DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHM:

2 MARKS:(part a)

1).Distinguish between linear and non-linear data structures with example.

2).Write the postfix notation for following expression using stack: a * b / c + d.
3).Consider the following binary tree:
justify the given binary tree is a binary search tree?
4).Define a priority queue with diagram.
5).State sorting and mention the following factors of sorting.
6).List down the advantage and disadvantage of insertion sort.
7).What are the tasks performed during in-order traversal with example?
8).Perform the preorder traversal for the following tree.
9).Recall about graph concept
10).What is the use of Dijksra’s algorithm?
11).State data structure.
12).Recall the concept of time complexity and space complexity.
13).How do you test for an empty queue?
14).Convert the following to postfix expression using stack:
(a + b) * (c + d) – e
15).What is meant by binary search tree with example
16).Give two properties of heaps.
17).What is the task performed while traversing a binary tree with example.
18).Is the heap sort always better than the quick sort justify?
19).Outline a directed graph with an example.
20).Compare directed graph and undirected graph with example
21).Write the operations performed in data structure
22).How do you test for an empty queue with diagrammatic presentation
23).Convert the following to postfix expression using stack:
(a + b) * (c + d) – e
24).The following given tree is an example for? Justify it
25).What are the tasks performed during in-order traversal with example?
26).Is the quick sort always better than the heap sort justify?
27).Mention the advantage of Dijksra’s algorithm?
28).Define graph and mention their representations of graph.

ANSWERS:

1).Distinguish between linear and non-linear data structures with examples:

Linear data structures: Linear data structures organize data elements in a sequential manner where
each element has a unique predecessor and successor, except for the first and last elements. Examples
include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues.
Non-linear data structures: Non-linear data structures do not have a sequential organization and allow
for more complex relationships between elements. Examples include trees, graphs, and hash tables.

2).Postfix notation for the expression "a * b / c + d" using a stack:

In postfix notation, operators are written after their operands. Using a stack to convert the expression,
the postfix notation is: "a b * c / d +".

3).Justification for the given binary tree being a binary search tree:
To determine if the given binary tree is a binary search tree, we need to check if the property of the
binary search tree is satisfied, i.e., the left subtree of a node contains only nodes with values less than
the node's value, and the right subtree contains only nodes with values greater than the node's value.
The given binary tree does not satisfy the binary search tree property because the right subtree of the
root node contains a node (7) with a value less than the root node (10). Therefore, the given binary tree
is not a binary search tree.

4).Priority queue definition with a diagram:

A priority queue is an abstract data type that stores elements along with their associated priorities. The
element with the highest priority can be accessed or removed first. In the diagram, each element in the
priority queue is represented with its priority value.
Example diagram:
Priority Queue
+---------------------+
| Element | Priority |
+---------------------+
| E1 | P1 |
| E2 | P2 |
| E3 | P3 |
| ... | ... |
+---------------------+

5).Sorting and its factors:

Sorting refers to arranging a collection of items in a specific order, such as ascending or descending.
Factors to consider when choosing a sorting algorithm include:
Time complexity: The efficiency of the algorithm in terms of the time taken to perform the sorting
operation.
Space complexity: The amount of additional memory required by the algorithm to perform the sorting
operation.
Stability: Whether the algorithm preserves the relative order of equal elements.
Adaptability: Whether the algorithm performs better or adapts to partially sorted or nearly sorted
input.
Ease of implementation: The simplicity or complexity of implementing the algorithm.
Input size and data distribution: The characteristics of the input data, such as its size and initial
ordering, which can influence the choice of algorithm.

6).Advantage and disadvantage of insertion sort:

Advantage: Insertion sort is a simple algorithm to implement and understand. It performs well for
small-sized or partially sorted arrays. It has an efficient best-case time complexity of O(n) when the
input is already sorted.
Disadvantage: Insertion sort has a worst-case and average-case time complexity of O(n^2), which
makes it inefficient for large-sized or randomly ordered arrays. It requires multiple element shifts for
each insertion, which can be time-consuming.

7).Tasks performed during in-order traversal with an example:

In-order traversal is a type of binary tree traversal that visits the nodes in the following order: left
subtree, current node, right subtree. The tasks performed during in-order traversal are:
Traverse the left subtree recursively.
Visit the current node.
Traverse the right subtree recursively.
Example in-order traversal of a binary tree:
A
/ \
B C
/\ /
 D EF
In-order traversal: D -> B -> E -> A -> F -> C

8).Preorder traversal of the given tree:

To perform preorder traversal, we visit the current node before traversing its children. The preorder
traversal for the given tree is:
A
/ \
B C
/\ /\
D EF G
Preorder traversal: A -> B -> D -> E -> C -> F -> G

9).Recall about graph concept:

A graph is a non-linear data structure consisting of a set of vertices (nodes) connected by edges. It
represents relationships between objects or entities. Graphs can be used to model various real-world
scenarios, such as social networks, transportation networks, or computer networks. There are two
common types of graphs: directed and undirected.

10).Use of Dijkstra's algorithm:

Dijkstra's algorithm is used to find the shortest path between two nodes in a graph with non-negative
edge weights. It can be applied to various scenarios, such as finding the optimal route in a road
network, determining the fastest path in a computer network, or solving resource allocation problems.

11).Data structure definition:

A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in a computer's memory in a particular format.
It provides efficient operations for accessing, inserting, deleting, and manipulating the data. Examples
of data structures include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs, and hash tables.

