ADEKUNLE AJASIN UNIVERSITY, AKUNGBA-AKOKO

Department of Animal Science

ANS 304 Poultry production
Lecturer: Dr. A. A. Alade

DISEASES OF POULTRY
Chickens, like human beings are subjected to many diseases and parasites. There are even some poultry
diseases with the same names like cholera, pox, typhoid, hepatitis etc. Chickens are also known to suffer
from internal and external parasites. Some poultry diseases and parasites can be prevented while others
cannot be prevented. Some cannot be controlled and cause death when contracted; others can be isolated and
controlled. Some are present in the country and others are from foreign sources. Unless diseases and
parasites are accurately identified and prevented or controlled, they can cause huge losses of chickens and
consequently loss of money. In Nigeria, a conservative estimate shows that about 10 to 20% of the chickens
produced die each year and diseases are the most important cause of the losses. The key is to prevent rather
than to control. Poultry farmers need to be familiar with the causes and symptoms of the various common
poultry diseases in order to plan an effective control programme. Poultry diseases can be classified under the
following headings:

1. Viral diseases
2. Bacterial diseases
3. Fungal diseases
4. Parasitic and diseases
5. Nutritional diseases

1. Viral Diseases of Poultry

These are poultry diseases caused by virus. Some examples include Newcastle disease, fowl pox, leucosis
complex, and avian encephalomyelitis.

(i) Newcastle Disease/Ranikhet Disease

It is a highly infectious and fatal viral disease. It attacks poultry of all ages. It is widely feared by those
raising chickens worldwide. When it occurs, the mortality rate can be as high as 100% in young chickens but
lower in adult birds. The virus is transmitted through contact by chickens and other birds.
Symptoms – The most obvious symptom is a sudden high number of deaths. Other symptoms are
nervousness, incoordination and paralysis; respiratory distress (coughing, gasping for air, wheezing);
greenish diarrhea with foul odour; drooping head, inactivity, and drowsiness; distended crop; eventually,
death. In adult laying birds, symptoms may be loss of appetite, decreased water consumption and a rapid
drop in egg production.
Control – Vaccinate chicks of one day against it and re-vaccinate again at 6 to 8 weeks. Newcastle disease
is preventable by vaccination.
Treatment – There is no treatment for this disease once the outbreak occurs. Affected birds should be
isolated and destroyed immediately. Antibiotics may be administered for 3 to 5 days to prevent bacterial
infections.

(ii) Fowl Pox

This disease is very prevalent mostly among extensively managed flocks. It affects poultry of all ages
especially growers and adults. The virus is very hardy and can remain viable in scabs for up to ten years. It
is mechanically transmitted by mosquitoes and other blood sucking arthropods from infected birds to other
birds. Birds can also become infected by ingesting an infective scab. Fowl pox manifests in two forms: the
wet form which affects the mouth, oesophagus, trachea and pharynx, and the dry form which affects the skin
(mostly the hairless sites like combs and wattles, face and the feet). The wet form is more serious than the
dry form, causing high mortality.
Symptoms – The eyes, beak, comb and head will be covered with scabs and/or swellings. In the wet form,
nodules are present in the mouth, along the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Control – Vaccination is the most reliable method of preventing fowl pox and this is done by the hatcheries.
Treatment – There is no drug to use when there is an outbreak. Treating the dry form is easier than the wet
form. It involves scrapping the warts and cleaning the surface with disinfectant. When a few birds are
affected, isolate them and use tincture of iodine to dab the raw bleeding surface. Administration of antibiotic
to combat secondary bacterial infection and environmental stress is appropriate. Affected birds can also be
destroyed.

(iii) Gumboro Disease (Infectious Bursal Disease)

It is a highly contagious viral disease affecting young chicks (3 to 6 weeks) with attendant grave economic
losses.
Symptoms – Affected birds produce white watery droppings; have soiled vent feathers, ruffled feathers.
Other symptoms are loss of appetite, vent pecking, reluctance to move and death.
Control – Vaccines are now available as a preventive measure.
Treatment – There is no known effective treatment. However increased ventilation is recommended with
antibiotic medication.

