Q1) AS A POETIC DRAMA

T.S. Eliot championed a formal approach to poetic drama, emphasizing the effectiveness of
both verse and prose when employed with intention. He challenged the notion of verse as
artificial, arguing it conveyed deeper truths than mere prose. Eliot saw a seamless fusion of
poetic and dramatic elements as the hallmark of great drama, exemplified by Shakespeare's
work.
While acknowledging the Elizabethan achievement, Eliot lamented the lack of contemporary
dramatic conventions hindering poetic drama's revival. He advocated for the development
of new conventions, finding value in the structure provided by the three unities. Artistic use
of rhetoric and the selection of universal human emotions were also crucial aspects for Eliot.
He emphasized the need for language to adapt to the emotional tenor of the scene and
advocated for a flexible use of verse that could accommodate diverse situations.
Eliot's focus on self-control and achieving a natural yet impactful verse is evident in his play
"Murder in the Cathedral." This work exemplifies his belief in the enduring power of poetic
drama when executed with meticulous attention to form and content.
T.S. Eliot's "Murder in the Cathedral" recounts the murder of Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of
Canterbury. Winston Churchill highlights this event as a key episode in 12th-century English
politics, encapsulating the broader European struggle between secular and religious powers.
After Henry II's coronation, Beckett, initially a close friend and chancellor to the king, was
appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1155. Henry II anticipated Beckett would prioritize
royal interests over the church. However, Beckett's pilgrimage through France and Italy
strengthened his resolve to defend church independence, leading to a fierce conflict with
Henry. This dispute, rooted in the broader tension between spiritual and temporal
authorities, resulted in Beckett's exile in France for seven years. Upon his return to England
in December 1170, Beckett was murdered by four knights on December 29, 1170. His death
shocked England, and he was venerated as a martyr, highlighting the era's profound religious
and political strife.
At the time of writing, ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ Eliot’s views was that the audience should be made
aware that when they were seeing a verse play; but later he changed the opinion. According to Eliot,
poetic drama had a richness in it and this was due to the presence of an ‘under pattern’ – a kind of
doubleness in the action as if it took place on two planes at once. Poetic drama also had the ability to
achieve a better concentration and unity because verse by its very nature gave richness, depth and
unity to a play. The versification had to be a flexible or elastic kind that could be modulated to suit
the different characters in different situations. The poetry had to be integrated to the drama and it
had to be dramatically justified.
‘Murder in the Cathedral’ gratified Eliot’s 10 years ambition. It is also a landmark in English dramatic
history. It proved that English verse drama could still succeed and Eliot’s younger contemporaries
hastened to follow him. A number of verse plays came out in the later 50s though none of these has
maintained itself as ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ has done. His first play turned out to be Eliot’s most
enduring stage success. Eliot selected a historical subject with martyrdom as its theme and it
enabled him to use verse freely and successfully. For the creation of a new poetic form. He turned far
back to the ancient Greek dramatist and English moralities of the medieval times. He purposely
avoided the Shakespearean form. He is mainly indebted to Greek tragedy or the form of the play by
the extensive use of the chorus. He models much of the versification upon ’Every Man’ a medieval
morality play.
Eliot developed a suitable verse for which was neither archaic nor complete of contemporary idiom.
The verse form was such that it worked both ways; kept up historical illusion while bringing home the
relevance of the theme to the contemporary situation. As Eliot himself said, the versification in the
play is flexible, avoids Shakespearean overtone and has a natural style. It is suited to the emotions
which are to be expressed and the character who expresses them. Nowhere in the play do we find
any bit of versification which is not dramatically valid.
It is the power of the dramatic verse that gives the play its unique quality of unity and intensity. As a
poetic drama, it deals not merely with the story of the murder of Thomas Beckett, not only with his
martyrdom but with man’s relationship to god. Such a fundamental aspect of human existence is fit
for poetic treatment. Another important fact about poetic drama is that it deals with something of
permanent relevance, in ‘Murder in the Cathedral’, the theme is of universal significance. The
vocabulary, idiom and rhythm of the language are perfectly modulated to suit the occasion.
Poetic drama can suggest levels of reference beyond the immediate one of dramatic action, for
poetry can easily live in the deep results of significance in myth and religion into drama. In ‘Murder in
the Cathedral’, the essentially religious theme has been given a universal appeal and interest through
the Greek and Christian myth that is provided as an under pattern. Eliot sees a parallel to the death
of Beckett in the death of Oedipus and the death of Christ. There is a doubleness of action in ‘Murder
in the Cathedral’, the simultaneous revelation of more than one plane of reality. It is not only the
representation of martyrdom but also the spiritual progress of the chorus. The chorus supports the
action and reflects in its emotion the significance of the action. According to Raymond Williams, they
are the articulate voice of the body of the worshippers. It is in the chorus that we get the most
interesting dramatic verse.
Eliot’s Beckett has a little resemblance to an Aristotelian tragic hero. Beckett’s character is not
flawless in the beginning. But it becomes perfect in the end. The internal conflict in part 2 itself is
external. The suffering of Beckett is expressed through the chorus. Moreover it is not a murder but
an act of redemption. Becket has not comparison with the Shakespearean heroes. Shakespeare
makes them represent the greater glory of man whereas Eliot’s Beckett represents the greater glory
of god. So Beckett does not resist the murderess, he is humbly submissive accepting that. As in an
existential drama he is presented with a situation in which he must make a choice. Beckett makes a
deliberate choice- to be firm in affirming the rights of the church. It is the tragedy of a Christian who
is crucified to atone for the sin of humanity. The play dramatizes Beckett as a type of Christian hero,
conquering pride and attaining martyrdom.
‘Murder in the Cathedral’ shows a path to poetic drama. The play in spite of its perfections, should
be considered not ‘as a drama to end all dramas but as one example of the art in our confusing
times’. It should be regarded as ‘employing only one of many possible strategies for making modern
poetic drama’. Considering ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ as a modern poetic drama, Allardyce Nicoll
says, Eliot’s ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ forms a distinct milestone in the journey towards the
resurrection of a modern poetic drama, since here an author regarded why many of the younger
generation as their chief master turn to the theatre and south to apply his characteristic style to its
purpose. ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ is not a perfect example of the general and Eliot is aware of it.
But the play derives its greatness from its dramatic verse. However Eliot has said ‘the greatest drama
is a poetic drama and dramatic defects can be compensated by poetic excellence.’
Q2) MARTYRDOM
T. S. Eliot has the feelings and sentiments of a devout Christian and through the entire play,
Murder in the Cathedral it resounds through the character of Becket who is a veritable martyr.
Although the conflict between Church and state is a recurrent theme in the play, it never
assumes major significance. Moreover, the clash of character and personal antagonisms is
deliberately avoided; the king does not appear and the knights are at first not presented as
individual characters but act as a gang; subsequently it is stressed that their actions have not
been motivated by personal passions.
The book is divided into two parts. Part one takes place in the Archbishop Thomas
Becket's hall on 2 December 1170. The play begins with a Chorus singing, foreshadowing the
coming violence. The Chorus is a key part of the drama, with its voice changing and
developing during the play, offering comments about the action and providing a link between
the audience and the characters and action, as in Greek drama. Three priests are present, and
they reflect on the absence of Becket and the rise of temporal power. A herald announces
Becket’s arrival. Becket is immediately reflective about his coming martyrdom, which he
embraces, and which is understood to be a sign of his own selfishness—his fatal weakness.
The tempters arrive, three of whom parallel the Temptations of Christ.
The first tempter offers the prospect of physical safety :- ”Take a friend's advice. Leave well
alone, Or your goose may be cooked and eaten to the bone.”
The second offers power, riches and fame in serving the King:- “ To set down the great,
protect the poor, ;Beneath the throne of God can man do more?”
The third tempter suggests a coalition with the barons and a chance to resist the King:- “ For
us, Church favour would be an advantage, Blessing of Pope powerful protection; In the
fight for liberty. You, my Lord,; In being with us, would fight a good stroke”
Finally, a fourth tempter urges him to seek the glory of martyrdom.:- “You hold the keys of
heaven and hell.; Power to bind and loose: bind, Thomas, bind,; King and bishop under
your heel.; King, emperor, bishop, baron, king:”
Becket responds to all of the tempters and specifically addresses the immoral suggestions
of the fourth tempter at the end of the first act: Now is my way clear, now is the meaning
plain: ;Temptation shall not come in this kind again.; The last temptation is the greatest
treason:; To do the right deed for the wrong reason.
The Interlude of the play is a sermon given by Becket on Christmas morning 1170. It is
about the strange contradiction that Christmas is a day both of mourning and rejoicing, which
Christians also do for martyrs. He announces at the end of his sermon, "It is possible that in a
short time you may have yet another martyr". We see in the sermon something of Becket's
ultimate peace of mind, as he elects not to seek sainthood, but to accept his death as
inevitable and part of a better whole.