12).Concept of time complexity and space complexity:

Time complexity: Time complexity is a measure of the amount of time required by an algorithm to run
as a function of the input size. It helps in understanding how the algorithm's performance scales with
increasing input size. Common notations for time complexity include Big O (O), Omega (Ω), and Theta
(Θ).
Space complexity: Space complexity is a measure of the amount of additional memory required by an
algorithm to solve a problem as a function of the input size. It helps in understanding how much
memory the algorithm consumes with increasing input size. It can be expressed in terms of the input
size (n) or the amount of auxiliary space used.

13).Testing for an empty queue:

To test if a queue is empty, we can check if the queue's size is zero or if the front and rear pointers are
both null. If either of these conditions is true, it indicates that the queue is empty.

14).Conversion to postfix expression using a stack:

Given infix expression: (a + b) * (c + d) - e
Using a stack to convert it to postfix expression: a b + c d + * e -

15).Binary search tree definition with an example:

A binary search tree (BST) is a type of binary tree in which the value of each node is greater than all
values in its left subtree and less than all values in its right subtree. It provides an efficient way to store
and search for data, as it allows for quick comparisons and binary search operations. Example of a
binary search tree:
 8
/ \
3 10
/\ \
1 6 14
/\ /
4 7 13

16).Properties of heaps:
Complete binary tree: A heap is a complete binary tree, meaning all levels of the tree are completely
filled, except possibly the last level, which is filled from left to right.
Heap property: In a max heap, for any given node, the value of the node is greater than or equal to the
values of its children. In a min heap, the value of the node is smaller than or equal to the values of its
children.

17).Tasks performed while traversing a binary tree with an example:

Tree traversal refers to visiting each node of a tree in a specific order. There are three common types of
binary tree traversals:
Preorder traversal: Visit the current node, then recursively traverse the left subtree, and finally,
recursively traverse the right subtree.
In-order traversal: Recursively traverse the left subtree, visit the current node, and then recursively
traverse the right subtree.
Postorder traversal: Recursively traverse the left subtree, recursively traverse the right subtree, and
finally visit the current node.

18).Heap sort vs. quick sort:

Whether heap sort or quick sort is better depends on various factors such as the input size, initial
ordering of elements, and the desired properties of the sorting algorithm.
Heap sort: Heap sort has a worst-case time complexity of O(n log n) and is not affected by the initial
ordering of elements. It is a stable sorting algorithm. However, it requires additional space for the heap
data structure.
Quick sort: Quick sort has an average-case time complexity of O(n log n) and performs efficiently on
average. It can be faster than heap sort in many cases. However, it may have a worst-case time
complexity of O(n^2) when the input is already sorted or nearly sorted.

19).Directed graph outline with an example:

A directed graph (also known as a digraph) is a graph where edges have a specific direction. Each edge
has a starting vertex and an ending vertex, denoting the flow or relationship between them. An example
of a directed graph could be a network of cities connected by one-way roads.

20).Comparison of directed graph and undirected graph with an example:

Directed graph: In a directed graph, the edges have a specific direction, indicating a one-way
relationship between vertices. For example, in a social network, the friendship between two individuals
might be represented by directed edges.
Undirected graph: In an undirected graph, the edges do not have any direction, indicating a
bidirectional relationship between vertices. For example, in a road network, the connections between
intersections can be represented by undirected edges, as traffic can flow in both directions.

21).Operations performed in data structures:

Insertion: Adding a new element to the data structure.
Deletion: Removing an existing element from the data structure.
Search: Finding the location or presence of a specific element in the data structure.
Access: Retrieving or modifying the value of an element in the data structure.
Traversal: Visiting each element of the data structure in a specific order.
Update: Modifying the value of an existing element in the data structure.

22).Testing for an empty queue with diagrammatic presentation:

A queue can be tested for emptiness by checking if its front and rear pointers are both null or if its size
is zero. Diagrammatically, an empty queue can be represented as:
Front -> NULL
Rear -> NULL

23).Conversion to postfix expression using a stack:

Given infix expression: (a + b) * (c + d) - e
Using a stack to convert it to postfix expression: a b + c d + * e -

24).The given tree is an example of a binary tree

A
/ \
B C
/\ /\
D EF G
This tree does not fulfill the properties of a binary search tree since it does not maintain the order of
values. In a binary search tree, for any given node, the values in its left subtree should be less than the
node's value, and the values in its right subtree should be greater.

25).Tasks performed during in-order traversal with an example:

In-order traversal visits the nodes of a binary tree in the order: left subtree, current node, right subtree.
The tasks performed during in-order traversal are:
Traverse the left subtree recursively.
Visit the current node.
Traverse the right subtree recursively.

26).Comparison of quick sort and heap sort:

Quick sort: Quick sort has an average-case time complexity of O(n log n) and can be faster than heap
sort for most inputs. However, it may have a worst-case time complexity of O(n^2) in certain scenarios,
which can make it inefficient.
Heap sort: Heap sort has a worst-case time complexity of O(n log n) and is not affected by the initial
ordering of elements. It requires additional space for the heap data structure. Heap sort is generally
slower than quick sort for small inputs but can be advantageous for large inputs or when a stable
sorting algorithm is needed.

27).Advantage of Dijkstra's algorithm:

Dijkstra's algorithm is advantageous for finding the shortest path in a graph because it guarantees the
shortest path between a source node and all other nodes in the graph. It is efficient for graphs with
non-negative edge weights and can handle large graphs effectively.

