486 Basic Electrical Engineering

practice is to generate ac voltage at about I1 kV, then step up by means of atransformer to higher voltages
of 132 kV, 220kV and 400 kVfor the transmission lines. This conversion aids the transmission of huge
electricalpower at low cost. High-voltage lines carry low curents, and hence the cost of lines and the power
loss are tremendously reduced. At distribution points, other transformers are used to step the voltage down to
400 V or 220 V for use in industries, ofices and homes. Since there are no moving parts in a transformer, it
practically needs almost no maintenance and supervision. Atransformer also clectrically isolates he end user
from contact with the supply voltage.
Apart from the above, small-size transfomers are used in communication circuits, radio and TV circuits,
telephone circuits, instrumentation and control systems. Audio transfomers are used to couple stages of
amplifier and to match devices such as microphones and record player cartridges to the input impedance of
the amplifiers. The use of audio transformers permits to carry on two-way conversation over a single pair of
wires.

13.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Atransformer operates on the principle of mutual induetion between tvo coils. Figure 13.1a shows the
generalconstruction ofatransformer. The vertical portions of the steel-core are termed limbs, and the top
and bottom portions are called yokes. The two coils Pand S, having N, and N, turns, are wound on the limbs.
These two windings are electrically unconnected but are linked with one another through a magnetic flux in
the core. The coil Pis connccted to the supply and is therefore callcd primary; coil Sis connccted to the load
and is termed the secondary.
Basically, wo principles are involved in the operation ofa transformer. Firstly, an clectric current produces
a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and secondly, a changing magnetic field within a coil induces an emf
across the cnds of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Achanging current in the primary circuit creales a
changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces avoltage in the secondary circuit. Thus, energy
is transfered from one circuit to the other.
Core

.Corc

E N N E Load E N E

Primary Secondary
(a) Construction. (b) Circuit symbol.

Fig. 13.1 Atransformer.

Figure 13.1b shows the circuit symbol of a transformer. The thick line denotes the iron core. By having
different ratios NN, of the two windings, power at lower or at higher voltage can be obtaincd. When N,
N, the transformer is called astep up transfoner; and when N<N, the trans former is called astep down
transformer.

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 Transformers 487
EMF Equation
Consider asinusoidally varying voltage V; applicd to the primary ofthe
to this voltage, a sinusoidally varying magnctic flux is set up in the core,transfomer shown in Fig. 13.la. Due
which can be represented as
=, sin = m sin 2rfi
where m is the peak value of the flux and fis the frequency of (13.1)
sinusoidal variation of flux. As per the law of
clectromagnetic induction, the induced emfin a winding of Nturns is given as
do
e-N-N(On
dt di sin o)=-Nom cos o1 =ONO, sin (- /2)
(13.2)
Thus, the peak value of the induced emf is E, = ONO.
given as Therefore, the ms value of the induced emfE is
Em
2
ONO,2nfNOm - 4,44 /N n
or
E=444 fNtm (13.3)
This equation, known as emyfequation of transformer,can be used to
(primary or secondary) linking with flux 0. find the emf induced in any winding

Effect of Frequency
The emf of a transformer at a given fiux incrcascs with
frequcncy (sce Eq. 13.3). By operating at higher
frequencics, transformers can be made physically morc compact
more power withoul reaching saturation, and fewer tums are because a given core is able to transfer
necded
properties such as core losses and conductor skin cffect' also increasetowih
achieve same impedance. However,
cquipments cmploy 400-Hz power supplies which reduces core and windingfrequency.
weight.
Aircraft and military
EXAM PLE 13.1
The primary of a 50-Hz step-down transformer has 480
of the flux produced in the core, and (b) the voltage turns and is fed from 6400 Vsupply. Find (a) the pcak value
across the secondary winding if it has 20 turns.
Solution
(a) Using Eq. 13.3, we get
6400
4.44 fN,4.44 x 50x 480 0,06 Wb 60mWb
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary winding is given as
E=4.44 fN, n=444 x 50 x 20 x0.06 =266.4V

13.3 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

We shall describe the physical construction and equivalent circuit of an
Here, we define the idealtransformer as a circuit clement. We shall then actual transformer a litle later.
explore its properties in voltage,
The higher the frequency, the greater is the lendency for the current in he conductor to confine
outer laycr (i.e., its skin), thereby reducing its effective arca of cross-section. itsclf within its

