List out the objectives.
8. Write Short notes on the following.
a) IOT
b) Mobile Computing
c) Social Media
d) e-medicine
e) AI

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI stands for Artificial Intelligence. It

is a concept of giving human-like
intelligence to the machines. Though
the computers do their work faster
and better than the human beings,
the intelligence of them is zero
because they just follow the set of
instructions given by the user. In case
of wrong instruction, they do wrong processing. It is because they do not have intelligence
of their own. So, the scientists are in research of giving them artificial intelligence, so that
they can understand the natural languages of the human beings and interact. They can
express their feelings and many more.

Components of AI
Different disciplines contributed their ideas, viewpoint, and techniques to plan the
foundation of Al that acts as components of Al. Some of the major contributions of various
disciplines an given below

1. Philosophy: It introduces the concept of logic and methods of reasoning and

studying the mind as a physical system. It creates the foundation for learning
language, and rationality. It also expresses knowledge-based action to be embedded
into the machine to act with AI
2. Mathematics: It introduces the concepts of the formal representation of facts and
proof, algorithms, computation, and reasoning with uncertain information.
3. Economics: It introduces the concepts of the formal theory of rational decision.
4. Neuroscience: It introduces the concepts of mental activity which can be introduced
into the machine.
5. Psychology: It introduces the concepts of the brain as an information processing
device and phenomenon of perception and sensory-motor control.
6. Linguistics: It introduces the concepts of knowledge representation and grammar
and how does language relates to thought.
7. Control Theory and cybernetics: It introduces the concepts of designing the system
that maximizes an objective function over time. This is roughly similar to the
concepts of Al that behave optimally. It describes how artifacts (objects) can operate
under their own control. That is, it introduces the concept of a self-controlling
machine.
8. Computer science and engineering: This component introduces the concept of
hardware, software, and operating system. Apart from this, it also discusses the
programming language and tools used in Al.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Uses/Applications of Al
The potential applications of Artificial Intelligence are abundant (plentiful). They stretch
from the military for autonomous control and target identification, to the entertainment
industry for computer games and robotic pets. Let's also not forget big establishments
dealing with huge amounts of information such as hospitals, banks, industries, and
insurances, which can use Al to predict customer behavior and detect trends.
1. Game playing:
General game playing (GGP) and General video game playing (GVGP) is the concept and
designs for artificial intelligence programs to successfully play plenty of games. For video
games, game rules have to be either learned over multiple repetitions by artificial players
or are predefined manually in a domain-specific language and sent in advance to artificial
players. For instance, the GGP of chess, computers are programmed to play these games
using a specially designed algorithm. It was considered a necessary landmark on the way
to Artificial General Intelligence. The first commercial practice of general game-playing
technology was Zillions of Games in 1998.
2. Speech recognition:
In speech recognition, the input is given to the computer in the form of vibrations
produced by the sound. This is done with the help of an analog to digital converter that
converts the vibrations produced by the sound into digital format.
Then, a set of complex algorithms runs on that data to recognize the speech and return a
text as a result. Depending upon the goal, the end result may vary to some extent. For
example, Google Voice typing converts spoken words into suitable text format while
personal assistants like Siri and Google Assistant take the sound as input and convert it
into both voice and text format, giving output as per the user's requirement.
3. Understanding natural language:
Natural language understanding is a branch of artificial intelligence that uses computer
software to take the input in the form of sentences using text or speech. It simply reduces
the gap between humans and computers allowing them to interact easily with each other.
4. Computer vision:
Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence (AI), which enables the computer and its
systems to get input in the form of digital images and videos and take action based on the
provided input.
5. Expert systems:
An expert system is a computer system that mimics or even surpasses the decision-making
ability of a human expert. It is generally designed to solve complex problems by surfing
through bodies of knowledge. It is further divided into two subsystems; the knowledge
base (which represents facts and rules) and inference engine (which applies the rules to
the known facts to deduce new facts).
6. Robotics:
Artificial intelligence (AI) in robotics is the ability of the computer or the robot to perform
multiple tasks performed by humans, which require human intelligence and discernment.
It gives robots a computer vision to navigate, sense, and calculate their reaction
accordingly For example: Robotic packaging uses various forms of Al for quicker and