28).Graph definition and representations:

A graph is a collection of vertices (nodes) connected by edges. Graphs can be represented using
different data structures:
Adjacency Matrix: A 2D matrix where the rows and columns represent the vertices, and the presence of
an edge between two vertices is indicated by a non-zero value.
Adjacency List: Each vertex is associated with a list of its neighboring vertices.
Edge List: A list of all edges in the graph, where each edge is represented by a pair of vertices.
Incidence Matrix: A matrix where the rows represent the vertices and the columns represent the edges,
and each entry indicates whether a vertex is incident to an edge.

DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHM:

6 MARKS:(part b)

1).Illustrate the enqueue and dequeue operations on double ended queue.

2).Explain in brief about singly linked list? how insertion could be carried out with diagrammatic
representation.
3).Elaborate in detail about disjoint sets and its operation with example.
4).Sketch the Tower of Hanoi problem in detail.
5).Convert the following expression using stack: a + b *c + (d+e+f) / g
i)preorder expression (3 marks)
ii)postfix expression (3 marks)
6).Answer the following numbers using the merge sort with neat representation. 8,3,2,9,7,1,5,4.
7).Discuss about Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication.
8).Construct the binary search tree for the following numbers:
100,20,500,10,30 (2 marks)
i)Insert a node with value 40 in this tree (2 marks)
ii)Delete a parent node 100 (2 marks)
9).Elaborate about Minimum spanning tree with example.
10).Sketch about depth first search in detail?
11).Write a c program using single linked list for the following
Insertion
Deletion
12).Convert the following infix expression into prefix form by using stack.
(a + b- c) *d- (e +f)
13).Traverse the given tree using In-order, Pre-order and Post-order traversals.
14).Write the c program to search a number with the given set of numbers using
Binary search?
15).Sort the given integers and explain the intermediate result using bubble sort: 35, 12, 14, 9, 15,45,
32,95, 40, 5.
16).Sort the sequence 3, 1, 4, 1, 5 ,9, 2, 6, 5 using Insertion sort.
17).Explain the various representation of graph with example in detail?
18).Explain in detail about travelling salesman problem with example?
19).Elaborate about BFS (Breadth First Search) with neat representation.
20).Sketch in detail about minimum spanning tree using connected graph with example.
21).Illustrate the push and pop () operations on stack.
22).Elaborate the asymptotic notations to calculate the running time complexity of an algorithm with
neat diagram
23).For the tree below, write the i) post-order traversal (3 marks)
ii) in-order traversal (3 marks)
24).What is the maximum number of children that a binary tree node can have? justify your answer
with diagrammatic representation
25).Sort the array using quick sort 15, 22, 30, 10, 45, 64, 1, 3, 9, 2.
26).Perform the operation for the following numbers and list the time complexity:
3,6,1,8,4,5 using bubble sort.
27).Elaborate Topological sort with an example.
28).Illustrate the Kruskal's algorithm in finding a minimum-cost spanning tree with neat presentation.

ANSWERS:
1).Enqueue and Dequeue Operations on Double Ended Queue:

Enqueue from front: Insert an element at the front of the queue.

Enqueue from rear: Insert an element at the rear of the queue.
Dequeue from front: Remove an element from the front of the queue.
Dequeue from rear: Remove an element from the rear of the queue.
Here is an illustration of enqueue and dequeue operations on a double-ended queue:

Initial Queue:
Front -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> Rear

Enqueue from front (element: 5):

Front -> 5 -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> Rear

Enqueue from rear (element: 40):

Front -> 5 -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> 40 -> Rear

Dequeue from front:

Front -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> 40 -> Rear

Dequeue from rear:

Front -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> Rear

2).Singly Linked List:

A singly linked list is a data structure that consists of a sequence of nodes, where each node contains
data and a reference (or link) to the next node in the list. The last node's link points to null, indicating
the end of the list.

Insertion in a singly linked list involves creating a new node and adjusting the links to insert the node
at a specific position. Here's a diagrammatic representation of inserting a new node with data 25 after
the node with data 20:

Initial Linked List:

Head -> 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> null

Insertion of node with data 25:

Head -> 10 -> 20 -> 25 -> 30 -> null

3).Disjoint Sets and Operations:

Disjoint sets are a data structure that represents a collection of disjoint (non-overlapping) sets. Each
set is represented by a root element, and elements within the same set have the same root. The disjoint
set data structure supports two main operations: Union and Find.

Union: Merges two sets into a single set by connecting the root of one set to the root of the other set.
Find: Determines the root of the set to which a particular element belongs.
Example:
Let's consider a set of elements: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Initially, each element is in its own set: {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}

Perform Union operation:

Union(2, 4) -> Merges sets containing elements 2 and 4
{1}, {2, 4}, {3}, {5}

Union(1, 3) -> Merges sets containing elements 1 and 3

{1, 3}, {2, 4}, {5}

Find operation:
Find(4) -> Returns the root of the set containing element 4
Root of 4: 2

4).Tower of Hanoi:

The Tower of Hanoi is a classic puzzle that involves three rods and a number of disks of different sizes.
The objective is to move all the disks from the source rod to the destination rod, obeying the following
rules:

Only one disk can be moved at a time.