Part II of the play takes place in the Archbishop's Hall and in the Cathedral, 29 December
1170. Four knights arrive with ‘urgent business’ from the king. These knights had heard the
king speak of his frustration with Becket, and had interpreted this as an order to kill Becket.
They accuse him of betrayal, and he claims to be loyal. He tells them to accuse him in public,
and they make to attack him, but priests intervene. The priests insist that he leave and protect
himself, but he refuses. The knights leave and Becket again says he is ready to die. The
chorus sings that they knew this conflict was coming, that it had long been in the fabric of
their lives, both temporal and spiritual. The chorus again reflects on the coming devastation.
Thomas is taken to the Cathedral, where the knights break in and kill him. The chorus
laments: “Clean the air! Clean the sky!", and "The land is foul, the water is foul, our beasts
and ourselves defiled with blood." At the close of the play, the knights step up, address the
audience, and defend their actions. The murder was all right and for the best: it was in the
right spirit, sober, and justified so that the church's power would not undermine stability and
state power.
The central theme of the play is martyrdom, and Eliot’s concept of martyrdom is the term
as it was originally used. In its strict ancient sense, the word martyr means witness, and the
church did not at first confine the term to those who had sealed their witnessing with their
blood. So Becket as a martyr is not primarily one who suffers for a cause or who gives up his
life for some religious belief, instead, he is a witness to the reality of God’s powers.
The actual deed by which Thomas is struck down is not important as a dramatic climax.
The audience is warned again and again that it is not watching a sequence of events that
emotion the normal dramatic logic of motive, act, and result but an action that depends on
Gods will and not on human behavior. Becket realizes that he will have to oppose the king,
and faces three temptations to avoid doing this, temptations based on the gospel account of
the devil's temptations of Christ in the wilderness. However, Eliot burdens Becket with a
fourth temptation: the desire to become a martyr for worldly reasons rather than spiritual
ones. Becket struggles with whether he wants to be a martyr for ego gratification or to serve
the will of God.
Moreover, Thomas himself can hardly be said to be tempted for the play opens so near its
climax that the temptations are hardly more than recapitulations of things which have ceased
to tempt him; and the last temptation in so subtle and subjective that no audience can really
judge whether or not it is genuinely overcome. Although Thomas may say, “Now is my way
clear, now is the meaning plain”, a question has been raised that cannot be answered
dramatically. We either have to accept Eliot’s interpretation that Thomas dies with a pure will,
or ignore the whole problem of motives as beyond our competence.
The martyr’s sermon warns us that, ‘a martyrdom is never the design of men’, and that a
Christian martyrdom is neither an accident nor the effect of a man’s will to become a saint.”
Becket has only to wait for his murderers to appear: “All my life they have been coming,
these feet.” When the knights rush to the altar, the murder takes place as a kind of ritual
slaughter of an understanding victim, and this episode is not dramatically significant.
Becket finally realizes that the temptations mean present vanity and future torments. This
realization helps him to effect expurgation or purification of mind and to safeguard him from
such lapses as are repugnant to true martyrdom.
The play explores Thomas's character within a Christian framework. Thomas adopts a passive role,
awaiting the inevitable execution as preordained by God's eternal, cyclical plan. He defines suffering
not as mere pain, but as patient endurance within God's design. The play blurs the lines between
action and suffering, suggesting that waiting patiently is itself an act. Thomas's ultimate decision to
accept martyrdom is presented as a predetermined fate, not an active choice. He must achieve a
state of active patience, embracing his destiny without personal agency. This self-abnegation
prepares him to accept God's will, even if its full purpose remains unclear.
The image of the still point and the turning wheel thus seems to be an embodiment of the
structure of the play, Murder in the Cathedral. In the metaphor of the wheel, the only action
possible is the acceptance of and submission to a larger pattern, that “the wheel may turn and
still/ Be forever still”. The pattern created by the play’s controlling image stresses the
spiritual implications of the play. Eliot’s play is a spiritual action, through which an audience
will be transformed much as the Chorus will be transformed.
To think of Becket's death in terms of its effect is to remain tied to the physical world,
which sees things in terms of cause-and-effect. We are placed throughout the ‘wheel’ and can
never understand its movement because we are not at its center, as God is. Thus, what Becket
teaches is neither acting nor suffering (waiting), but rather a mixture of the two: an active
patience, a submission to God's will. It is for this insight that Becket died, and it is this
knowledge which Eliot wishes to impart by dramatizing the ritual of this martyrdom.
Thereafter in conclusion we find the essential virtue and rectitude of Thomas which turns
him to a worthy martyr. The following pronouncements of Thomas stand as eloquent
testimony to the spiritual orientation and deep seated conviction of Thomas which constitute
the sine qua non of Christian martyrdom:
All my life I have waited.
Death will come only when I am worthy
And if I am worthy, there is no danger.
 I have therefore only to make perfect my will.

Q3) TEMPTATION SCENE

T.S. Eliot's "Murder in the Cathedral" stands as a timeless literary masterpiece that delves into the
theme of martyrdom through the lens of the historical figure Thomas Becket. Central to Becket's
journey towards martyrdom are his encounters with four tempters, who present him with various
worldly temptations. Through these encounters, Eliot intricately explores the internal struggles and
moral dilemmas faced by individuals when confronted with the choice between worldly desires and
spiritual convictions. Jerry V. Pickering notes that “In the medieval morality play on which it is at least
partially based, Murder is the first drama of temptation and conquering of temptation”. This paper
seeks to analyze Eliot's depiction of temptations in "Murder in the Cathedral" through the lens of
critical theories, including Marxism, deconstructionism, postcolonialism, and psychoanalysis. By
integrating these perspectives, we aim to uncover the multifaceted dimensions of temptations as
portrayed in Eliot's play.
The first tempter offers the prospect of physical safety :- ”Take a friend's advice. Leave well
alone, Or your goose may be cooked and eaten to the bone.” The first tempter, embodying
the worldly enticements and political persuasions aimed at undermining Becket's newfound spiritual
resolve, can be interpreted through the lens of Marxist analysis as a representation of the ruling class
or bourgeoisie. His efforts to lure Becket back into the realm of political alliances and past friendships
reflect the tactics used by those in power to perpetuate their dominance and uphold the status quo.
Becket's steadfast refusal to yield to the tempter's allurements can be viewed as a rejection of the
oppressive structures and hierarchies that govern society. By prioritizing his spiritual calling over
worldly affiliations, Becket asserts his agency and autonomy in the face of external pressures,
aligning with Marxist ideals of resistance against capitalist exploitation.
The tempter's departure, marked by disappointment and condescension, underscores the ruling
class's disdain for dissenting voices and alternative ideologies. His parting words, "only the fool, fixed
in his folly, may think / He can turn the wheel on which he turns," reflect the ruling class's attempts
to delegitimize opposition and maintain its hegemonic control. Through this Marxist analysis, Eliot's
portrayal of Becket's resistance to worldly temptations can be understood as a critique of capitalist
power structures and a call to challenge them in pursuit of individual liberation. Becket emerges as a
symbol of proletarian resistance against bourgeois domination, embodying the Marxist ideal of class
consciousness and revolutionary praxis.
The second offers power, riches and fame in serving the King:- “ To set down the great,
protect the poor, ;Beneath the throne of God can man do more?” The interaction between
Becket and the second tempter provides a key moment of tension, offering a rich ground for analysis
using deconstructionist theory. The dialogue between Becket and the second tempter establishes a
binary opposition between secular power (represented by the Chancellorship) and spiritual authority
(embodied by Becket's role as Archbishop). Deconstruction challenges the clear-cut distinction
between these two spheres, suggesting that their boundaries are fluid and open to reinterpretation.
His rejection of the Chancellorship challenges the notion that loving God leads only to sorrow, and
his decision to prioritize spiritual authority over secular power introduces multiple interpretations of
fulfilment and success. Becket's dismissal of the Chancellorship as a lesser power both upholds and
subverts hierarchical structures. While he supports the hierarchy that places spiritual authority
above secular power, he also questions the hierarchy that prioritizes political influence over personal
conviction.
The third tempter suggests a coalition with the barons and a chance to resist the King:- “ For
us, Church favour would be an advantage, Blessing of Pope powerful protection; In the
fight for liberty. You, my Lord,; In being with us, would fight a good stroke” Applying
Fanon's theories to the third tempter's proposition to Becket reveals the power dynamics inherent in
colonial encounters. The tempter, representing the colonizer, seeks to enlist Becket's authority in
furthering colonial domination and subjugation. This aligns with Fanon's analysis of the colonial
project as a system of exploitation and domination, wherein the colonized are coerced into
collaboration with their oppressors Becket's refusal to acquiesce to the tempter's demands can be
understood through Fanon's concept of decolonization and resistance. By asserting his spiritual
sovereignty and detachment from secular authority, Becket embodies Fanon's idea of reclaiming
agency and autonomy in the face of colonial domination. His declaration, "My lord, I am not of this
land, neither its subject nor its king," reflects a refusal to be complicit in the perpetuation of colonial
oppression. Manfred Siebald says that “Obviously, the four tempters who approach him are more
than English noblemen of Thomas's time and also more than representatives of the totalitarian
ideologies of the thirties.”