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

accurate packaging at a lower price. Likewise, Sophia which is also marked as a "social
robot" is successfully able to mimic social behavior and induce feelings of love in humans.
7. Theorem proving:
Proving theorems requires high intelligence as many of the practical problems can be cast
in terms of theorems. If knowledge is expressed by logic, proving theorem is reasoning. It
uses various AI techniques such as heuristic search.
8. Symbolic mathematics:
Symbolic mathematics refers to the manipulation of formulas, rather than doing
arithmetic on numeric values. It is often used in conjunction with ordinary scientific
computation as a generator of programs, used to actually do the calculations.

Robotics
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation,
and application of robots. It is a discipline overlapping artificial intelligence and mechanical
engineering. It is concerned with building robot programmable devices consisting of
mechanical actuators and sensory organs that are linked to a computer. The mechanical
structure might involve manipulators, as in industrial robotics, might concern the
movement of the robot as a vehicle, as in mobile - robotics. Robotics research is used in
artificial intelligence as a framework for exploring key problems and techniques through a
well-defined application.
1. Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation, and application of robots.
2. It is a discipline overlapping artificial intelligence and mechanical engineering.
3. It is concerned with building robots programmable devices consisting of mechanical
actuators and sensory organs that are linked to a computer.
4. Robots are being used in applications like: Industry, scientific research, Military
applications, Intelligent home applications, Health Services.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the use of various services, such as software development platforms,
servers, storage, and software, over the Internet, often referred to as the "cloud". It is
defined as a type of computing that relies on sharing computing resources rather than
having handle applications.

In cloud computing, the word cloud is used to

represent "the Internet," so the phrase cloud
computing means "a type of Internet-based
computing," where different services - such as
servers, storage, and applications are delivered
to an organization's computers and devices
through the Internet. Cloud computing allows
application software to be operated using
internet-enabled devices.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Types of Clouds
Clouds can be classified as public, private, and hybrid. Public cloud is made available to
the general public or a large industry group. Private cloud computing environment resides
within the boundaries of an organization and is used exclusively for the organizational
benefits Hybrid cloud is the combination of both public and private cloud. Sensitive With
this cloud organizations might run non-core applications in a public cloud, while
maintaining core applications and data in a private cloud.

Service Models of Cloud Computing

1. IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): In this service, computing infrastructural components
like server hardware, storage, bandwidth, and other fundamental computing resources
are provided through the cloud.
2 Saas (Software as a Service): This service includes complete software on the can access
software hosted on the cloud without installing it on the user's own computer.
3. PaaS (Platform as a Service): It allows the user to rent virtualized servers and associated
services used to run existing applications, or to design, develop, test, deploy and host
applications. It provides clients with access to the basic operating software and optional
services to develop and use software applications without the need to buy and manage
the underlying computing infrastructure.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

Some of the advantages of this technology are:
1. Cost-efficient: It is probably the most efficient method to use, maintain and
upgrade.
2. Almost unlimited storage: Storing information in the cloud gives us almost
unlimited storage capacity.
3. Backup and recovery: Since, all the data is stored in the cloud, backing it up and
restoring the same is relatively much easier than storing the same on a physical
device.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

4. Automatic software integration: In the cloud, software integration is usually

something that occurs automatically. It also allows us to customize the options with
great ease.
5. Easy access to information: Once the user is registered in the cloud, the user can
access the information from anywhere, where there is an Internet connection.
6. Quick deployment: Once the method of functioning is selected, the entire system
can be fully functional in a matter of few minutes.

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

Despite its many benefits, as mentioned above, cloud computing also has its
disadvantages.
1. Technical issues: This technology is always prone to outages and other technical issues.
Even the best cloud service providers run into this kind of trouble. Despite keeping up high
standards of maintenance.
2. Security in the cloud: Storing all the sensitive information to a third-party cloud service
provider could potentially put the company at great risk.
3. Prone to Attack: Storing information in the cloud could make the company vulnerable
to external threats and attacks.

