CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The creation of dielectric materials from trash has several benefits. Certain wastes are

not only more cost-effective and ecologically friendly sources of materials, but they are also a

more effective way to manage large amounts of agricultural waste and produce a variety of

engineering materials.

DIELECTRIC MATERIAL

According to Shuaikang Huang, Kai Liu et al. (2022), The development of sophisticated

energy storage devices and the efficient resolution of energy storage issues can be facilitated

by research on polymer-based dielectric materials for dielectric capacitors that have low energy

loss and high-power density. All-organic polymer dielectrics have drawn a lot of interest lately

because of their superior qualities and promising future in the energy storage sector. For large-

scale, low-cost manufacture, all-organic dielectrics have shown to be a more viable solution

than polymer inorganic composites with poor processability. The gradual successes of

conventional all-organic polymer dielectrics and the latest developments in polymer modification

technology are summed up in this study. In the meantime, a comprehensive examination is

conducted of the energy storage theory of dielectrics, including energy storage parameters,

polarization mechanisms, breakdown mechanisms, and conduction mechanisms. In conclusion,

this paper lists the current issues with dielectric materials made entirely of organic polymers and

suggests workable fixes as well as potential directions for future research.

Examining the impact of top electrode materials and topologies on capacitor

performance is one way to enhance the electrical characteristics of metal/insulator/metal

capacitors for dynamic random-access memory. On ZrO2/Al2O3/ZrO2 (ZAZ) dielectric layers

produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD) on TiN bottom electrodes, three types of top
electrodes (TiN, Ru, and TiN/Ru) are sputter-deposited. Of the three types of top electrodes, the

TiN/Ru top electrode samples exhibit the highest capacitance density. In comparison to the TiN

top electrode, the Ru and TiN/Ru top electrodes exhibit lower leakage current densities. Ru's

larger work function means that when it comes into direct touch with the insulating layer, the

interface property is optimized. Through the scavenging of oxygen atoms, the TiN layer on the

2 nm-thick Ru top electrode reduces the unfavorable interfacial reaction layer (TiOxNy) of the

dielectric/TiN bottom electrode. Cheol Hyun An, Woongkyu Lee, et al. (2018).

Using both thermal and acoustic mode scanning probe microscopy, the local elastic and

thermal behaviors of the dielectric breakdown zones in multilayer ceramic capacitors based on

BaTiO3 were examined. It was discovered that the BaTiO3 ceramic grains next to the dielectric

breakdown zone developed nanoscale elastic microstructures that were closely related to the

stress release caused by dielectric breakdown. These nanostructures may have originated from

the basic architecture that led to the MLCC failure. The potential production of glass phases is

the reason for the breakdown region's extremely poor heat conductivity. These recent

discoveries offer a fresh perspective on how multilayer ceramic capacitors break down. (© 2015

Weinheim, Germany: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA)

According to Wentong Du, Yuxin Ying et al. (2023), Due to the thermal conductivity

mismatch between the conductive regions and the dielectric layers, scanning thermal

microscopy is employed to directly image the local conductive path and dynamic behaviors in

the deteriorated multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs). In the thermal image, the electrical tree

dynamic growth behaviors of the local conductive path under the DC bias on and off states are

obtained. These occurrences show that in the local conductive route region of MLCCs, the

space-charge-limited current mechanism is predominant. The findings clearly show that

scanning thermal microscopy is an effective method for visualizing local conductive behavior in

MLCCs. This direct, one-of-a-kind view helps us understand the local breakdown mechanism
and broadens our understanding of the reliability and degradation of insulation resistance in

MLCCs.