Furthermore, the third tempter's departure, marked by a hopeful aspiration for future reconciliation
between Becket and the king, reflects the complexities of postcolonial negotiations and the lingering
effects of colonialism on contemporary power dynamics. The tempter's expression of hope for a
resolution beyond the current conflict suggests a recognition of the need for reconciliation and
healing in the aftermath of colonial oppression, echoing Fanon's call for a new humanity forged
through the process of decolonization. Through this postcolonial analysis informed by Frantz Fanon's
theories, Eliot's portrayal of Becket's resistance to colonial collaboration can be seen as a critique of
colonial power structures and a call to reclaim agency and autonomy in the pursuit of freedom and
justice. Becket emerges as a symbol of resistance against colonial domination, embodying Fanon's
vision of decolonization as a transformative process of liberation and self-determination.
Finally, a fourth tempter urges him to seek the glory of martyrdom.:- “You hold the keys of
heaven and hell.; Power to bind and loose: bind, Thomas, bind,; King and bishop under
your heel.; King, emperor, bishop, baron, king:”The fourth tempter's proposition to Becket
reflects a psychological manipulation aimed at exploiting Becket's desires for recognition and
acclaim. Drawing from Freudian theory, the tempter taps into Becket's ego, appealing to his longing
for worldly success and validation. The tempter's promise of glory, expressed through the
declaration, "The moment of martyrdom is the moment of triumph; you shall see the faces of kings!"
(Act II), reflects an attempt to gratify Becket's ego through the prospect of achieving fame and
admiration. Becket's response, encapsulated in his assertion, "The last temptation is the greatest
treason: To do the right deed for the wrong reason," reveals a conflict between his ego and superego
(Act II). Here, Becket grapples with the ethical implications of his actions, recognizing the danger of
succumbing to selfish desires at the expense of moral integrity. This inner struggle epitomizes Freud's
concept of the superego, which governs moral conscience and strives for ethical behaviour. John P.
Cutts says that “although the world will rank him a senselessly self-slaughtering lunatic or an
arrogant fanatic, he will nevertheless go down in history clear of the charge of doing the right deed
for the wrong reason. Becket plays his role.”
Furthermore,Becket responds to all of the tempters and specifically addresses the immoral
suggestions of the fourth tempter at the end of the first act: Now is my way clear, now is the
meaning plain: ;Temptation shall not come in this kind again.; The last temptation is the
greatest treason:; To do the right deed for the wrong reason. Becket's rejection of the
tempter's proposition reflects his eventual triumph of the superego over the ego, as he prioritizes
spiritual duty over personal gratification. Through this Freudian lens, Becket's refusal to yield to the
tempter's allurements symbolizes his transcendence of earthly desires and his alignment with higher
moral principles.
In "Murder in the Cathedral," T.S. Eliot presents a nuanced exploration of martyrdom through the
character of Thomas Becket and his encounters with the four tempters. Through these encounters,
Eliot delves into the complexities of human nature and the internal struggles faced by individuals
when confronted with difficult decisions. Ultimately, Becket's journey towards martyrdom serves as a
testament to the power of faith, integrity, and self-sacrifice in the face of worldly temptation John
Peter that “They explain how the Church has been strengthened by Thomas‟ death, how the knights
are now reduced to spiritual suicide, how the Archbishop is already translated”. As readers engage
with Eliot's timeless masterpiece, they are invited to reflect upon their own struggles and
convictions, and the choices they make in the pursuit of truth and righteousness. REFERENC
Q4) INTERLUDE / THOMAS SERMON IN CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL
T.S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral is a play constructed in two parts with an Interlude1 in
between. The plot-construction is simple and straightforward and, in spite of certain
weaknesses, a unified whole. A careless reading of the play might lead one to consider it as
two self-contained parts, separated by an Interlude that has hardly any connection with
anything else in the play. However, such a conclusion would be quite incorrect.
The play has to be seen as an integral whole, in which each character or part has a role. As
such, Thomas Becket's martyrdom is to be seen in a wider light-in its significance to society
and its relevance even today. The Interlude becomes integral to the structure of the play, for
it dramatizes Becket's attempt to explain the meaning of martyrdom to the common people,
represented in the play by the Chorus. The Interlude serves to emphasize that Becket's
martyrdom at the end is a genuine, unselfish and impersonal act. The sermon is a beautiful
explanation of the death that is to come.
At the end of Part I of the play, Thomas says: "I shall no longer act or suffer, to the Sword's
end". Becket's initial desire to undergo martyrdom had not been perfect. He has had to face
and overcome temptations of two types. Firstly, he is assaulted with the attractions of the
worldly and sensuous life, of material success-it is the temptation to compromise, and thus
avoid martyrdom. Thomas overcomes three temptations. But with the fourth Tempter
comes the temptation to do something much more serious and damning—to seek
martyrdom with the ulterior motive of achieving eternal glory. Thomas finds the fourth
Tempter unexpected—indeed, that goes to show how deep in his subconscious the motive
lies. "To do the right deed for the wrong reason"-it is the greatest temptation, and the
greatest treason. "With the recognition of this impure motive, Thomas comes to self-
realization. What he had said of the Chorus of poor women-"They know and do not know"-is
equally true of him. Only at the end of Part I does he realize that extinction1 of self-will and
surrender to the Will of God is what true martyrdom constitutes. The sermon which follows,
in the Interlude, gives expression to the self-knowledge gained by Becket.
An Archbishop preaching a sermon on Christmas morning is natural. Eliot enriches the scene
by a sort of duality-Thomas's remarks are addressed both to a hypothetical congregation
(the Chorus) and to the actual audience of the play. In the sermon Thomas expounds the
true meaning of martyrdom.
The sermon dwells briefly on two appropriate fundamentals-the Christian conception of
"rejoicing" and "peace". It is a strange paradox3, that at the same time Christians rejoice at
the birth of Christ (Nativity) and mourn his suffering and death. The word "peace" is used in
a special sense. Thomas differentiates between the word "peace" as the world understands
it and "peace" as meant by Christ when he used it in his words to the Disciples. It is not
peace in the sense of political peace-the barons at peace with the king-or simple domestic
contentment. "Not as the world gives, I give unto you", said Christ. The peace Christ spoke of
was of a spiritual nature.
Thomas goes on to analyze the meaning of martyrdom. Just as peace and rejoicing have
different and deeper connotations in the religious sense as compared to the worldly sense,
martyrdom too has a deeper meaning. The relevance of Christ's Crucifixion to any other
martyrdom (a relevance implicit throughout the play), becomes specific here. It is no
accident that the martyrdom of St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, is celebrated the day
after Christmas. Thomas says:
"Just as we rejoice and mourn at once, in the Birth and in the Passion of our Lord: so also,
in a smaller figure, we both rejoice and mourn in the death of martyrs".
There is sorrow at the sins of the world which lead to such deaths, and joy that another soul
has joined the blessed in Heaven for the greater glory of God and for the salvation of men. A
martyr, explains Thomas, is not merely a good Christian who has been put to death because
he is a Christian. In such a case, there would be just mourning. If it is merely an elevation to
the company of saints, there would be mere rejoicing.Thomas explains the meaning of his
self-abnegation'. The significance of the fourth temptation is also explained: “A Christian
martyrdom is never an accident, for Saints are not made by accident. Still less is a Christian
martyrdom the effect of a man's will to become a saint, as man by willing and contriving
may become a ruler of man".
Will and clever planning may work on the temporal level. On a spiritual plane they have no
place. Thomas has realized that true martyrdom involves complete surrender of human will
into God's purpose. The true martyr desires nothing "not even the glory of being a martyr".
He says: "A martyrdom is always the design of God, for His love of man, to warn them and
to lead them, to bring them back to His ways".The true martyrs are the instruments of God.
And in their death they rise high "having made themselves most low".
Thomas concludes by stating that he has spoken this day of martyrs since he may never
again preach to them, and since Canter- bury may have another martyr before long, "and
that one perhaps not the last". Thus Eliot establishes a sense of continuity, linking the past,
the present and the future. Thomas says: "I would have you keep in your hearts these words
that I say, and think of them at another time". The sermon ends on a premonitory note. It is
thus important in the context not only of what has happened before, but also of what is
going to happen.It is significant that the sermon is addressed to the Chorus as well as the
audience-for both are to be involved in the martyrdom of Thomas. The poor women of
Canterbury, forming the Chorus, are an integrating factor in the play. A martyrdom is not
complete in its effect unless it has been accepted in the right spirit by the common people.