Big Data
Big Data refers to complex and large data sets that have to be processed and analyzed to
uncover valuable information that can benefit businesses and organizations.
It has features like:
1. It refers to a massive amount of data that keeps on growing exponentially with time.
2. It is so voluminous that it cannot be processed or analyzed using conventional data
processing techniques.
3. It includes data mining, data storage, data analysis, data sharing, and data
visualization.
4. The term is an all-comprehensive one including data, data frameworks, along the
tools and techniques used to process and analyze the data.
According to Gartner, the definition of Big Data- "Big data is high-volume, velocity, and
information assets that demand cost-effective, innovative forms of information processing
for enhanced insight and decision making."

Types of Big Data

Big data can be classified as Structured, unstructured, and semi-structured.
1. Structured: It means that data can be processed, stored, and retrieved in a fixed format.
It refers to highly organized information that can be readily and seamlessly stored and
accessed from a database by simple search engine algorithms.
2. Unstructured: It refers to the data that lacks any specific form or structure whatsoever.
This makes it very difficult and time-consuming to process and analyze unstructured data.
3. Semi-structured: It relates to the data containing both the formats mentioned above,
that is structured and unstructured data. To be precise, it refers to the data that although

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

has not been classified under a particular repository (database), yet contains vital
information or tags that segregate individual elements within the data.

Characteristics of Big Data

The main characteristics of big data are:
1. Variety: It refers to the variety of data gathered from multiple sources. The variety can
be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured.
2. Velocity: It refers to the speed at which data is being created in real-time. It also
comprises the rate of change, linking of incoming data sets at varying speeds, and activity
bursts.
3. Volume: Big Data indicates huge 'volumes of data that are being generated daily from
various sources like social media platforms, business processes, machines, networks,
human interactions, etc.
4. Veracity: It refers to the reliability or trustworthiness of the data. Due to the large
volume of data, we have uncertainty about the validity, the accurateness of data.
5. Value: It refers to the worth of business value of the collected data.
6. Variability: It refers to the inconsistency of the big data and how the big data can be
used and formatted.

Application Areas of Big Data

Major application of big is data is:
1. Healthcare or Medical sector.
2. Academia.
3. Banking.
4. Manufacturing.
5. Information Technology (IT).
6. Retail business.
7. Transportation.

Advantages of Big Data Processing

Some of the advantages of big data processing are:
1. Businesses can utilize outside intelligence while taking decisions.
2. Improved customer service.
3. Early identification of risk to the product/services,
4. Better operational efficiency.
5. Big data analysis derives innovative solutions. It helps in understanding and
targeting customers. It helps in optimizing business processes.

Disadvantages of Big Data Processing

Despite its many benefits, big data processing has the following disadvantages.
1. Traditional storage can cost a lot of money to store big data.
2. Big data analysis is not useful in the short run. It needs to be analyzed for a longer
duration to leverage its benefits.
3. Big data analysis results are sometimes misleading.
[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Virtual Reality
Virtual reality (VR) is a term that expresses
computer-based simulated environments.
Which can perceive as in the real world, as
well as in unreal worlds.

The virtual reality environments are

primarily concerned with the visual
experiences, displayed either on a
computer screen or through special
stereoscopic displays, but some
simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound through speakers or
headphones.
Virtual reality creates such a realistic artificial environment that the s/he should feel as in
the real world. Today the Virtual reality (VR) technology is applied to advance fields of
medicine, engineering, education, design, training, and entertainment.

Some of the application areas of virtual reality are:

1. It can be used in medical studies to enable students to know the human body.
2. It can be used in scientific research laboratories so that scientists can easily research
a structure.
3. It can be used in entertainment like games and movies to make the gaming
experience more real and to allow individuals to experience adventures under
extreme conditions.
4. It can be used in driving schools as it gives a real look at roads and traffic.
5. It can be used in military training for the soldiers to get familiar with different areas
on the battlefield.