Each move consists of taking the top disk from one of the stacks and placing it on top of another stack
or on an empty rod.
No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.
Here's a sketch of the Tower of Hanoi problem with three disks:

Initially:
Source Rod (A): Disk 3 Disk 2 Disk 1
Auxiliary Rod (B):
Destination Rod (C):

Move 1: Move Disk 1 from Source (A) to Destination (C)

Source Rod (A): Disk 3 Disk 2
Auxiliary Rod (B):
Destination Rod (C): Disk 1

Move 2: Move Disk 2 from Source (A) to Auxiliary (B)

Source Rod (A): Disk 3
Auxiliary Rod (B): Disk 2
Destination Rod (C): Disk 1

Move 3: Move Disk 1 from Destination (C) to Auxiliary (B)

Source Rod (A): Disk 3
Auxiliary Rod (B): Disk 2 Disk 1
Destination Rod (C):

Move 4: Move Disk 3 from Source (A) to Destination (C)

Source Rod (A):
Auxiliary Rod (B): Disk 2 Disk 1
Destination Rod (C): Disk 3

Move 5: Move Disk 1 from Auxiliary (B) to Source (A)

Source Rod (A): Disk 1
Auxiliary Rod (B): Disk 2
Destination Rod (C): Disk 3
Move 6: Move Disk 2 from Auxiliary (B) to Destination (C)
Source Rod (A): Disk 1
Auxiliary Rod (B):
Destination Rod (C): Disk 3 Disk 2

Move 7: Move Disk 1 from Source (A) to Destination (C)

Source Rod (A):
Auxiliary Rod (B):
Destination Rod (C): Disk 3 Disk 2 Disk 1

The Tower of Hanoi problem is solved when all the disks are successfully moved to the destination rod.

5).To convert the given expression using a stack:

i) Preorder expression:
The preorder expression is obtained by visiting the nodes in the following order: root, left subtree,
right subtree.

The given expression is: a + b * c + (d + e + f) / g

Applying the preorder traversal:

Preorder expression: + + a * b c / + + d e f g

ii) Postfix expression:

The postfix expression is obtained by visiting the nodes in the following order: left subtree, right
subtree, root.

The given expression is: a + b * c + (d + e + f) / g

Applying the postfix traversal:

Postfix expression: a b c * + d e f + + g / +

6).Using merge sort to sort the given sequence: 8, 3, 2, 9, 7, 1, 5, 4

Step 1: Divide the sequence into individual elements:

[8], [3], [2], [9], [7], [1], [5], [4]

Step 2: Merge adjacent pairs of elements:

[3, 8], [2, 9], [1, 7], [4, 5]

Step 3: Merge adjacent pairs of pairs:

[2, 3, 8, 9], [1, 4, 5, 7]

Step 4: Merge the final two pairs:

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9]

The sorted sequence is: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9

7).Strassen's Matrix Multiplication is an algorithm used to efficiently multiply two matrices. It is based
on the divide-and-conquer strategy and is faster than the traditional matrix multiplication algorithm.
The main idea behind Strassen's algorithm is to divide the given matrices into smaller submatrices
recursively and perform fewer multiplications by using clever combinations of these submatrices. The
algorithm works as follows:

Divide each matrix into four equally sized submatrices.

Compute seven products of these submatrices recursively.
Combine the computed products to obtain the final result.
The key advantage of Strassen's algorithm is that it reduces the number of scalar multiplications
required, resulting in better time complexity compared to the traditional matrix multiplication
algorithm (which has a time complexity of O(n^3)).

8).Constructing a binary search tree (BST) for the given numbers: 100, 20, 500, 10, 30

100
/ \
20 500
/
10
\
30
i) Insert a node with value 40 in this tree:

markdown
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100
/ \
20 500
/ /
10 40
\
30
ii) Delete the parent node 100:

markdown
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30
/ \
20 500
/
10

9).A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a tree that spans all the vertices of a connected, weighted graph
with the minimum total weight. In other words, it is a tree that connects all the vertices of the graph
with the minimum possible sum of edge weights.

There are several algorithms to find the minimum spanning tree, such as Prim's algorithm and
Kruskal's algorithm. Here's an example of finding the minimum spanning tree using Kruskal's
algorithm:

Consider a graph with vertices A, B, C, D, E, F and the corresponding edge weights:

scss
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(A)---1---(B)
/| |\
3||4
/||
(D)---2---(C)---5---(E)
\|
6|
\|
(F)---7

Sort the edges in ascending order of their weights: (D, A), (A, B), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (B, C), (C, E).
Start with an empty graph.
Take the edge with the smallest weight (D, A) and add it to the graph.
Take the next smallest edge (A, B) and check if it forms a cycle with the edges in the graph. If it doesn't
form a cycle, add it to the graph.
Repeat step 4 for the remaining edges until all vertices are connected.
The resulting graph is the minimum spanning tree.
In this example, the minimum spanning tree is:

(A)---1---(B)
|
4
|
(C)---5---(E)

10). Depth-First Search (DFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores as far as possible along each
branch before backtracking. It uses a stack to keep track of the visited vertices.

Here's a sketch of the DFS process:

Choose a starting vertex.

Push the starting vertex onto the stack.
Mark the starting vertex as visited.
While the stack is not empty:
Pop a vertex from the stack.
Process the vertex (e.g., print it or perform any desired operation).
Get all the adjacent vertices of the popped vertex that are not visited.
Push these adjacent vertices onto the stack and mark them as visited.
Repeat steps 4 until the stack is empty.
The key idea of DFS is to visit a vertex and then recursively explore all its adjacent vertices. This
approach ensures that all vertices in the connected component of the starting vertex are visited.