These poor women move from their initial fear and inertia to final acceptance of the
meaning of Becket's martyrdom; they have ultimately understood the full import of the
exposition of martyrdom given in the sermon. His attempt to explain it turns out to be
successful. As a contrast comes the Knights' evaluation of martyrdom in their speeches
directed at the audience-a worldly interpretation versus Becket's spiritual explanation. The
Chorus accepts Becket's explanation, and that is the denouement of the play. The audience
is left to make its own choice.
The Interlude is at once a bold and suitable approach. The sermon is an appropriate vehicle
for Thomas's generalized comments on his own fate. It corresponds to the "epiphany" of
Greek drama, and it sets forth the idea of martyrdom. Thomas's words at the end of Part
I-"Now is my way clear, now is the meaning plain”- receive formal interpretation and
ratification2 in the sermon. And in the end the meaning of martyrdom is understood by the
poor women of Canterbury who represent the common people. The Interlude explains the
pattern of martyrdom, "the eternal design” in theological and emotional terms. As Louis
Martz points out, it "forms the nodus of theme, symbol, and tradition, of past and present,
binding the play's two parts, and binding Becket's search for peace with our own".
Q4) APPOLOGIA OF THE KNIGHT
The murder has been committed and the dreadful cry of the Chorus fades. The Knights
advance to the front of the stage and address the audience :
"We beg you to give us your attention for a few minutes...."
Up to this moment Eliot has kept his historical details more or less accurate even though
they are not given importance. Here in this address of the Knights, he departs from history.
In history they rush out of the Cathedral shouting that they were the King's men. In Eliot's
play however, they step out of their historical setting, come out of their medieval setting,
and address the 20th century audience. Furthermore the address through which they seek
to justify their action is couched in modern idiom and incorporates modern social, political
and legal concepts. They point out that their action of murdering Becket was a disinterested
one. They gained nothing from it. On the other hand they would be probably exiled for their
trouble, as the King out of political consideration would disclaim any responsibility for the
murder. Knowing that it would bring trouble, they still acted as they did. They have acted
selflessly, to benefit the country they loved. It had become absolutely necessary in the
interest of the country to remove Thomas Becket: he had opposed the union of church and
state which was necessary for strong and effective administration. It is also pointed out that
Becket's death is not a case of murder at all. It is, says the fourth Knight, a case of suicide
while of unsound mind. Thomas made no attempt to defend himself. He Stayed away from
seeking refuge at the altar, nor did he bar the doors. He could have escaped with his life into
exile but he refused to do so. All these facts went to show that he went willingly to his
death. He voluntarily sought death.
Coming as it does directly after the tremendously impressive poetry of the Chorus and the
agony of the martyr, the common prose of the Knights cannot fail to shock. At first sight the
whole passage appears unnatural, irrelevant and unrealistic. It seems to detract from the
unity of tone and atmosphere of the play. The style has suddenly fallen into the style of a
political meeting. The Apologia makes use of all the well known cliches-cliches which will not
fail to make the audience at least slightly uncomfortable. How many times has not the
modern man heard of the English man's sense of fair play and sympathy for the underdog.
How familiar is the idea of hearing both sides of a case and that of disinterested action for
the benefit of others and the spurious praise for the vanquished enemy- the Archbishop put
up a jolly good show! So too the appeal not to be taken in by emotional clap-trap but to be
rational in our approach. Another cliche is the reference to the trial by Jury which was
introduced by Henry II himself. These very cliches, however, serve to underline Thomas's
sincerity. These very worn out figures of speech serve to subtly evoke our mistrust-more so
because the whole force of what has gone before has been to show us how shallow these
material arguments are.
The use of platform prose in intended to "shock the audience out of their complacency."
This was said by Eliot regarding the Knights' Apologia. Eliot also wrote: "It is possible that
what distinguishes poetic drama from prosaic drama is a king of doubleness in action, as if it
look place on two planes at once." The ironic address of the Knights serves to illustrate this.
The characters apprehend their situation at different levels. The Knights' level obviously is
lowest on this scale and their thoughts and feelings show up their limitations. Their Apologia
serves to point out the difference of levels.
The address further forces upon us the broad clash of values and an "inherent, conquering
strength in those which (as to the Knights) usually seem most nebulous-the values of
religion". The Apologia is an integral part of the play as it is related to the central theme of
martyrdom. It brings home to the audience, "the contemporary relevance of martyrdom".
The natural style and the colloquial mode of speaking, bridges the chasm between the
spiritual level of theme and the life lived on the material, physical plane. Logic and intellect
are not enough to grasp spiritual mysteries; there is a need for emotional response. Logic
and reason, as the Knight's address goes to show, would reduce martyrdom to "suicide while
of unsound mind." Its real significance can only be realized through an emotional response.
The Apologia of the Knights correspond to the temptation of Becket: it tempts the audience
to deny the true significance of Thomas's sacrifice. The Knights seek by every means, from
blandishment to exhortation, cunningly using the techniques of modern political oratory, to
make us admit the reasonableness of their action and to acknowledge that we are involved
in it, since we have benefitted from it. This temptation is to be overcome before the
audience is to participate in the celebration of martyrdom. The knights' arguments,
undoubtedly, will have the opposite effect to that intended by them. The justification of the
killing does not lie in the arguments of the Knights; the benefits are spiritual rather than
political. And that benefit comes from Thomas's suffering and not from the Knights' action as
they erroneously think.
On a superficial and simple level the speeches of the Knights allow pauses to intervene
between the initial revulsion heard in the penultimate choric speech and the tone of
reconciliation that we find in the last.
The Apologia thus has a significance in relation with the theme of the play and forms an
integral part of the play. It cannot be dismissed as an amusing digression which makes us
laugh and which detracts from the tone of the play.
Q5)VERSIFICATION
At the time of writing Murder in the Cathedral Eliot believed that the verse in poetic drama
ought to have a distinctive poetic quality. Poetic drama had to be revived and to revive an
interest, emphasis should be laid on the fact that what the audience was hearing, was verse.
"So we introduce rhyme, even doggerel, as a constant reminder that it is verse and not a
compromise with prose." It was later that Eliot reconsidered his opinion and stated that the
audience should not be made conscious of the fact that. it is listening to poetry. Thus, in
Murder in the Cathedral the element of poetry is stressed rather than minimized or kept in
the background. It is also to be noted that the subject of the play by its very nature allowed
more "obvious poetic effects" than Eliot's other plays.
Murder in the cathedral, however, justifies even some of his later views. Eliot said that poetry should
not be used as mere decoration but should be dramatically justified. It is to be observed that in all
the passages in the play, the versification and the poetry are indeed suited to the situation and
person speaking and it is in moments of intense emotional excitement that the greatest poetry is
found, for Eliot says, verse is the natural medium of expression at such moments. As such, the
subject of poetic drama has to be different—what can be adequately written in prose should not be
written in verse. Verse should be used for plays dealing with the deep ‘emotions and pssions of men'.
As has been remarked earlier, the subject of this play is suitable for the subjects in verse there have
been a tradition of trading historical subjects in verse. Characters in a historical piece were expected
to contemporary speech. Another factor that made Eliot ''freer'' in the use of verse was that the play
was for a festival audience prepared to put up with poetry
Use of Rhetorical devices :- Eliot, under these special circumstances, is justified his use of rhetorical
devices such as balance, antithesis, cumulative effects, and even, from time, an elaborate alliteration
reminiscent of old English verse. As he says: “Shall I, who keep the keys, Of heaven and hell
supreme alone in England, Who bind and loose, with power from the pope, Descend to desire a
punier power? Delegate to deal the doom of damnation, To condemn kings, not serve among their
servants, In my open office.''
This massive, almost ponderous effect is particularly suited to the acoustic peculiarities of churches,
where speeches must be slowed down and enunciated clearly in separate phrases if it is not to be
confused in transmission. The use of verse by Eliot intensifies the drama of Becket's inner struggle
with evil, and his ultimate conquest of it.
Technical skill :- A dramatist writing poetic drama has a difficult task to handle for he has to solve the
problem of communication –his meaning has to be transmitted immediately to a strange audience
through strange actors and directors. Thus the writer has to exercise artistic self-control in the
interest of dramatic effectiveness. Eliot's style and versification in The Murder in the Cathedral is a
tribute to his technical skill.
Diction :- Eliot realized that the subject eschewed the use of the exact vocabulary and style of
modern conversation-as he had to take the audience back to a historical event. However, he could
not be archaic either as he wanted to point out the contemporary relevance of the theme. The style,
therefore, had to be natural, committed neither to the present nor to the past. Thus, Eliot developed
a style suitable for all times.
Rejection of Blank Verse :- Eliot had said that the attempts at the revival of poetic drama had failed
to a large extent because they had been pale imitations of Shakespearean blank verse. He himself
thus carefully avoids the use of this mode of versification as he felt that its potentialities had already
been exhaustively explored and it had lost its flexibility. As such it could not be used effectively any
longer, and was unfit for dramatic dialogue. Therefore while writing Murder in the Cathedral, he kept
in mind the versification of everyman.