Doped HfO2 thin films have garnered significant interest recently due to their potential

uses in ferroelectric memories that are compatible with complementary metal-oxide-

semiconductor (CMOS) technology. This article reports on the polarization fatigue and

ferroelectric characteristics of La: HfO2 thin-film capacitors. A 12 nm-thick Pt/La:

HfO2/La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 capacitor with a robust remanent polarization of ≈16 μC cm−2 is

obtained by changing the substrate lattice constant and film thickness. Utilizing specified pulse

sequences, fatigue experiments are carried out to track the evolution of switchable polarization

with increasing cycles by varying the voltage, pulse width, and interval duration. When the La:

HfO2 capacitors are partially switched and the time between bipolar switching is extended,

severe fatigue is seen. These phenomena can be explained by the domain wall pinning

scenario, in which migration and accumulation of charges on non-electroneutral walls prevent

domain switching. The mean time and activation field for polarization switching is increased in

fatigued La: HfO2 capacitors, according to further analysis of the fatigue behaviors using a

nucleation-limited-switching model. This is because electrical stimuli are necessary to disperse

the aggregated charges before the domains are released. The design and manufacturing of

HfO2-based ferroelectric memory with increased device reliability are made easier by these

findings. Xiaofei Li, Chen Li, et al. (2021).

In flexible electronics, flexible dielectric capacitors exhibit outstanding resilience against

cycle wear, a high recoverable energy density (40.6 J/cm3), and 68.9% energy efficiency. They

function well in a broad variety of temperatures. Liang Shen, Lu, Lu, et al. (2019)

According to Jie-Yu Chen, Yun-Peng Zhou, et al. (2022), Dielectric capacitors offer a

high working voltage, a long lifespan, and a great power density, making them the perfect

energy storage device. Compared to conventional dielectric capacitor devices, film capacitors

are easier to integrate into circuits due to their smaller size and higher energy storage density.
Because of the empty d orbitals of the Nb elements, lead-free Nb-based perovskite

ferroelectric/antiferroelectric films exhibit high orbital hybridization with O 2p orbitals, generating

a class of energy storage film materials with potential applications. Here, we give a summary of

the most recent lead-free Nb-based films for energy storage applications, including those based

on K0.5Na0.5NbO3, AgNbO3, K0.5Na0.5Bi4NbTi3O15, and NaNbO3. The present study

presents an analysis of the merits and demerits of Nb-based perovskite ferroelectric and

antiferroelectric films and outlines the strategies employed in their design to attain superior

energy storage capabilities.

Compared to their ceramic partners, polymer dielectrics have higher breakdown qualities

and more noteworthy unwavering quality are adaptable, lightweight and can be formed into

complicated setups, and are hence a perfect choice for numerous control hardware, control

conditioning, and beat control applications. Here we portray crosslinked polymer

nanocomposites that contain boron nitride nanosheets, the dielectric properties of which are

steady over a wide temperature and recurrence extend. The nanocomposites have

extraordinarily high-voltage capacitive vitality capacity capabilities at record temperatures (a

Weibull breakdown quality of 403 megavolts per meter and a released vitality thickness of 1).

These discoveries empower broader applications of natural materials in high-temperature

hardware and vitality capacity gadgets, as stated by Li, Chen, Gadinski et al. (2015).

The results demonstrate that lead-free dielectric materials with huge greatest

polarization, tall breakdown electric field, little leftover polarization, and thin polarization-electric

field circles are more suitable for creating dielectric capacitors with tall vitality thickness and

proficiency. Based on this, we survey in this a few unused methodologies to make strides the

energy-storage capacity of dielectric materials, as stated by Zou, Dan, Xu et al. (2019).

Polyimide (PI) has good thermal stability and insulating qualities, making it a promising

material for high-temperature energy storage dielectrics. Additionally covered is the

advancement of computational simulation techniques in high-temperature polyimide dielectric

energy storage. Ultimately, the main issues with employing polyimide as a high-temperature

energy storage dielectric material are enumerated, and the course for further research and

development is investigated, as stated by Zha, Tian, Zheng et al. (2023).

Quickened maturing of separator frameworks utilized in numerous apparatuses under

quick, tedious voltage beats is the foremost noteworthy boundary to advantage from wide

bandgap (WBG) control hardware. Limited component investigation (FEA) has been broadly

utilized to consider fractional release (PD) behavior beneath a control recurrence (50/60 Hz)

sinusoidal waveform inside cavities in a solid dielectric. The demonstrate is utilized to explore

the alter within the electric field dispersion some time recently and after PD event and the effect

of distinctive included parameters when monotonous voltage beats are connected to the

dielectric, as stated by Borghei and Ghassemi. (2019).