(iv) Marek’s Disease

This is a viral disease affecting mostly birds between 6 to 26 weeks of age. The virus is spread from an
infected chicken to an un-infected one through the air, poultry dust, by contact, sometimes faeces.
Symptoms – these include lameness or paralysis of the legs, droopy wings, blindness, poor respiratory rate
and death of 10-30% of the flock.
Control – prevention of Marek’s disease is by vaccination by the hatcheries at day old. Also procure
genetically resistant chicks and main high sanitation standards.
Treatment – There is no treatment, thus affected chickens should be destroyed.

(v) Avian Encephalomyelitis (Epidemic Tremor)

This viral disease affects all ages of chickens with mortality as high as 50%. Mostly chicks from day old to
about 4 weeks of age are affected. This disease may symptomatically be confused with Newcastle disease. It
is transmitted by chicken eating infected feed and litter materials. It can also come through eggs laid and
hatched from infected stock.
Symptoms – Affected chicks have ataxia (lack of coordination of the leg muscles). The chickens cannot
walk, lose muscle control and are paralyzed. First signs are shivering of the muscles, head, neck and legs.
Death follows after a few days due to starvation and thirst.
Control – The chickens are vaccinated at the hatcheries before dispatching.
Treatment – No treatment is available. Affected chickens should be isolated and destroyed.

2. Bacterial Diseases of Poultry

These are poultry diseases caused by bacteria. Some examples are pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, fowl
cholera, chronic respiratory disease, etc.

(i) Pullorum Disease (Bacillary white Diarrhoea)

This disease is caused by a bacterium called Salmonella pullorum. It causes high mortality in young chicks
or poults and sporadic deaths in adults. The bacterium is present in the eggs and faeces of infected layers,
infected chicks in the hatchery.
Symptoms – Affected chicks are weak, huddle together, droopy, suffer from diarrhea and remain sitting or
standing for a long time in the same position. They produce chalk-white faeces which is the reason why it is
called bacillary white diarrhea. This death rate in chicks is high.
.
2
Control – Breeder flocks should undergo blood test to remove carriers and thereby ensure that hatching
eggs and chicks are disease free. High level of sanitation must be maintained at the hatcheries. Incubators
must be cleaned and fumigated after hatching. The best way to avoid the disease is to buy only chicks
certified to be free from salmonella.
Treatment – Sulphur drugs like furazoloidone have been used successfully in treatment to reduce mortality
only.

(ii) Fowl Typhoid

It is caused by a bacterium Salmonella gallinarum. The disease affects mostly adult chicken and in some
cases turkeys.
Symptoms – In the acute form, the comb and wattles of birds are congested and sudden death occurs. At the
chronic stage, there are symptoms like-anaemia, pale and shrunken combs and wattles, yellowish diarrhea,
lack appetite, listlessness and intense thirst.
Control – Sulphur drugs like furazolidone are available for use.
Treatment – Furazolidone is effective for treatment.

(iii) Fowl Cholera (Pasteurellosis)

This is a bacterial disease which is both infectious and contagious. It causes a high mortality in both
chickens and in ducks. Mortality is low if it is the localized form but its high of it is septicemia. The disease
is caused by bacterial Pastenrella multocida or Pasteurella septica.
.Symptoms – These are greenish-yellow diarrhea, enlarged hot swollen combs and wattles, nasal discharges
and difficulty in breathing, reduced appetite and weight loss.
Control – An annual vaccination of all birds with a live vaccine may prevent the disease.
Treatment – This is by application of intramuscular injections of terramycin or streptomycin. Infected birds
should be removed, the litter changed and equipment and poultry house properly disinfected.

(iv) Chronic Respiratory Disease (Avian Mycoplasma)

This is an infectious disease of poultry caused by Mycoplasma spp. It affects both chicken and turkey. The
disease is commonly referred to as CRD or air sac infection; It is normally a secondary infection following
either parasitic or microbial infections or possibly after a stress factor.
Symptoms – These are manifested as respiratory signs. The first sign observed is a mild cough. The
respiratory tracts and air sacs of the lungs are normally inflamed and may be filled with exudates. Mortality
is low unless secondary infection occurs. Mortality is high in broilers and egg production may fall in layers.
Control – All affected birds should be destroyed. Equipment and poultry houses should be disinfected.
Breeding flocks should be vaccinated to prevent the disease from being transmitted through eggs.
Replacements should be obtained from mycoplasma free stock (blood tested stock).
Treatment – Antibiotics of the tetracycline groups are available for treatment.