Use of Prose:- Eliot had remarked that prose should not be used in poetic drama if it was to be
revived, because prose would make the audience too conscious of the poetry. Yet he makes use of it
in two passages in his own play-for the Archbishop's sermon, and the Knight’s Apologia. However,
the uses of prose in these passages have their reasons and functional value. ''In either case the shift
to prose marks a shift in the relation between the audience and what is going on in the play. Also a
sermon would have been too jarring and unconvincing in verse and the prose of the Apologia of
the Knights emphasizes that they are directly addressing the 20th century audiences''.
Varied verse form to suit emotion and character :- In Murder In The Cathedral the medium is made
to suit perfectly the emotions to be expressed and the characters expressing them. As Maxwell says:
''The verse varies from the slacker, extremely conversational pitch of the lighter passages, to the
tightened rhythm of the more emotional. Eliot offers a verse which suggests the contemporary
environment, and which deliberately, fora great part of the play, approaches prose very closely, yet
remains sufficiently far from it not to jar on the ears when the more emphatic verse is used.''8 He
cites the example of the messenger. A pompous banality appears in his prosaic: ‘You are right to
express certain incredulity''. ''The streets of the town will be packed to suffocation'' But it leaves
place for being modulated into the more harmonious, ''Strewing the way with leaves and late flowers
of the season''.9 Thus keeping in touch with the more intense passages, the pattern of the verse can
be seen as a planned modulation of the conversational basis.
Varieties of meters :- Eliot employs a number of different metres in Murder in the Cathedral. He was
free to exhibit the fact that he was using verse and indeed was inclined to ''obtrude the verse form
upon the audience''. Thus there was plenty of excuse for using a considerable variety of metres . He
further developed the style suitable to each kind of scene and thus his verse forms become integral
to the play as a whole.
The Chorus :- The chorus plays a very significant part in the play by providing necessary links and
information the audience. It also guides the emotions of the audience by changing the tone of its
own voice as per the situation. The idea of “chorus” in Eliot’s play is taken from the Greek drama.
Before speaking of the chorus in Eliot’s “Murder in the cathedral”, Eliot achieves the greatest poetical
success in this play with the Chorus. The influence of Biblical verse, with its simple syntax emphatic
repetitions, and rhythmical variety is to be found in the Choruses. Choric verse in general is difficult
to formulate as it is, by its very nature, different from the meters of dialogue. It is collective speech,
care must be taken that the sense of the speeches is not lost, thus it has to be emphatic. It must,
therefore, be rhythmic, and cannot go in for too much variation of speech and tone or voices
speaking together cannot cope with it. At the same time, if meter is too regular, there is a danger of
reducing the speech to monotonous, ''sing song ''. Eliot manages to evade both dangers by using free
meters and infuses it with the necessary variety by varying the length of line. He makes variety
inherent in the metrical structure.
Q6) IMAGERY
Eliot's use of imagery is as functional as his versification. It is not merely for decorative purposes. The
images help to convey the author’s meaning more precisely, while contributing to the Emotional
intensity as well. It is through the image of the wheel and its still point, the point of intersection of
Time and the timeless, that the idea of Incarnation and the surrender of the will are expressed. The
image may be said to be at the heart of Eliot's poetry and it has a relation with the image of the
"rose-garden" which, according to Leonard Ungar, stands for the moment of contact with reality and
also for a moment of sudden illumination and rare consciousness. The idea of timeless reality
glimpsed in the world of Time is one to which Eliot returns again and again. The death of Thomas
marks one such moment and a characterization of its significance could be found in
"TheDrySalvages". Once again it is the Chorus that exemplifies Eliot's use of imagery. The principal
images are drawn from two sources, from nature and from the life of the poor .The loneliness of
their lives which is at a level barely above that of animals—''Living and partly living''
Imagery of Nature :- Murder in the cathedral presents a cycle of spiritual experience. The Chorus
represents a pattern of spiritual development and this pattern is given wider implications by the
overtones of seasonal renewal. The imagery of nature is here important. Grover Smith comments
aptly, “The cycles of day and night, summer and winter, spring and autumn relate the Chorus with
the great turning wheel of creation and corruption, growth and run''.
Imagery of seasons :- At the beginning of the play, the Chorus's unwillingness to submit to spiritual
rebirth is embodied in its rejection of the return of life with the spring. They want the Archbishop to
go back and they fear the disturbance of the quite seasons, as something sterile and destructive:
''Winter shall come bringing death from the sea, Ruinous spring shall beat at our doors Root and
shoot shall eat our eyes and ears, Disastrous summer burn up the beds of our streams And the poor
shall wait for another decaying October.' At the end, the seasons are no longer ''disturbed'' and the
voices of the seasons, the scuffle of winter, the song of spring, the drone of summer are evidence of
the spiritual that has come about through Thomas's martyrdom. Thus, the Chorus's spiritual
development is represented in the development of the imagery. This is seen in the use of any type of
imagery in the play.
Order and disorder:- All the images proceed from representing slight disturbance initially through a
gradually heightening sense of chaotic disorder, to the end in which order is established. The Chorus
is unwilling to give up the ''order'' of their mundane existence, but they have to learn that these have
to be disturbed in the interests of establishing a greater ''spiritual order'' in a state of ''spiritual
wasteland.'' Man is a combination of the animal and the angel, i.e. sense and intellect. Maintenance
of order requires that man should subordinate the sensual to the spiritual. Order is disturbed when
man succumbs to the sensual and to the animal, at the expense of the spiritual. In becoming bestial
man has come down from his position as a link between the animal and the angelic and hence there
result disorder in the natural world. And martyrdom reaffirms order, reproducing, as it does, the
pattern of the Atonement. The order is menaced by the agents of martyrdom who in this case are
the Knights.
Animal imagery :- The animal imagery is very clearly a part of this order-disorder pattern. Firstly, it is
used to characterize the agents of disorder, the Knights. They themselves compare themselves to
beasts as they ridicule Thomas: ''Come down Daniel to the Lions Den''.
They are called ''men who would damn themselves to beasts''By one of the priests. The last Chorus
of part I associates bests to Lords 'of Hell'—''Puss-purr of leopard, foot-fall of padding bear. By
Inference the Knights are also Lords of Hell— personification of Evil. The zoological imagery also
serves to associate the passive chorus with unredeemed, elemental nature. They feel themselves
involved in this bestial degradation: “What is woven in councils of princes Is woven also in our
veins, our brains Is woven like a pattern of living worms, In the guts of the women of Canterbury”
They share the disorder brought by Evil in their ''consent '' to martyrdom. They are: “United to the
spiritual flesh of nature, Mastered by the animal powers of spirit, Dominated by the Lust of self-
demolition, By the final utter uttermost death, of spirit, By the final ecstasy of waste and shame.”
Eliot here presents a vision of a universe without order. The order of time is disrupted. The merry
fluting of a summer afternoon is heard at night. Bats with scaly wings are seen at noon. Death exists
even the most delicate and beautiful flowers. :- “I have seen Trunk and horn, tusk and hoof, in odd
places” 19 There seems no meaning or sense in nature any longer. There is completed chaos and
everything is topsy-turvy and the women of Canterbury see themselves part of this disorder and
are caught in the, ''Rings of light coiling downwards, descending to the horror of the ape.''
As Thomas is killed, the Chorus feels at first that the blood of Thomas is defiling the land, the beasts
and themselves. But in reality the martyrdom denotes spiritual renewal and there is a corresponding
re-assertion of order in Nature and the proper relation of man to the animal creation. Every being of
Nature has returned to its proper place and there is harmony once again; there is ''pattern''
established and the affirmation of God's glory by all things created.
Resolution :- In the last Chorus the recurrent images of the play are gathered together and resolved
in a significant pattern. They all fit together in the scheme of God's providence: by the blood of
redemption fertility is restored to the Wasteland so that the rhythm of the seasons can remain
undisturbed, the natural order can be preserved, men can perform their seasonal task and give
articulate praise not just for themselves, but for the beasts as well, and all creatures are secured in
their ordained places, fulfilling their role in ''the eternal design''.
Q7) SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTS

Ans. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral follows Greek Drama in its strict adherence to the
convention that all the parts of a play should be relevant to the whole. Thus all the
characters have a function or role; none is superfluous or introduced for mere decoration.
The three priests in the play have their specific roles.
The three priests are Becket's fellow-members in the Church. Though not completely
individualized, they are subtly differentiated- as their speeches clearly indicate. Their
speeches, after the Herald has come and gone with the message that "Thomas Becket is
returning to Canterbury after exile, provide the background and contribute towards the
exposition of the play.
The three priests represents the institutional church wanting to protect its own. They also represent
the church taking a worldly view of the events that are unfolding as Henry II moves against Becket.