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 488 Basic Electrical Engincering
Current, and impedance transformation. Primary andsecondary voltage and current variables are defined in
Fig. 13.16, which shows the circuit model of an ideal transformer.
the
The complete behaviour of aphysical transformer can be better understood by initially assuming introducing
transformcr to be idcal, and then allowing the imperfections of the actual transformer by suitably
some impedances.
Conditions for Ideal Transformer
i.., the magnetic circuit has zero
A) The permeability (4) of the magnetic circuit ((he core) is infinite,
reluctance so that no mmf is needed to set up the flux in the core.
n) The core of the transformer has no losses.
ii) The resistance of its windings is zero, hence no /R losses in the windings.
Aiv) Entire flux inthe core links both the windings,i.e., there is no leakage flux.
physical
Thus, an ideal transformer has no losses and stores noenergy. However, an ideal transformer has no
existence. But, the concept of ideal transformer is very helpful in understanding the working of an actual
transformer.
Consider an idcal transfomer whose secondary is connected to a load Zi and prinary is supplicd from
an ac source V, (Fig. 13.2a). The voltage across the load is V. The primary and sccondary windings of the
ideal transformer have zero impedance. Hence, the induced emf E, in the primary exactly counter balances
the applicd voltage V,that is, V=-E. Also, the induccd emf Ez, is the same as voltage V2, that is, E,= V2.
Here, E,is called cornter enf or backemfðinduced in the primary, and E, called mutualy induced emf in
the secondary.
--E
Lond
Ng E

E
ta) The circuit. (6) The phasor diagram.

Fig. 13.2 ldeal transforner.

Figure 13.2b shows the phasor diagram of the ideal transformer. We have taken flux Oas reference pha
sor, as it is common to both the primary and secondary. As per Eq. 13.2, the inducecd emfs E, and E, lag Aux
o by 90°. The voltage V, is equal and opposite to emf E,. Thus, the applicd voltage V, lends the fux by
90°. According to the first condition of ideality, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is zero and hence the
requircd magnetising current to produce flux is also zcro.
Transformation Ratio
The ratio of secondan voltage othe primary voltage is known as
denotcd by leter K. Let Nand N, be the number of turns in primarytransformation ratio or turnSaratio. It is
and secondary windings, and Ej and E;
be the rms values of the primary and secondary induced emfs. Using Eq. 13.3, we
can write
Ej=4.44fN,m (13.4)

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 Transformers 489
and
E 4.44 fN,Dm
Then, the transformatlon ratio or turns-ratlo can bc (13.5)
cxpresscd as
K= N
Thus,the side of the transformer with the larger number of turns (13.6)
has the
per urn constant fur a
ghven transformer. By selecting K properly, the larger voltage. Indecd, the voltage
done from any valuce to any other convenient valuc.
There can be two cases:transformation of voltage can be
L5 Whcn K> 1(ic., N,> N), V,> V;the
device is
V< V; the device is known
i) When K<1 (ie., N, < N), as step-up transformer.
In gencral, a transformer can have known as step-down transformer.
morc than 2 windings. The windings of a
called primary, secondary and tertiary. The thrce-winding transformer are
connected across the secondary and tertiary". primary is connected to an ac supply.
The induced emfina winding is still Different loads may be
of turns,
proportional to its number
Ej: Ez: Es:: N;: Ng: N,
Volt-Amperes
Consider again the two-winding transfomer of Fig. 13.2a. For an ideal
primary is just sufficicnt
I;N,. Hence,
to provide mmf l,N,to transformer, the current /, in the
overcome the demagnetising effect of the secondary mmf
I,N = h N2 or
Thus, we find that the current is (13.7)
transformed
(V,> V), then the current isstepped down in the reverse ratio of the volage. If the voltage is
the larger number of turns has (/,</)by the samc factor. That is, the side of
stepped up
the
with few tums of thick wire (smallsmaller current. For example, a step-up transformer wouldtransformer
the
have
with
wire (large voltage, small current). voltage, large current) and the secondary would have many turms of a primary
thin
Combining Eqs. 13.5 and 13.7, wehave
Hence, in an ideal transformer the input VA andEjh=E;h
output VAare identical.
Impedance Transformation
Equations 13.6 and 13.7 revcal a very useful property of
Figure 13.3 shows an ideal
transformer. transformers,
lt has N, and N, turns in its
called impedance transformation.
impedance is connected neross its secondary, and an
Z primary and sccondary windings. Aload
The equivalent impcdance Zeg as cquivalent
faced by a source V, is given as impedance Ze, is defined at its primary.