Advantages of Virtual Reality

Some of the advantages of virtual reality are:
1. Virtual reality creates a realistic world.
2. It enables users to explore places.
3. Through Virtual Reality, users can experiment with an artificial environment.
4. Virtual Reality makes education easier and more comfortable.

Disadvantages of Virtual Reality

Some of the disadvantages of virtual reality are:
1. The equipment's used in virtual reality are very expensive.
2. It consists of complex technology.
3. In virtual reality environment we can't move by our own like in the real world.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

e-Commerce, e-Medicine, e-Governance

e-Commerce
Electronic commerce (e-Commerce) is a process of buying and selling or exchanging
products, services, and information using electronic media. There are many definitions for
electronic commerce that include elements of electronic transactions and the buying and
selling of goods and services online.

e-C ommerce is a modern business methodology that addresses the needs of

organizations, merchants, and consumers to cut costs while improving the quality of
manufactured goods, services and increasing the speed of service delivery.
More commonly, e-commerce is associated with the buying and selling of products, and
services via computer networks,
The main platforms of e-commerce remain the Internet, e-mail, fax, telephone orders

Classification of e-Commerce
1. B2B (Business to Business) Sells products or services to other businesses. e.g.
www.freemarkets.com
2. B2C (Business to Consumer) Sells products or services directly to consumers. eg..
www.amazon.com, www.yahoo.com.
3. C2B (Consumer to Business) Consumer fixes a price on their own, which businesses
accept or decline, e.g., www.priceline.com
4. C2C (Consumer to Consumer) Consumer sells directly to other consumer. e.g.
www.ebay.com

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Advantage of e-Commerce
Some of the advantages of e-commerce are:
1. It enables more individuals to work at home, and to do less traveling for shopping,
resulting in less traffic on the roads, and lower air pollution.
2. It allows some merchandise to be sold at lower prices, benefiting less affluent
people.
3. It enables people in Third World countries and rural areas to enjoy products and
services which otherwise are not available to them.
4. Facilitates delivery of public services at a reduced cost, increases effectiveness,
and/or improves quality.
5. It enables consumers to shop or do other transactions 24 hours a day, all year round
from almost any location.
6. It provides consumers with more selections or choices.
7. It provides consumers with less expensive products and services by allowing them
to shop in many places and conduct quick comparisons.
8. It allows quick delivery of products and services, especially with digitized products.
9. Consumers can receive relevant and detailed information in seconds, rather than in
days or weeks walk-around to search a product.
10. It makes it possible to participate in virtual auctions. It allows consumers to interact
with other consumers in electronic communities and exchange ideas as well as
compare price-tag.
11. It facilitates competition, as a result of substantial discounts.
12. It expands the marketplace to national and international markets. It decreases the
cost of creating processing, distributing, storing, and retrieving paper based
information.

Disadvantage of e-Commerce
1. Businesses often calculate return on investment numbers before committing to any
new technology. Costs, which are a function of technology, can change dramatically
during even short-lived e-commerce implementation projects.
2. Many companies have had trouble recruiting and retaining employees with the
technological, design, and business process skills needed to create an effective e-
commerce presence.
3. The difficulty of integrating existing databases and transaction-processing software
designed for traditional commerce into the software that enables e-commerce.
4. Many businesses face cultural and legal impediment (barrier) to e-commerce. Some
consumers are still fearful (afraid) of sending their credit card numbers over the
Internet.
5. Consumers are simply resistant to change and are uncomfortable viewing
merchandise on a computer screen rather than in person.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

e-Medicine
e-Medicine is an online clinical medical knowledge database, which is an approach to
providing health care service to a large number of people spread in different locations.
It is mainly beneficial for the people of rural areas with limited or no medical facilities. e-
Medicine is targeted to provide high-quality healthcare service. It minimizes the time and
cost required for treatment.
e-Medicine usually contains up-to-date, searchable, peer-reviewed medical journals,
online physician reference textbooks, and a complete article database on medical
specialties. This Internet medical library and clinical knowledge base are available to
physicians, medical students, nurses, other health professionals, and patients.