11).Here's a C program using a singly linked list for insertion and deletion operations:
c
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct Node {
int data;
 struct Node* next;
};

// Function to insert a new node at the beginning of the list

void insertNode(struct Node** head, int value) {
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
newNode->next = *head;
*head = newNode;
printf("Node with value %d inserted.\n", value);
}

// Function to delete a node with a given value from the list

void deleteNode(struct Node** head, int value) {
struct Node* temp = *head;
struct Node* prev = NULL;

if (temp != NULL && temp->data == value) {

*head = temp->next;
free(temp);
printf("Node with value %d deleted.\n", value);
return;
}

while (temp != NULL && temp->data != value) {

prev = temp;
temp = temp->next;
}

if (temp == NULL) {
printf("Node with value %d not found.\n", value);
return;
}

prev->next = temp->next;
free(temp);
printf("Node with value %d deleted.\n", value);
}

// Function to display the contents of the linked list

void displayList(struct Node* head) {
struct Node* temp = head;
printf("Linked List: ");
while (temp != NULL) {
printf("%d ", temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
}
printf("\n");
}

int main() {
struct Node* head = NULL;
 // Insert nodes
insertNode(&head, 5);
insertNode(&head, 10);
insertNode(&head, 15);

// Display the list

displayList(head);

// Delete nodes
deleteNode(&head, 10);
deleteNode(&head, 20);

// Display the updated list

displayList(head);

return 0;
}

12).Converting the infix expression into prefix form using a stack:

Given infix expression: (a + b - c) * d - (e + f)

Step 1: Reverse the infix expression: f + e - d * )c - b + a(

Step 2: Scan the reversed expression from left to right:

Stack: Empty
Prefix Expression: Empty

f: Push f to stack
Stack: f
Prefix Expression: Empty

+: Push + to stack
Stack: f +
Prefix Expression: Empty

e: Push e to stack
Stack: f + e
Prefix Expression: Empty

-: Push - to stack
Stack: f + e -
Prefix Expression: Empty

d: Push d to stack
Stack: f + e - d
Prefix Expression: Empty

*: Push * to stack
Stack: f + e - d *
Prefix Expression: Empty
): Pop operators from stack until an opening parenthesis is encountered
Stack: f + e - d * (
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

c: Push c to stack
Stack: f + e - d * ( c
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

-: Push - to stack
Stack: f + e - d * ( c -
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

b: Push b to stack
Stack: f + e - d * ( c - b
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

+: Push + to stack
Stack: f + e - d * ( c - b +
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

a: Push a to stack
Stack: f + e - d * ( c - b + a
Prefix Expression: ) * d - e + f

(: Pop operators from stack and append to the prefix expression

Stack: Empty
Prefix Expression: - + * d ) c - b + a f e

Step 3: Reverse the prefix expression: e f a + b - c ) d * + -

The prefix expression is: - + * d ) c - b + a f e

13).Tree traversal using in-order, pre-order, and post-order traversals:

Given tree:

A
/ \
B C
/\ /\
D EF G
In-order traversal: D -> B -> E -> A -> F -> C -> G
Pre-order traversal: A -> B -> D -> E -> C -> F -> G
Post-order traversal: D -> E -> B -> F -> G -> C -> A

14).Here's a C program to search for a number using binary search:

#include <stdio.h>

int binarySearch(int arr[], int n, int key) {

int low = 0, high = n - 1;

while (low <= high) {

 int mid = (low + high) / 2;

if (arr[mid] == key)
return mid;
else if (arr[mid] < key)
low = mid + 1;
else
high = mid - 1;
}

return -1; // If the key is not found

}

int main() {
int arr[] = {5, 9, 12, 14, 15, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95};
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
int key = 32;

int index = binarySearch(arr, n, key);

if (index != -1)
printf("Element found at index %d\n", index);
else
printf("Element not found\n");

return 0;
}
The program defines a binarySearch function that takes an array, its size, and the key to be searched. It
performs the binary search algorithm by dividing the array in half and comparing the key with the
middle element. If the key matches, it returns the index. If the key is smaller, it continues searching in
the lower half; otherwise, it searches in the upper half. The process repeats until the key is found or the
search space is exhausted.

In the main function, an example array is provided, and the binarySearch function is called to search for
the key value of 32. The index of the key is printed if found, or a message is displayed if the key is not
present in the array.

15).Sorting the given integers using bubble sort:

35, 12, 14, 9, 15, 45, 32, 95, 40, 5

Bubble sort works by repeatedly swapping adjacent elements if they are in the wrong order. Here are
the intermediate steps of the bubble sort algorithm applied to the given sequence:

Step 1:
12, 14, 9, 15, 35, 32, 45, 40, 5, 95

Step 2:
12, 9, 14, 15, 32, 35, 40, 5, 45, 95

Step 3:
9, 12, 14, 15, 32, 35, 5, 40, 45, 95
Step 4:
9, 12, 14, 15, 32, 5, 35, 40, 45, 95

Step 5:
9, 12, 14, 15, 5, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95

Step 6:
9, 12, 14, 5, 15, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95

Step 7:
9, 12, 5, 14, 15, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95

Step 8:
9, 5, 12, 14, 15, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95

Step 9:
5, 9, 12, 14, 15, 32, 35, 40, 45, 95

The intermediate steps show the progression of the bubble sort algorithm where the largest elements
"bubble" towards the end of the array in each iteration until the entire array is sorted in ascending
order.