The third case, whenK 1(i.c., N

Such a trasformer is used only whenN) o-)-4-)-(M)-)*«
is not important. We hardly
you need electrical isolution
Sometimes, the tertiary winding has a centre-tap: the two halves
such u winding is then spocificd as
cver usc a transformcr with unity turms
between two electrical circuits.
having same number of turns, N. The
ratio.
Ey/0E. or Ej - 0- Ey voltage of

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 490 Basic Electrical Engineering

Load
impedance

Fig, 13.3 The transforner changes the impedance Z, lo equivalent impedance Zp

or
(13.8)
Thercforc, the impedance is transformed in inverse proportion to the square of the turms-ratio. The concept
of impedance transformation is used for inmpedance matching. As per maximum power transfer theorem, the
load impedance has to be properly matched with the source impedancc, as illustrated in Example 13.3 given
below.

LXAMPLE 13.2
Asinglc-phasc, 50-Hz transformer has 30 primary tums and 350 secondury turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 250 cm. If the primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-Hz supply, calculate (a) the peak value of flux
density in the core, (b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding, and (b) the primary current when the secondary
current is l100 A. (Neglect losses.)

Solution
(a) The pcak valuc of the flux in the core is given as
E 230
m -0.034534 Wb
4.44,/N,A44 x 50 x 30
Therefore, the pcak valuc of the flux density in the core is Bn
0.034534
A 250 x 104
=1.3814T
B.4
(b) The vollage induccd in the secondary winding is
E, Ej x =230 %350 - 2683.33 V= 2.683 kV
N, 30
(c) The primary current is
1166.67 A 1.167 kA

LXAMPLE 13.3

Asource with an output resistance of 50Sis required to deliver power to aload of 800 2. Find the turns-ratio of the
transformer to be used for maximizing the load power.

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 Transformers 491

Solution For delivering maximum power to the load, the cquivalent resistance must be equal to the source resistance.
This requies a resislance of 50 SQlooking into the primary of the transfomer. That is,
or 50 =800/K K- 800/50 16 4
Thus,

K- 2-4
EXA MPLE 13.4

Determine the load current I in the ac circuit shown in Fig. 13.4a.

20 Q 2:1 20 2 202

30 V
20
30 V

J102

(a)
(6)

Fig. 13.4
Solution Wc fist transforn the load impedance into the primary to
primary current is then calculated as simplify the circuit, as shown in Fig. 13.46. The
30 Z0°
20 +j20 + 2* (2-j10) - 0.872 Z35.53° A
The load current, which is the same as the secondary
current, is given by Eq. 13.7 as
I =2x I, -2 x 0.872Z35.53° == 1.74235.53° A
EXAM PLE 1 3.5

Asingle-phase transformer has a core with

cross-scctional arca of 150 cm. It operates at a
I.IWb/m from a 50-Hz supply. Ifthe secondary maximum flux density of
winding has
to a load of 4-2 impedance. Neglcct any voltage drop in the
66 tums, determine the output in kVA when
connected
transforner.
Solution , Bm A 1lx 0.015 =0.0165 Wb.Since the voltage drop in the
transforner is negligible, we have
V;- E4.44fN,n 4.44 x 50x66 x 0.0165- 241.76 V
The outputcurrent, 241.76
4
=60,44 A
Output volt-ampercs 241.76 x 60.44 14612 VA - 14.612 kVA

EXAMPLE 13.6
A
single-phase, 50-Hz transfornmer has a square core having a nct cross-sectional arca of9 cm, and
designed for the following voltages: thrcc windings

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 492 Basic Electrical Engineering

(0 Primary: 230 V; () Secondary: 110 V; and (ii) Tertiary: 6/0/6 V.