The fast growth of the electronic sector is driving up demand for high-energy-storage

dielectric capacitors. Due to their low permittivity, high hysteresis loss, and breakdown strength,

current dielectrics are limited, which has an impact on efficiency and energy density. For

sustainable energy, these materials must be optimized, and this will be a future research focus,

as stated by Yao, Song, Hao et al. (2017).

Low dielectric constant and loss factor interlayer dielectric materials have been

developed as a result of the advancement of integrated electronics and high-frequency

microwaves. Researchers concentrate on lowering the resin matrix and dielectric constant in

polymer composites and high-frequency copper-clad laminates. To modify the dielectric

characteristics of composites, carbon nanofillers can be employed as functional fillers.

Optimizing polymer matrix composites' dielectric characteristics is another suggestion made in

the review, as stated by Wang, Yang, Cheng et al. 2021.

AGRICULTURAL WASTES
 Dielectric characteristics are influenced by temperature and frequency and are

associated with different food types. Many studies on horticulture products and food materials

have focused on non-destructive assessment possibilities with the primary goal of predicting

multiple physical features of agri-food items. The concepts and principles of dielectric

characteristics are manipulated in this overview of the fundamentals. The various elements

influencing the behavior of dielectric characteristics have been examined, and the results of

applications carried out on various items to characterize a variety of chemical and physical

qualities have all been highlighted and cited. A thorough explanation of the numerous

measurement methods that have been used, along with the majority of the commonly used

equipment, is provided throughout the review. The purpose of this review is to provide a current

reference for spectroscopy's dielectric characteristics as they relate to agrophysics. Dielectric

characteristics are influenced by temperature and frequency and are associated with different

food types. Many studies on horticulture products and food materials have focused on non-

destructive assessment possibilities with the primary goal of predicting multiple physical

features of agri-food items. The concepts and principles of dielectric characteristics are

manipulated in this overview of the fundamentals. The various elements influencing the

behavior of dielectric characteristics have been examined, and the results of applications carried

out on various items to characterize a variety of chemical and physical qualities have all been

highlighted and cited. A thorough explanation of the numerous measurement methods that have

been used, along with the majority of the commonly used equipment, is provided throughout the

review. The purpose of this review is to provide a current reference for spectroscopy's dielectric

characteristics as they relate to agrophysics. Dahlia El Khaled, Nuria N. Castellano, et al.

(2016).

According to Gaurav Sharma, Deepanshu Sharma, et al. (2023) Glasses made of

calcium silicate produced from biomass waste were created at 1550°C using a melt-quench
method. Preferred orientation, a reduced optical bandgap, and an elevated refractive index were

observed by XRD, suggesting possible uses in the semiconductor and energy storage sectors.

To apply microwave absorption, the impact of adding activated carbon (AC) obtained

from biowaste on the magnetic and dielectric characteristics of barium hexaferrite (BaFe12O19)

has been studied. While the auto-combustion method was used to create low-density barium

hexaferrite, activated carbon was made from banana peels. The low-cost ball-milling approach

was used to make the composites made of magnetic barium hexaferrite and highly conductive

activated carbon. However, the inclusion of AC reduces the magneto-crystalline anisotropy,

leading to a decrease in the saturation magnetization and magnetic loss tangent values. The

composite with a coating thickness of 1.3 mm and a composition of 40% BaFe12O19 and 60%

AC demonstrated a maximum reflection loss in the X-band of −35.5 dB (Goel et al., 2021).