With the use of e-Medicine, doctors and patients who are physically apart can connect so
that patients can share his/her problem with the doctor, and the doctor can suggest
treatment or any test required.

e-Governance
e-Governance is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) to enhance
the access and delivery of government services to benefit citizens, business partners, and
employees. It transforms the traditional government using ICT to make it clear, effective,
and accountable. However, it doesn't mean that putting more computers on the desks of
government officials is e governance.
Governance is more than just
a government website on the
Internet. Political, social,
economic, and technological
aspects determine e-
governance. It establishes a
relationship between
government officials and
citizens, providing greater
access to government
information and services by
making the government
accessible online, promoting
citizen participation by
enabling citizens to interact more conveniently with government officials, such as by
requesting government service and filing required documents through the website,
increasing government accountability by making its operations more transparent, thereby
reducing the opportunities for corruption, and supporting development goals by providing
business, rural and traditionally underserved communities with information,
opportunities, and communications capabilities. For example,
For example,
https://www.nepal.gov.np/, https://www.moe.gov.np/, https://www.moha.gov.np/

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Objectives of e-Governance
Some of the objectives of e-Governance are:
 E-Governance refers to the provision of online public services to citizens and
businesses.
 Services for citizens include the registration to government services such as health
care, education, or employment benefits.
 For businesses, E-Governance services can take the form of online alerts for public
procurements or funding opportunities as well as information and support on
applicable legislation in a given sector.
 E-Governance helps to cut down their administrative costs, speed up procedures
and therefore increase efficiency and reactivity.
 It could improve and accelerate administrative efficiency.

Challenges of implementing e-Governance

The key challenges of implementing E-Governance mainly in developing countries like
Nepal are
 High-speed infrastructure to access the Internet is required.
 Creating trust and transparency of successful delivery of E-Governance service.
 The digital divide exists in developing countries. All the citizens may not have ICT
knowledge.
 Network security and protection against viruses, spam, unwanted attacks, etc.
 Online privacy.
 All the citizens may not have access to computing resources.

7.6 Mobile Computing

Mobile computing is a generic term describing one's ability to use technology while moving
as opposed to portable which is only practical for use while deployed in a stationary
configuration. A mobile computing device is created using mobile components, such as
mobile hardware and software. Mobile computing devices are portable devices capable of
operating executing, providing services and applications like a computing device. It is a
computing device used in transit. Users can access data and information from wherever
they are.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Many types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including a
wearable computer, PDA, enterprise digital assistant, smartphone, UMPC (Ultra-mobile
PC), Tablet PC

Features of Mobile Computing Device

Features of Mobile Computing devices are
 It is a portable device that can be used during mobility.
 It has limited processing and storage capability.
 It includes mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software.
 It usually contains a touch screen for providing input.
 It contains an on-screen or virtual keyboard for proving text inputs. However, an
external keyboard can be connected by using the USB port, infrared, or Bluetooth.
 It contains a camera, speaker, and microphone.
 It contains handwriting recognizing software.
 Most mobile computing devices contain a memory card slot to expand the storage
capacity.
 It has wireless connectivity such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi to connect the Internet or with
other computing devices as well as a wired connection through the USB port
connectivity services like need either Wi-Fi
 The most mobile computing device can synchronize their data with applications on
users' computers.
 It can be used for cloud computing and remote access.
 It uses a mobile computing operating system such as Android, iOS, Windows Mobile
OS, Palm OS.
 It can include GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver for navigation.

Advantages of Mobile Computing

Advantages of mobile technology are:
 It enables users to work from any location at any time.
 It saves time for accessing data and information.
 It helps to increase the productivity of users reducing the time and cost.
 It has made research easier.
 It is one of the major handheld sources of entertainment of users at present.
 Nowadays, Business processes are easily available through secured mobile
connections.
 It is portable.
 It supports cloud computing.
 It provides remote access to the organizational data from any location.
 It is an independent platform. It can be accessed from any hardware or software.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

Disadvantages of Mobile Technology

 Mobile technology requires faster and quality or GPRS or 3G or 4G connectivity.
 It has security concerns; most wireless connectivity is unsafe.
 Large power consumption is due to the use of batteries continuously and they do
not tend to last long.
 The danger of misrepresentation i.e., credential
 Extensive use of mobile devices results in health problems.