16).Sorting the sequence using Insertion sort:

3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5
Insertion sort works by dividing the array into a sorted and an unsorted region. It iterates through the
unsorted region, taking each element and inserting it into the correct position in the sorted region.
Here are the steps of the insertion sort algorithm applied to the given sequence:

Step 1:
1, 3, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5

Step 2:
1, 3, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5

Step 3:
1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5

Step 4:
1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5

Step 5:
1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5

Step 6:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 6, 5

Step 7:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 5

Step 8:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 9
The intermediate steps show how the insertion sort algorithm gradually builds the sorted region by
inserting each element into its correct position. The sorted region grows from left to right until the
entire sequence is sorted in ascending order.

17).Graphs can be represented in various ways, including:

Adjacency Matrix: A 2D matrix where each cell represents the presence or absence of an edge between
two vertices. If there is an edge between vertices i and j, the matrix cell (i, j) or (j, i) will contain a non-
zero value. Otherwise, it will contain zero. The matrix can be implemented using a 2D array or a
dynamic data structure like a nested list.
Example:
Consider a graph with 4 vertices (A, B, C, D) and the following edges: (A, B), (A, C), (B, D), (C, D).
The adjacency matrix representation would be:

A B C D
A 0 1 1 0
B 1 0 0 1
C 1 0 0 1
D 0 1 1 0
Adjacency List: Each vertex in the graph has a list of its adjacent vertices. This representation can be
implemented using an array of linked lists, where each index corresponds to a vertex, and the linked
list contains the adjacent vertices.
Example:
Using the same graph as above, the adjacency list representation would be:

A: B -> C
B: A -> D
C: A -> D
D: B -> C
Edge List: A list of all the edges in the graph, where each edge is represented by a pair of vertices. This
representation is simple and efficient for sparse graphs.
Example:
Using the same graph as above, the edge list representation would be:

(A, B), (A, C), (B, D), (C, D)

Each representation has its own advantages and is suitable for different scenarios based on the specific
graph operations and requirements.

18).The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) is a classic optimization problem that seeks to find the
shortest possible route that visits a given set of cities and returns to the starting city, visiting each city
exactly once. The problem can be defined as follows:
Given a complete weighted graph, find the Hamiltonian cycle (a cycle that visits each vertex exactly
once) with the minimum total weight.

Example:
Consider a graph with 4 cities (A, B, C, D) and the following distances between them:

Distance between A and B: 10

Distance between A and C: 15
Distance between A and D: 20
Distance between B and C: 35
Distance between B and D: 25
Distance between C and D: 30
To solve the TSP, we need to explore all possible permutations of the cities and calculate the total
distance for each permutation. The algorithm then selects the permutation with the minimum total
distance.

For example, one possible permutation is A → B → C → D → A, which corresponds to the total distance
of 10 + 35 + 30 + 20 = 95. We would need to calculate the total distances for all possible permutations
and select the one with the minimum value.

The TSP is an NP-hard problem, meaning that there is no known efficient algorithm to solve it for large
instances. However, there are approximation algorithms and heuristics that can provide reasonably
good solutions in practice.

19).Breadth First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores all the vertices of a graph in
breadth-first order, i.e., it visits all the vertices at the same level before moving to the next level. It uses
a queue data structure to keep track of the vertices to be visited next.
BFS Algorithm:

Choose a starting vertex and enqueue it into a queue.

Mark the starting vertex as visited.
While the queue is not empty, do the following:
Dequeue a vertex from the queue.
Process the dequeued vertex (e.g., print it or perform any desired operation).
Enqueue all the unvisited neighbors of the dequeued vertex into the queue and mark them as visited.
Repeat step 3 until the queue is empty.
BFS can be used to find the shortest path between two vertices in an unweighted graph. It ensures that
the vertices closer to the starting vertex are visited before the ones farther away. The queue data
structure helps in maintaining the order of exploration.

Neat representation of BFS:

Consider a graph with the following adjacency list representation:

mathematica
Copy code
A: B -> C
B: A -> C -> D
C: A -> B -> D
D: B -> C
Starting with vertex A, the BFS traversal would proceed as follows:

A (visited)
B (visited)
C (visited)
D (visited)
The traversal visits each vertex in breadth-first order, exploring all the vertices at each level before
moving to the next level.

20).Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a subset of edges in a connected, undirected graph that connects
all the vertices together with the minimum possible total edge weight. MSTs are useful in network
design, clustering, and various optimization problems.
One of the algorithms to find the minimum spanning tree is Prim's algorithm. Here's a sketch of how
Prim's algorithm works:

Start with an arbitrary vertex (let's say vertex A) and add it to the MST.
Repeat the following steps until all vertices are included in the MST:
Find the minimum-weight edge that connects a vertex in the MST to a vertex outside the MST.
Add the vertex connected by the minimum-weight edge to the MST.
Update the MST with the newly added vertex and edge.
The process continues until all vertices are included in the MST.
Example:
Consider a connected graph with the following edge weights:

A --4-- B
||
523
||
C --1-- D --6-- E

Starting with vertex A, the minimum spanning tree (MST) would be formed as follows:

Step 1: A (start with vertex A)

Step 2: A --4-- B (minimum-weight edge connects A to B)
Step 3: A --4-- B --2-- D (minimum-weight edge connects B to D)
Step 4: A --4-- B --2-- D --6-- E (minimum-weight edge connects D to E)
Step 5: A --4-- B --2-- D --6-- E --1-- C (minimum-weight edge connects E to C)

The resulting minimum spanning tree connects all the vertices (A, B, C, D, E) with the minimum total
edge weight.