In addition to being used in many food processing activities, microwave heating is also

becoming popular as a by-product processing method. The current investigation centers on how

temperature and moisture content (M) affect the dielectric constant (ε') and loss (ε'') of used

coffee grounds, carrot waste, apple pomace, and pineapple peel at 2.45 GHz. The composition

of the materials under study and, consequently, the computed power penetration depth, had a

considerable impact on the results at various temperatures. Although the dielectric properties of

fresh food are documented in the literature, processing may alter the composition of the

material, so the data is not always appropriate to estimate the properties of food waste. Solyom

et al., (2020)

Given that most electronic products contain non-biodegradable components, the

environment is greatly concerned about the ever-increasing consumption of these products and

the disposal of them that follows. Alternative materials for electronic goods may soon be needed

due to regulations on their disposal and rising environmental consciousness over their usage

and disposal. Creating biodegradable electrical components with natural cellulose and protein

fibers is one way to make electronics more ecologically friendly. Several studies on the use of
materials based on natural fibers for different electrical components have been conducted. H.

B. Bhuvaneswari & Narendra Reddy (2018)

A promising method for turning agricultural wastes (AW) into biofuels, including syngas,

biochar, and bio-oil, is microwave pyrolysis (MP). We examine the most recent MP conversion

of AW into value-added biofuels to close the knowledge gap. We include the impact of

feedstock composition, novel reactor designs, operating conditions, catalytic applications, and

reaction processes. Because of the following factors: (i) high availability of AW; (ii) scalable

procedure; (iii) considerable potential for continuous operation; and (iv) thermochemical process

with positive energy ratio, microwave valorization of AW to biofuels represents an economically

viable cum environmentally benign strategy. The inadequate understanding of microwave

propagation patterns, materials handling, and varied feedstock compositions has prevented a

complete exploration of microwave heating distribution, product production, and reactor design

for continuous MP. By combining numerous magnetrons with a shaftless auger, the continuous

MP process may be adjusted to increase microwave heating uniformity and biofuel quality. (Ge

and others, 2021).

Waste products from agriculture are renewable resources with potential applications as

microwave-absorbing materials. The study on the carbon content, surface porosity, and

dielectric characteristics of raw coconut shell powder particles in epoxy resin matrix composites

is presented in this paper. The elemental analysis of CHNS revealed that 46.700% of the

carbon in coconut shell powder is carbon. Through SEM investigation, macropores (∼ 2μm)

were found in the powdered coconut shell particles. Using an open-ended coaxial probe

approach, the dielectric characteristics of the coconut shell powder composites were measured

throughout a microwave frequency range of 1-8 GHz. For the composite ratio 40:60, the overall

dielectric constant (βr') and dielectric loss factor (βr") were 2.97 and 0.21, ranging from 2.74-

3.17 and 0.16-0.27 respectively; in contrast, the dielectric constant (βr') and dielectric loss factor

(βr") of the composite with ratio 50:50 were 3.56 and 0.26, ranging from 3.35-3.76 and 0.21-
0.30, respectively. The measured βr" was used to calculate the electrical conductivity, which

came out to be 0.067 and 0.054 for composite ratios of 50:50 and 40:60, respectively. The

greater the presence of high dielectric material (coconut shell powder), the more it affected the

electrical conductivity and dielectric properties of the coconut shell powder composites. Yew

Been Seok, Nurbazilah, et al. (2016)

ANIMAL WASTES

According to Omah et al. (2016), Study looks into the dielectric properties of composite

materials made of cow bone and carbonized agricultural waste. The data indicated that the

carbonized particles were more thermally stable than the uncarbonized ones. Water absorption

capacity, dielectric strength, and dielectric constant were measured. Measurements were made

of the dielectric strength, dielectric constant, and water absorption capacity.

CROP WASTES

According to Zainol et al. (2023), Given their accessibility, bio-waste and agricultural

wastes are anticipated to be low-cost, renewable, and sustainable resources for the production

of dielectric materials. The conversion of these bio-waste resources into dielectric materials

offers a viable replacement for traditional, expensive, non-renewable materials. To comprehend

the dielectric properties of these wastes and how they react to treatments during the production

process, thorough documentation on their transformation into dielectric materials is therefore

required.

Additionally, dielectric material synthesis utilizing pineapple leaves is suggested as a

potential way to reduce pollution while repurposing trash into a valuable material by Rasid et al.

(2023). As studied, Pineapple vegetation and environmental aspects of the plant’s cultivation

impact the cellulose content in acquiring the ideal permittivity value of the dielectric substance

that can be analyzed using the Kurschner-Hanack method.