Find the nunber of tums in each winding if the fAux density is not to exceed 1T.
Solution Bm d=| x9x 10=9 x 10wb, The tertlary winding is divided into two halves; cach half having
a voltage E -6V. Thus, the number of tums cach half of the tertiary is
E 6
Ny 30 turns
4.44fOm 4.44 x 50 x9x 10-4
Total number of tums on the tertiary winding -2 x30 - 60 turns.
We have sccn thal across 30 turns of the tertiary winding, the induccd emf is 6 V. Thercfore, the number
of turns on
the primary and secondary can be calculated as follows:
NyE 30 x 230 1150turns
or N
N E 6

and NE NgE;30 xI10 =550 turns

N
or N= E_

13.4 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER AT NO LOAD

In actual practice, a transformer can never satisfy any of the conditions specificd above for the ideal
transformer. Nevertheless, the concept of ideal transformer is helpful to understand the working of an actual
transformer. We shall consider these conditions one by one, and see in what way a practical transformer
deviates from the ideal transformer. In this Section, we shall consider only the irst two ideality conditions.
The remaining two conditions shall be considered in Section 13.7.
Considera transformer with its primary connected to an alternating voltage source V, and no load
connected across its secondary (Fig. 13.5a). With no closed circuit, the current in the secondary winding
is zero. If the transformer were truly idcal, the primary current loo would be zero, as per Eq. 13.7. But, in
practice there does filow a litle no-load curren lo in the primary. This current o is also called the exciting
current of the transformer. Following
a
are the two reasons why the no-load current , flows in the primary.
(1) Effect of Magnetisation
Consider the first ideality condition. No magnetic material can have infinite
zero reluctance to the magnetic circuit. Hence, in a practical permcability so as to offer
transformer a finite mmf is needed to establish
magnetic flux in the core. As a resul1, an in-phase magnetising current Im in the
flux in the core. The curent mis purely reactive primary is needed to set up
and lags the voltage V, by 90°. This effect is modelled
by an inductive reactance X in parallel with the ideal
Fig. 13.5c. transformer, as shown in the equivalent circuit of
The flux Dinduces emfs Ej and E; in the primary and the
cmfs lag fux by 90, as shown in the phasor secondary windings. As per Eq. 13.2, both these
As the current /, in the secondary is zero (no diagram of Fig. 13.5b.
zero. Hence, V;=Ez. The induced emfE; counterload connected), the voltage drop in the secondary winding is
balancesthe applied voltage Vand establishes an electrical
equilibrium. If the third and fourth ideality conditions
lcakage of fux) are ignored, the magnitude of V, will be (i.e., the effect of the resistance of the winding and
the same as that of emf E,. Thus, V the
=-Ej.

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 Transfornmers 493

E E

Core loss wret

E
transfomer
(a) The cicuit.
(6) The phasor dingram. (c) The cquivalent cicuit.
Fig. 13.5 Transformer on no load.
(2) Effect of Core Losses
Let us now consider the second ideality
for the energy loss in the core of the condition. There exist two reasons (hysleres is and eddycuren)
tomect he core losses. These transformer. The source must supply enough power to the
losscs arc proportional to the square of the core flux. Since the corcprimary
proportional to the applied voltage V, the iron loss can be flux
by a resistance Ro in parallel with is
ideal transformer, as shown in the represented
Ro is in phase with the applied equivalent circuit of Fig. 13.5c. The coreHoss current l,flowing the
voltage V, as shown in the phasor diagram of
Thus, we find that the no-load current lo has Fig. through
voltage V by 90° and the loss component two components, m and l The 13.56.
angle. Thus, from the phasor diagram of Fig. /, is in phase with voltage V. mngnetising current m lags
The angle , is the no-load phase
13,5b, we have
In the cquivalent circuit
90taIl)) andInput power - Vily Vlo cos ¢o
shown in Fig. 13.5c, the no-load
The component , flowing
through resistance Ro accounts curent
for the
l, is divided into two
parallel
loss, and the component branches.
through reactance
the transformer.
Xo represents core
magnetising current. The RoXo parallel circuit is called flowing
exciting circuit of
EXAM PLE I3.7
A
single-phasc,
voltage. The core230-V/I10-V, S0-Hz
loss is 110 W. Findtransoner takes an input of350 volt amperes at no
load while working at rated
curent und the no-load power factor. the loss component of no-load current, the magnetising
component of no-load
Solution Given: Vlo 350 VA.
lo=A350
= 152 A
230
The core loss =Input power al no
load, P,- V lo cos 0
Therefore, the power factor at no load is given as
Pf cos Q P IJ0W
-0.314
350 VA