21).The push and pop operations are fundamental operations performed on a stack data structure.
Stack is a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) data structure that allows insertion and deletion of elements from
one end called the "top" of the stack.

Push Operation:

Check if the stack is full (overflow condition).

If the stack is not full, increment the top pointer and insert the new element at the top position.
Update the stack with the new element.
Pop Operation:

Check if the stack is empty (underflow condition).

If the stack is not empty, retrieve the element at the top position.
Decrement the top pointer to remove the element from the stack.
Illustration:
Let's consider an empty stack and perform the push and pop operations on it.

Initial Stack: Empty

Push(5):
Stack: [5]

Push(8):
Stack: [5, 8]

Push(3):
Stack: [5, 8, 3]

Pop():
Removed Element: 3
Stack: [5, 8]

Pop():
Removed Element: 8
Stack: [5]

Push(2):
Stack: [5, 2]
After performing the push and pop operations, the final stack contains the elements [5, 2]. The push
operation inserts elements at the top, while the pop operation removes elements from the top of the
stack.

22).Asymptotic notations are used to describe the running time complexity of an algorithm in terms of
its input size. The most commonly used asymptotic notations are Big O notation (O), Omega notation
(Ω), and Theta notation (Θ).

Big O notation (O): It represents the upper bound of the running time complexity. It gives an estimate of
the worst-case scenario of an algorithm's performance. For example, if an algorithm has a time
complexity of O(n), it means that the running time grows linearly or less than linearly with the input
size.

Omega notation (Ω): It represents the lower bound of the running time complexity. It gives an estimate
of the best-case scenario of an algorithm's performance. For example, if an algorithm has a time
complexity of Ω(n^2), it means that the running time grows at least quadratically with the input size.

Theta notation (Θ): It represents both the upper and lower bounds of the running time complexity. It
provides a tight estimate of the running time. For example, if an algorithm has a time complexity of
Θ(n), it means that the running time grows linearly with the input size.

These notations help in comparing and analyzing the efficiency of algorithms. They allow us to focus on
the growth rate of the algorithm's performance as the input size increases, rather than exact values or
constants.
Diagram: [Diagram illustrating the growth rates of different time complexities (e.g., O(n), O(n^2), O(log
n), etc.) on the x-axis and the input size (n) on the y-axis. The diagram shows how different functions
grow at different rates as the input size increases.]

23).For the given tree, the post-order and in-order traversals can be determined as follows:

Tree:
1
/
23
/\/
4567
i) Post-order traversal (left subtree, right subtree, root):
4, 5, 2, 6, 7, 3, 1

ii) In-order traversal (left subtree, root, right subtree):

4, 2, 5, 1, 6, 3, 7

Post-order traversal visits the nodes in the order: 4, 5, 2, 6, 7, 3, 1, where each node is visited after its
left and right subtrees have been visited.
In-order traversal visits the nodes in the order: 4, 2, 5, 1, 6, 3, 7, where each node is visited between the
visits to its left and right subtrees.
Both traversals provide different sequences of visiting the nodes in the tree, allowing us to examine the
structure and relationships between the nodes in different ways.

24).The maximum number of children that a binary tree node can have is 2. This property
distinguishes a binary tree from other types of trees where a node can have more than two children.
A binary tree is a hierarchical data structure where each node has at most two children, referred to as
the left child and the right child. The left child represents the left subtree, and the right child represents
the right subtree.

Diagrammatic representation:
1
/ \
2 3
/\ /\
4 56 7
In the above binary tree, each node has either 0, 1, or 2 children. For example, node 1 has two children
(2 and 3), node 2 has two children (4 and 5), and leaf nodes (4, 5, 6, 7) have no children.
If a node has more than two children, it would be considered a different type of tree, such as a ternary
tree (three children per node), quaternary tree (four children per node), etc.

25).Sorting the array using Quick Sort:

15, 22, 30, 10, 45, 64, 1, 3, 9, 2

Quick Sort is a divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm that works by selecting a pivot element and
partitioning the array into two sub-arrays, one containing elements less than the pivot and the other
containing elements greater than the pivot. The process is recursively applied to the sub-arrays until
the entire array is sorted.

Steps for sorting the array using Quick Sort:

Choose a pivot element from the array (e.g., the last element).
Let's choose 2 as the pivot.
Partition the array such that all elements less than the pivot are moved to the left, and all elements
greater than the pivot are moved to the right.

After partitioning, the array becomes:

1, 2, 3, 10, 9, 22, 30, 45, 64, 15
Recursively apply the above steps to the sub-arrays on the left and right of the pivot.
Left sub-array: 1, 2, 3, 10, 9
Right sub-array: 22, 30, 45, 64, 15
Repeat the partitioning process for the sub-arrays.

Left sub-array:
Pivot: 9
After partitioning: 1, 2, 3, 9, 10
Right sub-array:

Pivot: 15
After partitioning: 15, 22, 30, 45, 64
Recursively apply the steps to the remaining sub-arrays.

Left sub-array:

Pivot: 3
After partitioning: 1, 2, 3
Right sub-array:

Pivot: 64
After partitioning: 22, 30, 45, 64
Continue the process until each sub-array contains only one element.
The final sorted array is obtained by concatenating the sorted sub-arrays.
Sorted Array: 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 15, 22, 30, 45, 64

26).Performing bubble sort on the numbers 3, 6, 1, 8, 4, 5:

Bubble Sort is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares adjacent
elements, and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. This process is repeated until the entire list is
sorted.