POLYSACCHARIDES

According to Shu, et al. (2020), reports on the exceptional supercapacitor performance

of hierarchical composite porous carbon (HPC) materials, which are produced from

polysaccharides such as citric acid, bacterial cellulose, and carboxymethyl cellulose, and are

successfully synthesized using a one-step carbonization and activation technique. The resulting

HPC had a distinct porous nanosheet shape, rich in oxygen (7.3%), and having a high specific

surface area (2490 m2 g−1). Excellent electrochemical performance was achieved by the

designed structures featuring macropores, mesopore walls, micropores, and a high oxygen

content for the electrode of electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs).

The expanding global consumption of fossil fuels and environmental harm have made it

vital to develop green, renewable energy sources and efficient energy storage systems.

Supercapacitors are a subject of great interest in research because they are high-performance

energy storage devices that can contribute to the rapid emergence of low-power electronics,

such as wearable and portable electronics. Biomaterials are especially ideal for usage in green,

renewable energy storage systems due to their unique structure and outstanding properties.

This article looks at the electrode, electrolyte composition, and charge storage methods of

recent advances in supercapacitor technology. This article shows the current developments in

supercapacitors that include polysaccharide materials, as well as alternative biomaterials used

in energy storage applications, as stated by Selvaraj, Perumal, et al. (2020)

According to Torres & De la Torre (2021), in particular, algal-based polysaccharides

show great promise as biodegradable and environmentally acceptable substitutes for

conventional polymer electrolytes. The current developments in polymer electrolytes based on

algal polysaccharides are the main topic of this paper. We lay out the fundamentals of high-
performance polymer electrolytes and talk about the materials science applications of the

polysaccharides derived from algae. Algal polysaccharides are offered as high-performing,

economical, environmentally benign, and biodegradable replacements for solid polymer

electrolytes in order to create high-performance electrolytes for existing electrochemical

applications.

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are highly adaptable electronic devices with a

multitude of possible uses, including self-powered electronics and environmental energy

harvesting. Concerns about the effects of conventional electronic devices on the environment

are increasing due to the rapid growth of TENGs. Next, a review was conducted of the latest

developments in polysaccharide-based TENGs and their possible uses as documented in the

literature between 2015 and 2020. Torres & De la Torre (2021)

According to Schlemmer, et al. (2021), even though performance and cost have

significantly improved recently, batteries and their constituent parts continue to confront a

number of environmental problems, such as those related to sustainability, safety, toxicity, and

recycling. A historical part on various battery technologies, safety concerns regarding batteries,

and specifications for polysaccharide components to be utilized in various battery technologies

are all included in the review. The final parts discuss the potential applications of

polysaccharides in the battery industry as well as the challenges that stand in their way.

This paper first summarizes findings on the usage of different polysaccharides

originating from nature as potential gate dielectrics for organic field effect transistors (OFETs) in

order to produce devices that are environmentally friendly and eventually biodegradable. To

highlight this point, a thorough investigation is conducted into the performance of flexible OFETs

made using cyanoethyl cellulose (CEC), a synthetically modified type of cellulose, as the gate

dielectric. In order to assess transistors' feasibility for practical uses, the impact of annealing

temperature on transistor performance was also investigated. These results imply that
polysaccharides could make good gate dielectrics for environmentally friendly electronics, as

stated by Konwar & Tiwari (2024).

BIOPOLYMERS

Considering petroleum-based plastics are not biodegradable, they are not sustainable.

As an alternative, biopolymers and other biodegradable polymers can be employed. By adding

natural fiber reinforcement to biopolymer matrices, plastic characteristics are enhanced and

carbon footprint is decreased. To rival traditional polymer composites, researchers are creating

biopolymer composites. The extraction, processing, and characterization of bio-based materials

—in particular, natural fibers and biopolymers—in the automotive and other industries are

examined in this review, as stated by Aaliya, Sunooj, & Lackner. (2021).