(v) Infectious Coryza

This disease is caused by a bacterium Haemophilus gallinarum. It affects chickens about 6 weeks of age and
older ones. It is a disease which affects the respiratory system. It is usually associated with cold, damp
weather. It spreads among chickens through sneezing and coughing of infected chickens.

Symptoms – The characteristic symptoms are difficult breathing, eye and nasal discharge, some swellings
on the eye and nostrils accompanied by sneezing.
Control – Feed chickens with medicated, balance rations.
Treatment – Antibiotics like aureomycin or terramycin can be added to the feed or drinking water.

3. Fungal Diseases of Poultry

These are poultry diseases caused by fungi e.g. aspergillosis, favus, mycotoxicosis.

3
(i) Aspergillosis (Brooder Pneumonia)
This is an infectious disease of birds caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. It affects the lungs in chicks, air sacs
in old chickens causing respiratory distress. Wet litter and mouldy feed are common sources of aspergillus
infection. Infection may start from the penetration of the eggs by the fungus, and incubator contamination.
Symptoms – Noticeable symptoms are difficult breathing, dyspnea, loss of appetite, loss of weight.
Control – The most effective control of the disease is by eliminating the sources of infection like wet litter,
mouldy feed, and poor hygiene at the hatcheries. House must be well cleaned and disinfected between
broods. The house should be well ventilated.
Treatment – There is no cure for affected birds.

(ii) Favus
This fungal disease is caused by a fungus Achorion gallinae or Trichophyton gallinae. It is an infection of
the superficial layer of the skin of birds especially comb and wattle.
Symptoms – While encrusted scabs develop on comb and wattles and it spreads to other parts of the body.
The feathers fall out and break off.
Control – Maintain high hygienic standards.
Treatment – Isolate affected birds and treat by washing the scabs and applying ointments to the affected
parts.

4. Parasitic Diseases of Poultry

Parasites, both internal and external are common in the tropics. Both have the capacity to weaken the bird
and in certain cases may be a secondary host for other diseases. External parasites may cause considerable
loss to the poultry. They irritate poultry and sometimes kill them. They cause discomfort due to irritation,
loss of plumage gradually leads to deterioration in the health of the flock and reduction in egg production
among layers or retarded growth among the young birds. The birds will be pre-occupied with scratching and
do not feed well leading to poor performance. External parasites can also serve as vectors transmitting
diseases from one bird to another. Besides the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae in pigeons, the most
important internal parasites in poultry are the helminthes. Some examples of parasitic diseases are
coccidiosis, ascariosis, syngamosis tapeworm infection, lice infestation.

(i) Coccidiosis
This disease of poultry is caused by a protozoan parasite which resides in the walls of the chicken’s intestine
and will cause death at any age. Coccidiosis is very common in Nigeria and is probably the biggest killer of
chickens. It is said to be caused by 8 to 9 distinct species of porotozoa of the genus Eimeria. It is spread to
chickens particularly up to the age of 12 weeks through contaminated food, water or litter. Each species of
Eimeria attacks a different portion of the intestines or caeca and it is particularly prevalent in chickens that
are kept intensively which have the maximum possibility of taking up the disease from their fellow
chickens.
Symptoms – Droppings are watery and greenish or brown in colour often containing blood. The affected
birds lose appetite, their feathers become ruffled and soiled. Combs are pale and they tend to huddle together
in corners. Their heads pull back into their body with the eyes usually kept closed.
Control – Chickens should be fed with medicated (coccidiostat mixed feed) feed at all times. Keep the litter
dry and loose and keep your chicks in thoroughly disinfected pens on their arrival. Coccidiostat like
Amprolium or Deccox may be used as preventive drugs for the first 8 weeks. Prevent the faecal
contamination of the feed and the drinking water. The safest way to avoid coccidiosis is to raise chickens on
wire floors where the faeces are passed out of reach.
Treatment – Add to the drinking water a coccidiostat. Isolate sick birds and when the attack dies down
disinfect litter and sterilize pens.