Numbers: 3, 6, 1, 8, 4, 5

Pass 1:
Compare 3 and 6: No swap (3, 6, 1, 8, 4, 5)
Compare 6 and 1: Swap (3, 1, 6, 8, 4, 5)
Compare 6 and 8: No swap (3, 1, 6, 8, 4, 5)
Compare 8 and 4: Swap (3, 1, 6, 4, 8, 5)
Compare 8 and 5: Swap (3, 1, 6, 4, 5, 8)

Pass 2:
Compare 3 and 1: Swap (1, 3, 6, 4, 5, 8)
Compare 3 and 6: No swap (1, 3, 6, 4, 5, 8)
Compare 6 and 4: Swap (1, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8)
Compare 6 and 5: Swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)

Pass 3:
Compare 1 and 3: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)
Compare 3 and 4: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)
Compare 4 and 5: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)

Pass 4:
Compare 1 and 3: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)
Compare 3 and 4: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)

Pass 5:
Compare 1 and 3: No swap (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)
The sorted array is: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8
The time complexity of bubble sort is O(n^2) in the worst and average case, where n is the number of
elements in the array.

Bubble Sort Time Complexity:

Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares adjacent
elements, and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. The algorithm continues until the list is
sorted.
For the given numbers [3, 6, 1, 8, 4, 5],

the bubble sort algorithm would perform the following comparisons and swaps:
Pass 1:
3, 6, 1, 8, 4, 5 (compare 3 and 6, no swap)
3, 1, 6, 8, 4, 5 (swap 6 and 1)
3, 1, 6, 8, 4, 5 (compare 6 and 8, no swap)
3, 1, 6, 4, 8, 5 (swap 8 and 4)
3, 1, 6, 4, 8, 5 (compare 8 and 5, no swap)

Pass 2:
1, 3, 6, 4, 8, 5 (swap 3 and 1)
1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 5 (compare 6 and 4, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 5 (compare 6 and 8, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 (swap 8 and 5)

Pass 3:
1, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 (compare 1 and 3, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 (compare 3 and 4, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 (compare 6 and 5, swap 6 and 5)

Pass 4:
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 (compare 1 and 3, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 (compare 3 and 4, no swap)
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 (compare 5 and 6, no swap)
The sorted list is [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8].
Bubble sort has a worst-case time complexity of O(n^2), where n is the number of elements in the list.
In this case, there are 6 elements, so the time complexity of bubble sort for this example is O(6^2) =
O(36).

27).Topological Sort:

Topological sort is an algorithm used to order the nodes of a directed acyclic graph (DAG) in such a way
that for every directed edge (u, v), node u comes before node v in the ordering. It is commonly used in
tasks that have dependencies, such as scheduling or compiling.

The steps for performing topological sort are as follows:

Choose a node with no incoming edges (in-degree of 0) and add it to the result.
Remove the chosen node and its outgoing edges from the graph.
Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all nodes have been processed.

Example:
Let's consider a simple graph with six nodes and six directed edges:
Graph: 1 2
|↗|
v/v
34
↓↓
5 -> 6

The topological sort for this graph would be [1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6]. Starting with node 1, we can follow the
steps outlined above:
Choose node 1 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1].
Remove node 1 and its outgoing edge to node 3.
Choose node 2 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1, 2].
Remove node 2 and its outgoing edge to node 4.
Choose node 3 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1, 2, 3].
Remove node 3 and its outgoing edge to node 5.
Choose node 5 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1, 2, 3, 5].
Remove node 5 and its outgoing edge to node 6.
Choose node 4 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1, 2, 3, 5, 4].
Remove node 4 and its outgoing edge to node 6.
Choose node 6 (no incoming edges) and add it to the result: [1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6].
The resulting topological sort is [1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6].

28).Kruskal's Algorithm for Minimum-Cost Spanning Tree:

Kruskal's algorithm is a greedy algorithm used to find a minimum-cost spanning tree in a connected
weighted graph. It works by selecting edges in ascending order of their weights and adding them to the
spanning tree if they do not create a cycle.

Steps to illustrate Kruskal's algorithm:

Sort all the edges of the graph in non-decreasing order of their weights.
Create an empty spanning tree (initially containing no edges).
Iterate through the sorted edges and add them to the spanning tree if adding the edge does not create a
cycle.
Continue this process until all vertices are included in the spanning tree or the desired number of edges
is reached.

Example:
Let's consider a graph with the following edges and their corresponding weights:
Edges: (A, B) - 2
(B, C) - 3
(A, C) - 4
(B, D) - 1
(C, D) - 5

Sort the edges in non-decreasing order of weights:

(B, D) - 1
(A, B) - 2
(B, C) - 3
(A, C) - 4
(C, D) - 5
Start with an empty spanning tree.
Add the edges one by one, checking for cycles:
(B, D) - 1 - Add edge (B, D) to the spanning tree.
(A, B) - 2 - Add edge (A, B) to the spanning tree.
(B, C) - 3 - Add edge (B, C) to the spanning tree.
(A, C) - 4 - Add edge (A, C) to the spanning tree.
(C, D) - 5 - Add edge (C, D) to the spanning tree.

The resulting minimum-cost spanning tree includes the edges:

(A, B), (B, D), (B, C), (A, C).
Note that Kruskal's algorithm can be used to find the minimum-cost spanning tree in a connected,
weighted graph with either undirected or directed edges.