The four most prevalent biopolymer nanofibrils, biopolymer nanofibrils, have been the

subject of research because of their biodegradability, biocompatibility, low cost, and renewable

characteristics. For diverse uses, these nanofibrils have been synthesized via a variety of

techniques, such as bottom-up and top-down approaches. The architecture of these nanofibrils,

their computational models, the preparation techniques, and possible uses are covered in this

review as stated by Ling, Chen, Fan et al. (2018).

The probable application of biopolymer composites in electronic devices and biomedical

applications has led to an increase in research on their dielectric properties. These composites'

microstructure and ultimate properties are influenced by the properties of the carbon-based

nanofillers and metal nanoparticles at the nanoscale. When used as energy storage dielectric

layers in high-performance capacitor applications, these composites exhibit promise. The

preparation, processing, and dielectric behavior of these composites are covered in this chapter,

aa stated by Deshmukh, Basheer Ahamed et al. (2017).

The demand to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and create a clean, pollution-free

environment has prompted research on biodegradable materials made of renewable and

biological resources. Biopolymers, derived from natural sources, have low weight, strong barrier

efficacy, and the capacity to biodegrade. They can only be processed to a limited extent, have

weak mechanical qualities, a short fatigue life, and little chemical resistance. In order to address

these shortcomings, biopolymers can be reinforced with fillers or nanofillers to create

biocomposites or bionanocomposites. These materials can then be used in a variety of

industries, including electronics, pharmaceutics, food packaging, medicine, and cosmetics, as

stated by Díez-Pascual, A. M. (2019).

Biofuels and biocomposites have been developed as a result of environmental concerns.

The mechanical characteristics of biocomposites, which are often composed of polymer matrix

components, have drawn criticism. By using a novel class of biopolymers originating from seeds

and plants, scientists have produced a biocomposite that is completely biodegradable. The

different kinds of biopolymers, their composites, mechanical characteristics, and morphological

investigations are covered in this chapter, as stated by Verma and Fortunati. (2019).

The applications of polymer-based hydrogels derived from nature in food and agriculture

are examined in this review, with an emphasis on the hydrogels' eco-friendliness, safety, and

biocompatibility. It talks about various crosslinking agents, hydrogel formation techniques, and

biopolymers, but it leaves out manufactured biodegradable polymers, as stated by Klein and

Poverenov. (2020).
SYNTHESIS

Dielectric capacitors offer high working voltage, a long lifespan, and great power density,

making them ideal for energy storage. Film capacitors, in particular, are easier to integrate into

circuits due to their smaller size and higher energy storage density. On another note, waste

products from agriculture have potential applications as microwave-absorbing materials, offering

a renewable and sustainable source for dielectric materials. Additionally, research on utilizing

natural polysaccharides as gate dielectrics for organic field effect transistors and the study of

biopolymer composites for electronic and biomedical applications has been increasing to

explore environmentally friendly and potentially biodegradable options.

One approach to improving the electrical properties of metal/insulator/metal capacitors

for dynamic random-access memory is to investigate the effects of top electrode materials and

topologies on capacitor performance. Research on polymer-based dielectric materials for high-

power density, low-energy-loss dielectric capacitors will help build more advanced energy

storage devices and find effective solutions to energy storage problems. Recently, there has

been a lot of interest in all-organic polymer dielectrics due to their excellent properties and

potential in the energy storage industry. All-organic dielectrics have proven to be a more

practical option for large-scale, low-cost manufacturing than polymer inorganic composites with

poor processability. The newest advancements in polymer modification technology along with

the progressive accomplishments of traditional all-organic polymer dielectrics are summarized.

Agricultural wastes are renewable resources that could be used to make materials that

can absorb microwaves. Bio-waste and agricultural wastes are expected to be inexpensive,

sustainable, and renewable resources for the creation of dielectric materials because of their

accessibility. These bio-waste resources can be transformed into dielectric materials, providing

a cost-effective substitute for conventional, non-renewable, traditional materials. Various

naturally occurring polysaccharides as possible gate dielectrics for organic field effect

transistors (OFETs) to create eco-friendly and eventually biodegradable electronics. Research

on the dielectric characteristics of biopolymer composites has increased due to the likelihood of

their use in electronic devices and biomedical applications

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