The priests plead with Becket to escape before the knights can arrive to kill him, and one priest tries
to bolt the cathedral door against the knights. Becket tells them, however, not to worry about
whether he lives or dies, for God will decide what is best.

None of the priests are capable of Becket's vision regarding his fate. The priests are, in turn,
frightened, hopeful that events will work out the way they want, and fatalistic, but none of these
attitudes grasp that Beckett has put himself entirely into God's hands. Becket explains to them: “I
give my life / To the Law of God above the Law of Man.”

The Exposition is the beginning of the "rising action" in the plot. It explains, or rather
presents, essential information especially about what has occurred before this piece of
action. In Murder in the Cathedral, the Herald tells us that the Archbishop is returning to
England and to Canterbury. After he has gone, the three Priests help in the exposition.
The First Priest voices his fears. At the same time, we are given an idea of Thomas's pride in
his own virtues. Thomas had been a Chancellor who had been either liked or feared by the
courtiers and flattered by the King. Thomas's isolation is referred to-his difference from
other human beings is thus emphasized and prepares us for future happenings. We are
made aware of Thomas's tendency to ride rough-shod over temporal affairs, "wishing
subjection to God alone."
The Second Priest, while voicing his optimism that it is all for the good, also explains that the
Archbishop is friendly with the Pope and the King of France.
The Third Priest hopes for action-something should happen, for the Wheel has been
stationary too long-"For who knows the end of good or evil ?
The three priests function as a group in a similar fashion to a Greek chorus early in the play, in that
they speak to the audience about Becket before he comes onstage. However, the priests are not a
single unit; we know this because each priest has a different opinion of Becket. All three of the
priests want to help Becket, but they express different opinions about what will happen upon
Becket's return to England. The first priest is fearful; the second is hopeful; the third, fatalistic, saying
"For good or ill, let the wheel turn." By the second part of the play, all three priests band together to
try to persuade Becket to flee for his life.

The unities as well as his dramatic purpose demand that Eliot begin the play towards the
end of Becket's life. But necessary information about the historical context has to be given.
This is done through the speeches of the Priests. On another level, the speeches indicate the
different levels of spiritual awareness of the Priests which is necessarily lower than that of
Thomas. The speeches also conjure up the atmosphere of tension that had existed before
and exists still, at the time of Thomas's return. The stubborn will and pride of Thomas do not
bode good. To the Priests it appears dangerous on a worldly level; in the context of the
whole play it is dangerous, on a spiritual level. It is to be seen in the rest of the play how
things will turn out-whether good or evil will come out of Thomas's return.
Q8) MORALITY PLAY
"Murder in the Cathedral is a devotional morality,...... at its heart it is a sermon. But it is no
ordinary morality" The morality play was a dramatic form which developed in the medieval
age in England. It was an allegorical dramatization of the conflict between Good and Evil for
the possession of the soul of Man-or Everyman who represented mankind. The play had
certain staple1 features-the Good Angel and the Evil Angel, personification of virtues and
vices, an allegorical2 representation of the Seven Deadly Sins, all concentrating upon the
single central figure-Everyman or the representative of mankind. Everyman had to choose
between good and evil, all the while being subject to temptations of the worldly, material or
evil ways. On another level, the play dramatized the Christian theme of conflict between the
evil forces and the good forces for the soul of "saved", though after undergoing quite a few
obstacles. The audience of such a play, of course, derives a "moral"-man is beset by evil in
this world and is in danger of being spiritually lost, but temptations should be overcome and
man should adopt the good life. In a morality play, however the here or the Everyman figure
is quite passive, with the conflict taking place between the good and evil Angels.
T.S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral, in a broad manner of speaking, resembles the old
English morality plays. It is as F.O. Mathiessen says, a drama of temptation, like many of the
morality plays. It dramatizes Becket as a type of Christian heroism conquering pride and
attaining martyrdom. The conflict is almost wholly within the hero, at times almost as a
monologue. Murder in the Cathedral, as G. Wilson Knight remarks, is a devotional morality-
at its heart it is a sermon.
Thomas Becket in Eliot's play is presented as an figure, the religious martyr, who wrestles
with an archetypal problem, the subtle temptations of the religious conscience when it has
set itself up against the State. True, one cannot call Thomas "Everyman" for his situation is
not wholly synonymous2 with that of any ordinary man. But, on a broad level, he undergoes
the mental conflict between good and evil. He begins with an attitude towards martyrdom
that is anything but pure. He seeks to do the right deed but for the wrong reason. Eliot
delineates the mental struggles of any great and religious man in this archetypal situation.
Thomas is beset by the first three Tempters, each offering a different variety of worldly
success and power in lieu of martyrdom. Then comes the fourth Tempter the most subtle
and dangerous of them all. Appealing to spiritual pride he tempts Thomas to become a
martyr for the wrong reason.
Murder in the Cathedral is not, however, a simple morality play. It has complex overtones
and planes of meaning which lay quite beyond the scope of the old morality play. As the
fourth Tempter speaks, Thomas realizes this folly, and cries in agony:
“Can I neither act nor suffer without perdition?
The the fourth Tempter speaks the same words that Thomas had earlier used for the
Chorus:
You know and do not know....”
It is at this point that the poor women of the Chorus speak of the near despair besetting
them-"What is the sickly smell... the earth heaving to parturition of issue of hell.... All things
are unreal or disappointing". The Priests tempt Thomas on their own level- telling him to
leave off confrontation for it is best to
“Abide the coming of day....”
The Chorus declares the fear that Thomas is going to destroy himself, and with his
destruction they, too, will be destroyed. The lines have meaning on two planes. The Chorus
is referring to physical death, but in the context of the mental struggle in Thomas the words
imply the surrender to spiritual pride which will lead to damnation. Ultimately Thomas
overcomes the deadly temptation to do the right deed for the wrong reason. But the
dreadful moment of the last temptation has been vividly emphasized by the Chorus: “God is
leaving us....... more pang, more pain than birth or death. Sweet and cloying through the
dark air; Falls the stifling scent of despair …The Lords of Hell are here, feet swing and wing
through the dark air. “
Murder in the Cathedral is not an ordinary morality play. In the Temptation scene, the lines
of the Chorus act as the counter-acting1 force-for they tell Thomas that his position at the
moment is precarious. But they are quite ignorant of the real significance of their words
"they know and do not know". As G. Wilson Knight points out, lines are spoken from a
Dantesque overview knowing and foreknowing events as from the eternal dimension.
Thomas's martyrdom is more than hinted at; the Chorus is aware of it, though not of its true
significance. Thomas is aware of it as well as of the "strife with shadows" that will go before
it. Of course, he did not expect the fourth Tempter.
Murder in the Cathedral is not merely concerned with the central figure of Thomas. Within
the play, the Chorus represents common humanity-the nearest prototype of Everyman of
the morality plays. The play depicts the spiritual progress of the Chorus which ultimately
realizes the true significance of martyrdom. It realizes what Thomas tried to explain in his
Christmas morning sermon, in the Interlude. The Chorus expresses twentieth century fears
in a world sliding in to spiritual barrenness. The four Knights address the audience and their
speeches offer a temptation of the audience to accept Thomas's martyrdom in the worldly
plane as a mad man's suicide. But the final Chorus expresses the true implication of
martyrdom, the realization that joy and pain, light and dark, action and suffering all
canonized and revolved into a complete whole in God's Will.
On a symbolic level, the Chorus has triumphed over evil; has made efficacious3 the
martyrdom of Becket, for the act would have been futile if its significance had not been
realized by the "common man".
In Murder in the Cathedral, Eliot is concerned with showing "the ways of man to God, not
only in the twelfth century but in the twentieth century" says Patricia M. Adair. In terms of
versification, too, Eliot goes back to the medieval morality play Everyman. Murder in the
Cathedral fuses contemporary poetic idiom with echoes of the language of the medieval
morality play and sets forth the eternal and universal struggle in which any man who is
obliged by circumstances to choose between life and integrity participates, as David R. Clark
points out.

Q9) CHORUS
An important convention that Eliot borrowed from Greek tragedy was the Chorus. In Greek
drama itself, the Chorus underwent a variety of changes.
The Chorus provides both background and counter-point to the action and it is through it
that the tension and powerful atmosphere of the play is built up and maintained. Eliot
declared that he depended heavily on the Chorus in this play. This was due to the fact that
the essential action of the play was somewhat limited. The introduction of a Chorus of
excited and sometimes hysterical women, reflecting in their emotion the significance of the
action, helped wonderfully.
The women of the Chorus state-"We are the type of common men" or representatives of
humanity in general. They are the articulate voice of the audience, while at the same time
mediating between audience and action. In this, they perform the fundamental function of
any Chorus. "It mediates between audience and action, intensifies the action by projecting
its emotional consequences, so that we as the audience see it doubly by seeing its effect on
other people". But there is about Eliot's Chorus a sense of communal as well as personal
identity; they are the charwomen, the poor of Canterbury and they are representatives of
the mass of humanity that Christ came to save.