7.7 Internet of Things (IoT)

Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and
other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and connectivity,
which enables these things to connect, collect and exchange data.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines, objects, animals, or people that are provided with unique identifiers
(UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human
or human to-computer interaction.
By combining these connected devices with automated systems, it is possible to "gather
information, analyse it and create an action" to help someone with a particular task or
learn from a process. A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor
implant, an animal with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to
alert the driver when tire pressure is low, or any other natural or man-made object that
can be assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address and can transfer data over a network.

Advantages of IoT
 It automates tasks and helps to improve the quality of a business's services and
reduces.
 It helps to operate the business operations more efficiently, better understand
customers to deliver enhanced customer service.
 It supports to improve decision-making and increases the value of the business.
 It has the ability to access information from anywhere at any time on any device.

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 It provides improved communication between connected electronic devices.

 Transferring data packets over a connected network saves time, effort, and money.

Disadvantages of IoT
 As the number of connected devices increases and more information is shared
between devices, the chances of the system being attacked also increases.
 Organizations may eventually have to deal with massive numbers (maybe even
millions) of loT devices, and collecting and managing the data from all those devices
will be challenging.
 If there's a bug in the system, every connected device will likely become corrupted.
 Since there's no international standard of compatibility for loT, it's difficult for
devices from different manufacturers to communicate with each other.

7.8 e-Learning
e-Learning applies to a learning/teaching or understanding about a topic with the help of
Information and Communication Technology. e-Learning allows us to learn anywhere and
usually at any time, as long as we have a properly configured computer, networks, devices,
etc. e-Learning can be CD ROM-based, Network-based, Intranet-based, or Internet-based.

It can include text, video, audio, animation, and virtual environments. It can be a very rich
learning experience that can even go beyond the lecture-based crowded classroom. It's a
self paced, hands-on learning experience. The quality of the electronic-based training, as
in every form of training, is in its content and its delivery. However, e-learning can suffer
from many of the same pitfalls (drawbacks) as classroom training, such as boring slides,
monotonous speech, and little opportunity for interaction. The beauty of e-learning is that
new software that allows the creation of very effective learning environments that can
overcome the classic material being used in traditional learning. For example,
http://www.howstuffworks.com/

The concept of e-learning has become more popular throughout the globe because of the
Covid 19 pandemic. The tools like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Cisco Webex Meetings, Google
Meet are also used for learning purposes.

7.9 m-Commerce
m-C ommerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through
wireless technology i.e., handheld devices such as cellular telephones and personal digital
assistants (PDAs).

Industries affected by m-commerce include:

 Financial services, including mobile banking (when customers use their handheld
devices to access their accounts and pay their bills), as well as brokerage services (in
which stock quotes can be displayed and trading conducted from the same handheld
device).

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]
 Computer Science Note for Grade-XII Email : acharyaprasiddha6@gmail.com

 Telecommunications, in which service changes, bill payment, and account reviews

can all be conducted from the same handheld device.
 Service/retail as consumers is given the ability to place and pay for orders on the fly.
 Information services, which include the delivery of entertainment, financial news,
sports figures, and traffic updates to a single mobile device.

7.10 Social Media

Social Media is a computer-based technology that is used for the creation and sharing of
information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression via virtual communities and
networks. Facebook, Twitter, YouTube are popular social media tools.

Advantages of Social Media

 It provides easier and faster way to communicate.
 It provides worldwide real-time sharing of news and educational content.
 It is one of the effective marketing/advertising tools at present.
 It is the major source of entertainment at present.
 It helps to understand better the latest trends and events.
Disadvantages of Social Media
 It has increased cyber-crime.
 Productive times is lost due to time waster in social media.
 It is a common tool at present for spreading rumours and fake news/updates.
 It has a high risk of fraud.
 It has decreased privacy.

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org 

[ www.prasiddhaacharya.com.np ]