4
(ii) Ascariosis
This disease is caused by Ascaridia galli (round worms) which is common among local chicken and other
poultry species which are not well managed. The round worms occupy the small intestine, are white or
whitish yellow and 2.5-10cm long. The worms and eggs are frequently passed in droppings. The eggs
develop into the infective stage in 10 to 12 day under favourable temperature and moisture conditions, hatch
either in the proventriculus or in the duodenum. After hatching, the young larve line free in the lumen of the
posterior duodenum for the first
9 days, and then penetrate the mucosa and cause haemorrhages.
Symptoms – The most observed symptom is cattaarhal or haemorhogical enteritis among young birds.
Adults are usually symptom – less except loss of conditions. Worms can also be observed in droppings.
There could also be persistent diarrhoea.
Control – Young and adult flocks should not be reared in the same house.
Treatment – Administer piperazine to the birds and also treat the deep litter with same drug, once in too
months. Furthermore, maintain high hygienic standards.

(iii) Syngamosis
This disease is caused by a parasite Syngamus trachea (gape worm) which uses earthworm as a transport
host. The worm is found in the lower part of the windpipe and sometimes in smaller air passages of fowls
usually not less than 6 weeks of age.
Symptoms – Affected birds often shake their heads and gasping for air. Death also results from suffocation.
Control – This is by maintaining good hygienic condition of poultry unit and destruction of the transport
host.
Treatment – Infected birds can be treated with anthelminths like thiabendazole.

(iv) Tapeworm Infection

The most common and economically important tapeworms (cestodes) are Darainea proglothina, Raillietina
spp., Amoebotaenia spencides and Choamotaenia infundibulum. Part of the life cycle of these worms occurs
in intermediate hosts such as snails and earthworms, which when eaten by fowls expose them, to infection.
Symptoms – These are usually observed among young birds and include loss of appetite, droopiness, thirst
and emaciation.
Control – The intermediate hosts should be attacked by the use of molluscides and insecticides.
Treatment – Infected chicken should be treated with anthelminths. Also a good hygienic environment
should be maintained.

(v) Lice Infection

Lice are the most common external parasite. Lice differ from mites and ticks because they spend their entire
life cycle on the body of the bird. There are two types of lice attacking animals namely blood sucking and
biting lice. Only the biting lice attack chickens and can be found at different locations on the body of the
fowl. Lice are three types:
1. Body lice which are found around the vent and tail.
2. Head lice which are found around the head and neck regions
3. Shaft lice which are found around the shaft of the feathers.
Lice reproduce rapidly at about 30,000 per female and can live up to 3 months. They spread by direct
contact and die once they leave the chickens. They are about 3mm long, oral shaped and grey or yellow in
color.
Symptoms – General ill health, constant irritation, scabs, ruffled feathers, slow weight gain, decreased egg
production and death in some smaller chickens.
Control – The birds should be inspected regularly for presence of any external parasite. Prevent
overcrowding and poor hygiene. The nests should be kept clean and if the birds roost at night, perches
should be painted with nicotine sulphate, and creosote placed in the cracks and joints of the roost.
5
Treatment – This can be achieved by spraying the birds with malathion solution or by dusting individual
chicken with pyrethrinsor malathion powder. In the case of deep litter systems, the litter and all equipment
except the feeders and waterers should be sprayed and dusted.

(vi) Tick Infection

Ticks are blood sucking organisms and are in various forms mainly flat, egg-shaped, disc shaped. They also
carry diseases such as spirochetosis. They are normally found in hot dry areas and they spend part of their
life cycle in cracks in walls and roofs and in other equipment made of word.
Symptoms – These are loss of appetite and weight, and possibly anaemia.
Control – Keep equipment clean and avoid the use of wood in equipment such as feeders and nesting box.
Also avoid crevices in the poultry houses where ticks can hide.
Treatment – This can be done by spraying the birds with malathion solution or by dusting the chicken with
pyrethrins or malathion powder as in lice.

(vii) Mite Infection

Mites are very small and almost invisible. There are many known species. Some stay on the chickens while
others attack only at night and hide in the woodwork and litter during the day.
Symptoms – Symptoms are specific to species of mites. Scaly leg mites make the birds lame, and the legs
swell, appear scaly and encrusted. Red mites are nocturnal. They cause loss of weight and decrease in egg
production, and may cause anaemia. Dephiming mites attack the base of
feathers and birds pull out their feathers to relieve itching, hence their name.
Control – This is the same as for ticks.
Treatment – There is no treatment for the scaly leg mite except for culling infected birds. For other mites
the treat is the same as for lice and ticks.