On one level the play deals with the killing of Thomas--but this is at a very superficial level.
On another level, it presents the achievement of the true martyrdom by Thomas Becket.
This, however, is not enough, for true martyrdom, as D.E. Jones says, requires the fulfilment
of two halves of a pattern. It is completed, not merely by Thomas realizing its true meaning
but also by the awareness of its importance to humanity in general. The women, like
Thomas, have their moment illumination. They develop in the course of the play to reach a
point where they are able, in the course of the play, to reach a point where they are able to
praise and thank God for their involvement in the martyrdom.
They provide an atmosphere of foreboding at the very beginning of the play; they predict
disaster. They are instinctively aware of danger but are not clear about the nature of this
danger.Initially the women of Canterbury are unwilling, reluctant to take part in anything
that might cause a change in their routine way of life. They experience a sense of security in
the known misfortunes of their lives and are content to go on existing, even though it is only
on an animal level-living and partly living. They know instinctively that the coming
misfortune will be different from any that they had experienced and will cause an upheaval
that they simply fear to face.
Their choruses are closely related to their moments of occurrence in the play. The
fluctuations of the Chorus, says Helen Gardner, are the true measure of Thomas's spiritual
conquest.
They feel the crisis of faith that Thomas undergoes after his last temptation. They feel the
danger but mistake where safety lies. "They know and do not know". They cry out after the
last temptation— “God is leaving us...more Pang, more Pain. The Lords of Hell are here”
They implore the archbishop to save himself, for then they would also be safe. In his
destruction lay their destruction. They identify their welfare with that of Thomas Becket's.
But the safety they imply and the safety that Thomas finds are different. They have to learn
that true safety does not lie in their calm return to their undisturbed mundane existence;
that it does not lie in flight or escape into obscurity (we want to pass unobserved, left
unnoticed); or escape from evil and death. They have to accept their share in the "eternal
burden" and the "perpetual glory"-the heavy burden of sin and the everlasting glory of
redemption. They have to acknowledge their sin, their part in the monstrous act they are
about to witness, which is an expression of universal malice and corruption, "which it is
man's burden ad glory to be conscious of." They admit the need for the sacrifice in the
beginning of Part II: “And the world must be cleaned in winter, or we shall have only; A
sour spring, a parched summer, an empty harvest.”
But they are ashamed of their part in the matter, their "inaction": Nothing is possible but
the shamed swoon ;Of those consenting to the last humiliation.
They have "consented" to "eternal patience" and acknowledge their responsibility for
Thomas's imminent death. The are aware that they will be as guilty of the sin as the
murderers. As the murder takes place they burst out into a vision of terrifying horror-it is the
picture of the fate that they expect unless atonement is made. And they recognise that the
upheaval of their "normal, ordered life," is complete : How can I ever return, to the soft
quiet seasons?
As yet they do not clearly realise that the blood of Thomas in fact will refresh the "Waste
Land" and that their world would be a cleaner place, spiritually. But at the end of the play
they have reached a fuller understanding. They burst out into the last Chorus of praise and
thanksgiving: “We thank Thee for Thy mercies of blood, For Thy redemption by blood. For
the blood of Thy martyrs and saints Shall enrich the earth, shall create the holy places.”
And they admit that Thomas's sacrifice was made on their behalf.
The women have gone through an action "of their own and their suffering has brought them
to contrition as well as praise and thanks- giving. For all their desire to rest in the familiar
and to avoid the demands made by God on them, they have been awakened through pity
and terror to a fuller spiritual life".
Through the Chorus is expressed the fears, desires and intuitive knowledge of the mediocre
human soul faced with the terror of a direct clash between good and evil. And through it the
real significance of martyrdom, is brought out. The pronouncement of Thomas: A
martyrdom is always the design of God, for His love of man, to warn them and to lead
them, to bring them back to His ways” is dramatically realized through the women as they
realise that their action and suffering is part of God's design and that their part is as
important as the martyr's, in the fulfilment of the eternal pattern. Thus the Chorus's
development is related to the central theme of martyrdom. Just as the martyr requires the
right attitude to God, so also martyrdom requires the right attitude on the part of the mass
of humanity, otherwise the martyrdom becomes meaningless and useless. Eliot has thus
enlarged the functions of the Chorus, and Murder in the Cathedcal achieves its greatness
chiefly because of the part 1 played by the Chorus and the beautiful poetry given to them.
“We identify ourselves with the women of the Chorus; their experience communicates itself
to us, and gives us the feeling we have been, not spectators but sharers in a mystery". The
play thus transcends its particular historical origin and occasion and achieves universality.
The Chorus becomes humanity confronted by the mystery of iniquity and the mystery of
holiness. All this besides the traditional function of providing information, as is done in the
beginning of the play regarding the time passed: "Seven years since the Archbishop left us
and; Since golden October declined into sombre November” tells us the time of the
present action.
Q10) ACT OF REDEMPTION/PURIFICATION OF BECKETT WILL
Ans. An amusing anecdote regarding one performance of Murder in the Cathedral is often
related by critics. It concerns the reaction of a member of the audience who, after seeing the
play, expressed his disappointment. He is reported to have said that he came expecting to
see a "thriller" dramatized, but his expectations were belied. It speaks of how misleading the
title of the play is. When the play is analysed, it is clear that the main concern is not the
murder of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The killing of Thomas Becket is fraught with several
layers of meaning. Of course, on the surface, it is a murder of a man by four assassins - and
that is the common man's worldly observation of the event. But the play is not about the
physical act of killing or murder. It deals with the deeply religious and spiritual subject of
martyrdom. Seen from the thematic point, the death of Thomas Becket is not mere "death
by violence" but an act of redemption. The central concern of the play is martyrdom for the
right reason and its capacity to fructify the life of common man.
It is not an accident that Eliot ignores, to a large extent, a historical presentation of events.
He concentrates on the present situation. While historical references are brought in, (in the
Tempters' words) they are blended into the main action and are adequately motivated by
the purpose of the Tempters. The play is not merely a dramatization of the death of Thomas
Becket; it is a deep-searching study of the significance of martyrdom, not only to the martyr
but also to common man. Thus the clash of characters and personal antagonisms are
deliberately avoided-the king does not appear at all, and it is stressed that the Knights'
actions have not been motivated by personal passions.
'Martyrdom' in its original sense is Eliot's concern in the play. In that sense the term martyr
means witness. Becket is thus a "witness" to the reality of God's Will; he is not primarily a
martyr in the sense of one who suffers for a cause, or one who dies for some religious belief.
The actual killing of Thomas is not important as a dramatic climax. The audience is off and
again warned that it is not watching a sequence of events that contains the normal dramatic
logic of motive, act and result, but an act that depends on God's Will in which the human
will is submerged.
From the very beginning we are aware of the atmosphere as being ripe for a martyrdom.
The Wheel of life and the Will of God both bear Becket towards a violent death. But they
also determine whether that death will be classified as murder or suicide-both belonging to
the world's categories-or whether that death will be a martyrdom enjoyed in God's love. The
killing of Thomas is interpreted by the Knights as suicide as they justify their action to the
audience. Thomas could have escaped being murdered if he had "seen sense" and not been
so "stubborn" is their implication.
The challenge of the temptations is very real to Thomas. If he died without realizing the
purpose of God, for which he died, it would be a mere murder. If he died, however, for the
wrong motives succumbing to what the Fourth Tempter spells out in his subtle speech-it
would be damnation and a form of suicide which is going against God's will. Thomas is,
however, a true martyr for he has realized the meaning of martyrdom. He overcomes the
most dangerous temptation of becoming a martyr from impure motives.
Some critics have argued that the purification of Becket's will- which is the main moral
implication of the play-has not come out clearly in the play. This is not an acceptable view.
The very limitations of the dramatic technique prevent Eliot from presenting the situation
more clearly. As it is, one does not find difficulty in accepting, the words of Thomas, that he
has overcome the impurities in his self, and that he has discovered the reality of the Divine
Love and Will to which he must submit. In his submission is his action-the achievement of
the "still point" where action and suffering, movement and rest, time and timelessness, are
all absorbed. He has realized the eternal pattern in the flux of time. "All my life they have
been coming, those feet"-Becket has now merely to wait for his killers to appear. That
Becket's will has been purified is emphasized in Becket's Christmas sermon which is an
explanation of the death that is to come. Christian martyrdom is neither an accident nor a
design of man; it is not the "effect of a man's will to become a saint". It is an act of
submerging one's will in the Will of God.
Eliot's treatment of the purification of Becket's will gets added dramatic interest and validity
in the light of the chorus which reflects the fluctuations and finally the overcoming of the
temptations. When Thomas dies, it is clear that he dies with a pure will. But that is not
enough-martyrdom is not complete unless it serves to remind ordinary men and women of
God's love. And here the Chorus serves its dramatic purpose as they are roused out of their
spiritual apathy and complacency.
Q11) BECKETT AS A TRAGIC HERO
Thomas Becket has some resemblance to the ideal tragic hero as delineated by Aristotle. He
has a shortcoming; however, the shortcoming does not cause his death. The tragic heroes of
earlier tragedies "fall" because of an error of judgement or because of some flaw in
character. But Thomas though imperfect at the beginning of the play, achieves perfection of
will before he dies. After all, the fact that Thomas is to be a saint calls for perfection. In
Eliot's play the idea of Thomas suffering a "tragic" death is nowhere entertained. The
"murder" in the Cathedral is not a murder; it is an act of redemption. All thought of a fall-
through-arrogance, all idea of a struggle at the character's level is accordingly bypassed' and
the dramatic effect is placed beyond all this in a context of religious redemption.
Thomas, though achieving perfection through the purification of motives, comes across as
"human”. There is a flash of humour as he tells the third Tempter: "Proceed straight
forward". In his first encounter with the four Knights, we see him as a man facing men,
rather than as a saint purifying his relation with God. In this way, though generally speaking,
Thomas appears far removed from the petty affairs of ordinary humanity. Eliot has
succeeded in retaining some links between him and the humans who observe the enacting
of his fate, as Mason points out.
It is not possible or practical to compare Thomas to the tragic heroes of Shakespeare, such
as Macbeth, Lear and others. As Mason says, “Shakespeare created his heroes to the greater
glory of Man; Eliot to the greater glory of God." Murder in Cathedral is not a tragedy in the
conventional sense. A.G. George calls it "Existential2 drama"; it presents the mystery of
suffering and action. The characters are of varying degrees of consciousness and they are
presented with a situation in which they must make a choice. Thus Thomas has to choose,
and the choice will determine his future. Thomas chooses not to go back to France; he
chooses to affirm the rights of the Church; his choices lead co his martyrdom. His deliberate
choice shows his greater level of spiritual awareness as compared to the Chorus, the Priests
and the Knights. The drama lies in the interpretation made of the martyrdom by the Chorus,
the Priests and the Knights. If the audience accepts he Knights' interpretation, the result
would be tragic, according to Eliot, for mankind.
The tragedy of Becket is a continuing tragedy, for in every age a Christ must be crucified to
atone3 for the sins of humanity. Murder in he Cathedral dramatizes Becket as a type of
Christian hero conquering ride and attaining martyrdom. Thomas is an archetypal figure who
wrestles with an archetypal problem, the subtle temptations of the religious conscience
when it has set itself up against the State.
then On a superficial level, if we see martyrdom as mere death, Thomas's decision can be
seen as a foolish one-that is the Knights's interpretation. But a martyrdom, as Thomas
explains in his sermon, is an act of redemption in which "rejoicing" and "pain" are fused.
Through a martyr's death, mankind's life is fructified. In such a context, one cannot call the
play a tragedy in the conventional sense-it becomes a "Divine Comedy".
As far as Thomas is concerned, he is certainly not "active" in the conventional sense. But his
courage and determination and supreme subjugation' of self-will cannot be appreciated if
one terms them "negative" qualities. He says:
Unbar the doors: Throw open the door :
I will not have the hours of prayer, the church of Christ,
The sanctuary turned into a fortress.
The Church shall protect her own, in her own way.
The words do not appear to be "negative" or passive. They evidence a positive courage and
faith which cannot but be admired. "His submitted will had the strength and resilience of
steel", says Robert Speaight aptly. Indeed, the quiet courage of
“I am here. ;No traitor to the king. I am priest; A Christian.... ;Ready to suffer with, my
blood. His blood given to buy my life ;My blood given to pay for His death ;My death for
His death............ “cannot fail to impress the audience.
Thomas Becket is not an Aristotelean tragic hero; nor is he like the Shakespearean tragic
hero. He is a Christian figure, and it cannot be said that he is a "tragic" figure, for at the still
point of the wheel, all contradictions and irreconcilables are reconciled. The tragedy lies in
the fact that mankind still requires a martyr in every age to die and atone for its sins; to die
so that it can get salvation.
CHARACTER OF BECKETT
The Aristotelian concept of tragic hero is that of a man, who though good and just to a great
extent, has a flaw, which is some error or fraility (but not vice or depravity). Thomas
corresponds to this concept in that he is certainly not flawless. His pride and egoism are
definite flaws of human character. Yet, the similarity ends here, for the catastrophe in the
play does not result from the flaw. Thomas is able to realise his fault and overcome it.
Thomas is eventually a saint and sainthood implies perfection; whereas it is necessary for a
tragic hero to be imperfect, for that very imperfection is what ultimately causes his downfall.
He quite calmly faces his murderers and refuses to hide behind barred doors. He refuses to
escape and does nothing to save his life. Thomas appears to be too good to be an
Aristotelian tragic hero.
The action of the play is confined to the last days of Becket's life. The struggle within him is
concentrated and given form in his conversation with the tempters. From the speeches of
the first three tempters we get to know the bare facts of Thomas's early life; they are there
as temptations which throng his mind. They cannot be dismissed as mere recapitulation.
They appeal to the senses; the lure of secular power, the idea of winning against Henry in a
political game are temptations he had experienced earlier and thus is able to overcome
more easily. Yet they have not entirely lost their power:
The impossible is still temptation.......
Voices under sleep, waking a dead world,
So that the mind may not be whole in the present.
Becket masters the first three temptations and then faces the fourth-unexpected one of the
present. The temptation "to do the right deed for the wrong reason", to become a martyr to
achieve personal glory is strong as well as shocking for Becket. The audience is not wholly
unprepared to find that Thomas possesses this spiritual pride; Eliot has given hints, firstly in
the words of the first priest which portrays Becket clearly as a proud man, and this comes
out again in Thomas's rejection of temporal power. Pride implies the "setting up of the self
against the Will of God", and is thus the deadliest of sins. Thomas could not foresee this
obstacle to true martyrdom as he is blind to this weakness in himself. The words of the
fourth tempter shocks Thomas into the realisation of his mixed up motives for becoming a
martyr-he has been thinking of achieving the glory that comes with martyrdom which will
exalt him to a position above earthly kings and give him his final victory against Henry.
Confident that his cause is right, there is no deflecting him from this purpose. As he becomes
aware of this impurity in his motives, he is aghast and cries out:
"Can I neither act nor suffer without Perdition ?
Thomas has now to understand the words that he spoke to the women of the Chorus on his
return. The fourth Tempter throws them back at him :
"You know and do not know, what it is to act or suffer. You know and do not know, that
action is suffering, And suffering action. Neither does the agent suffer Nor the patient act.
But both are fixed, In an eternal action, an eternal patience,To which all must consent that
it may be willed,And which all must suffer that they may will it, That the pattern may
subsist, that the wheel may turn and still; Be forever still.".
While the priests and Chorus and tempters counsel him to avert action, Thomas comes to
his awakening. The proposition which he intellectually asserted has now to become a reality
in his life. Only God's will can be the criterion of right and wrong, action and suffering.In
supplanting God's will with his own, in electing to be the Centre of the wheel without God,
Becket will call upon on his own head, whatever evils might ensue from his choice.
Now he has to recognise that the only way in which he can reach the stillness at the centre
of the turning wheel is to yield to the mover, God. Only by extinction of self-will can he avoid
the mortal sin of pride. Action and suffering are distinct only on the circumference of the
wheel, in the area of physical appearance, but at the heart of reality, they merge into one
another. Those on the circumference have to turn towards the centre, in order that the
"eternal design" may be fulfilled. They have to "consent that it may be willed" and "suffer
that they may will it."
Now Thomas assents to losing his will in the will of God and achieves "the reconciliation of
all irreconcilables". He is content that he "shall no longer act or suffer, to the sword's end,"
for God, not he, is the only agent through whom good can proceed from evil; what God wills
brings neither pain nor suffering to the one who submits to it. It is with this spirit of
acceptance-he will not look for, nor will he escape martyrdom-that he waits for the knights :
"I give my life
To the laws of God above the law of man"
Thomas fulfils his part in the eternal design.
As Grover Smith says, there are two aspects in which Thomas's character can be seen.
Becket rejects the idea of conscious glory in martyrdom. In one sense this act is merely an
intensification, a validation of his position as an appointed martyr. As such he can be seen as
a character of static type. In another sense, he can also be seen as a person capable of
development: his moral struggles teach him the meaning of martyrdom as the perfection of
will. Becket's initial desire is imperfect; from this he rises to a greater good.. Thomas faces
death boldly, a death which could have been avoided. He achieves the awareness that a true
martyr desires nothing-not even martyrdom. He must become a willing but passive
instrument of divine will. And in achieving this level of spiritual awareness he achieves a
position which is beyond earthly experience and thus he is a little remote. Becket could be
said to be "a type of Christian here conquering pride and attaining martyrdom."