5. Nutritional diseases

Causes of Dietary Inadequacies

Nutritional problems in poultry can be as a result of one or more of the following factors:

1. Absence of specific nutritional element(s) in feeds and feed stuffs

2. Insufficiency of nutritional element(s) in feeds and feedstuffs
3. Excess of nutritional element(s) in feeds and feedstuffs
4. Denaturation of nutrient(s) in feeds and feedstuffs in the cause of processing
5. Imbalance of nutrient(s) in formulated and compounded feed(s)
6. Bio-unavailability of nutritional element(s) in compounded feeds
7. Starvation in experimental situations or inadequate feed intake
8. Dysfunction of the digestive system and associated organs as a result of disease.

(i) Rickets
This is a nutritional disorder due to deficiency or in balance of calcium, vitamin D or phosphorus. Rickets is mostly
seen in young birds.
Symptoms – This characterized by abnormal skeletal development. Symptoms are soft bones and beak, retarded
growth, thin-shelled eggs, poor egg production and hatchability, and abnormal gait, reduced appetite, reduced activity
and sensitivity, and increased mortality.
Control – Rations containing adequate calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D should be given. Sun dried feds are
useful.
6
(ii) Encephalomalacia (Crazy Chick Disease)

This is a disease of young chicks due to deficiency of vitamin E in the feed. Vitamin E is an unstable compound which
is easily destroyed by unsaturated fatty acid. Also this disease may arise due to storing feed for an excessive long
period resulting in loss of vitamin E.
Symptoms – The symptoms of the disease include in coordinated gait, head retraction, paralysis, prostration,
somersaulting, sterility and reproductive failure, poor egg hatchability.
Control – compounded diets should not be kept (stored) for too long to prevent loss of vitamin E. Addition of
selenium and antioxidants to diets is effective.
Treatment – There is no cure for affected chicks but rectification of dietary deficiency will prevent new cases.

(iii) Curled-Toe Paralysis

This is a nutritional disease of chicks and poults caused by the deficiency of vitamin B 2 (riboflavin).
Symptoms – Curling of toes of affected chicks and poults, retarded growth diarrhea and high mortality. In the adult
birds, there is poor egg hatchability.
Control – Compounded diets should have vitamin B2 supplement.
Treatment – Water soluble multivitamins should be administered in the drinking water.

(iv) Chick Dermatitis

This is a disease caused by the deficiency of biotin and pantothenic acid. Calcium pantothenate is usually added to
rations for young stock and breeding stock. Biotin is usually sufficient in practical rations but occurrence of perosis in
turkeys under commercial conditions suggests need for extra supplementation.
Symptoms – Cracks appear on the soles of the feet and toes of chicks usually at 3 to 4 weeks. Crust is seen at corners
of mouth and on the eyelids causing the eyelids to stick together. Apart from these symptoms, deficiencies of biotin
acid pantothenic acid also result in retarded growth, reduced egg hatchability.

(v) Slipped Tendon (Perosis)

This nutritional disease can be due to the deficiency of choline, folic acid, calcium, phosphorus and manganese.
Choline requirements are usually met in feedstuffs but may be supplemented in starter ration. Folic acid likewise is
sufficient in common feedstuffs but may be supplemented for breeding chickens and turkeys.
Symptoms – There is a grass enlargement of the hock joint, birds are crippled and hock infection occurs.
Control – Addition of vitamin – mineral premixes to compounded diets is essential.
Treatment – Recovery is impossible especially after manifestation of symptoms.

Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko

7
 Department of Animal Science
Dr. A. A. Alade’s Lecture notes on ANS 304

Processing and Marketing of poultry

Major poultry products from the Nigerian poultry industry are:
a. Processed meat (broiler and turkey)
a. Graded eggs
a. Processed meat
 Common sources are broilers and spent layers.
 20 – 30% source of animal protein in human diet.
 Contain all essential amino acids required in human diets.
 High biological value
 Source of unsaturated fatty acids, riboflavin, thiamin, ascorbic acid and minerals such as sodium,
iron, sulphur, chlorine, phosphorus and calcium.
Processing methods
Prior to commencement of processing, the live birds should be fasted for up to 6 – 8 hours to remove enough
faecal material from the alimentary system and will enhance bleeding.
Stages involve in processing of poultry birds
 Supplying: Movement of birds from rearing pens to processing hall. The birds must not be unduly
stressed before commencement of slaughter procedures.
 Stunning/neck cutting: Killing stage. Electric stunning is followed by neck cutting. It should be
effective and rapid to ensure total blood drainage.
 Scalding: It aims to ensure easy and total removal of feathers. The carcasses are subjected to hot
water at different temperature over a given period depending on the age of the birds.
 Plucking: Removal of feathers by hands or electric pluckers.
 Evisceration: Opening up of the chicken after plucking and feather cleaning. Clean cut is followed by
complete removal of the visceral pack such as crop, intestine, and giblets (heart, gizzard and liver).
 Chilling of carcass: Exposure of carcass to chilling materials such as ice blocks to reduce the
temperature of the carcass to about 5 – 10oC. It reduces the activities of food poisoning bacteria such
as salmonella and staphylococcus. It helps in optimizing shelf life, quality, freshness and safety of
carcass.
 Weighing/quality grading: Based on: overall size of eviscerated carcass; colour; presence of ‘pin’
feathers; skin tears; body conformation and traits like breast angle (fleshing). Inclusion of
gizzard/giblets/necks/
 Portioning: The final form the chickens reach the consumers. Sharp devices are used to ensure clean
and purpose designed portions.
8
  Packaging and labelling: Referred to as pre-storage operation. The presentation of the packaging
material and labelling could influence acceptability of final products. Packaging material commonly
used in poultry industry is the transparent cellophane.
 Weighing: In very large proportions, this can be automated with sensors.
 Chilling storage: Final stage of processing line. Blast freezing at 18oC and 3 – 4 hours. Cold room at
temperature of about -9oC. It stops all microbial activities.
b. Egg handling
It involves manual/automatic egg collection. The process commences from the point of collection shortly
after lay. Egg collection should be at regular interval. After collection, the eggs should be cleaned where
necessary (using abrasive materials for dirty eggs) and kept in cool and ventilated stores.
Grading: Both external and internal qualities play key roles.
External qualities include egg size and shell qualities (i.e. colour, thickness and porosity). Most often used in
Nigeria than internal qualities.
i. Egg sizes: pullet, medium, large and extra-large.
ii. Shell qualities (a) Egg colour – It involves a visual scoring method and the use of photoelectric
determination of percentage reflectance of the egg shell.
(b) Shell thickness – the use of a well calibrated micrometer screw gauge.
Internal egg qualities are yolk and albumen thickness. They can be determined by candling.
Egg storage: To completely eliminate or reduce the spoilage from chemical, microbial and fungal actions.
Recommended store temperature for eggs in Nigeria and in Tropics is 1.5oC to 0oC.

Marketing of poultry products

It involves live and processed poultry chicken and graded eggs.
Uses of processed poultry meat
 Major source of animal protein.
 Can be eaten in different prepared forms such as boiled, fried, suya chicken and cured
chicken (with nitrite solution), etc.
 Supply about 144 calories/85 grams of lean meat.
Uses of eggs
 Domestic and industrial uses in Nigeria.
 As human food (balance meal).
 It can be boiled and taken whole after removing the shell, as scrambled egg or omelet after
breakable to remove the liquid.
 Very important components of products from bakeries such as cakes, pies, egg rolls, etc.
 Industrial production of infant and pet meals.
9
Systems of marketing
i. Private sales: involves direct sales of live birds and processed chicken and graded eggs by the small
scale producers to consumers/middlemen.
ii. Public sales: through open market, sales are done by auctioning to highest bidder.
iii. Contract sales: Contract is entered into with a second party or processing company for supply of
definite number of live birds, processed chicken and graded eggs on a regular basis. Other major
outlets are; hotels, outdoor caterers, oil servicing companies, schools, universities, supermarkets, etc.
It is common in big towns. It involves establishment of supply chain for easy delivery. Products do
carry medical certifications from reputable veterinarians.

References:
1. Babayemi, O. J., Abu, O. A. and Opakunbi, A. 2014. Integrated Animal Husbandry for Schools and
Colleges,Positive Press, Ibadan, Nigeria. Pp. 299
2. Course Guide, ANP 313: Principles of Animal Production, National Open University, Nigeria
3. Lecture notes, ANP 301, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ayetoro campus Ogun State, Nigeria

10