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 494 Basic Electrica! Engineering
The loss component of no-lond current is given as
ly=h cos 0 1.52 x0.314 = 0.478 A
The magnetising component of no-load current is given as
Im-52)²-(0.478 144A
Since the core losses occur in the iron core, these are also called iron losses. These losses have two
components: (i) hysteresis loss, and (ii) cddy-current loss.
 13.6 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Lct us cxaminc what happens when a load is
conncctcd to the sccondary of the transformer. Note that for
simplicity we are still considering a partially idealtansformer (i.e.,a transformer satisfying only the ideality
conditions (iii) and (iv) stated on page 368). Before connecting the load, there exists a flux in
duc to the no-load current lo flowing in the
primary. On connccting the load, a current 1, flows the core
secondary, as shown in Fig. 13.10. The through thc
depends upon the nature of the load. magnitude and phase of l, with respect to the secondary voltage V

Load
Z

Fig. 13.10 Transformer on load.

The current , sets up a flux in the core, which opposes the main flux o. This
the main flux, and the primary back cmf E, gets reduccd. As a result, the momentarily weakens
difference
more current is drawn from the supply. This again increases the back emfE,, so as toV- E, increases and
voltage V. In this process, the primary curent increases by I; This current is known asbalance
the applied
primary
current, or load component of primary cuerent. Under such acondition, the secondary ampere-tuns balancing
be counterbalanced by the primary ampere-turns. That is, N,! = N l. Hence, we have must

(13.12)
The total primary curent /, is the phasor sum of the no-load current I, and the primary balancing current I1.
That is,
I,=l,+1! (13.13)

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 500 Basic Electrical Engineering
due to the long air paths
The reluctance of the paths of the leakage fluxes . , and ,is almost entirely proportional to the current.
the value of the leakage flux is
and is thenefore practically constant. Consequently,almost the reluctance
independent of the load. Furthermore,
However, the value oftheuscful flux ,remains small even on full
value of this Alux is relatively
of the paths of the leakage flux is very high. Hence, the
load.
TRANSFORMER
13.8 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
an ideal transformer is to tronsfom clectric power from one voltagc level to another without
The function of volt-amperes in
magnetizing current. For such a transformer, the Supposed to
incurring any loss and without needing any volt-ampercs in the secondary. An ideal transformer is
the primary are exactly balanced by the
operate at 100 perccnt cffciency. examined the
stated the four conditions that must be satisficd by a trans former to be jdeal. We then transformer.
We practical
cxplored how to account for the deviations in a 13.15). This circuit
cffects of cach of thcse conditions andequivalent circuit of a practical transformer (Fig.
Based on this, we can now draw the secondary sides of the
KVL cquations for the primary and
is merely a representation of the following
transformer.
(13.14)
VË=1R +jl, XË-E=,(R +J)- E (13.15)
and E, =h Ry t+jl, X,+V,-, (R, +jX) +V,
phasor sum of the negative of induced emf E,
Equation 13.14 states that the applied voltage V, is the reactance, X, due to the fow of current /1. The
and the voltage drops in primary resistance, RË, and leakage
induced emfE, forces a current l, in the secondary circuit. Hence, Eq. 13.15 states that the induced emf E, is
secondary resistance, R, and leakage reactance,
phasor sum of the load voltage V, and the voltage drops in
X, duc to the flow of current l.
Idcal
transforner

Load

Fig. 13.15 Equioalent circuit ofa transformer.

Furthernore, it can be seen from Fig. 13.15 that the primary current , is composed of two components,
the no-load current l, and the load component of primary current Z. Moreover, the curent lo consists of
for the iron loss of the
two components and The current I, lows through resistance Ro and accounts magneticflux in the
transformer. The current called magnetizing current, is required lo establish working
core. Theac voltage source connected to the primary winding dos not have to supply any power in making
this current flow. Hence, in the cquivalent circuit, it is shown to flow through a pure reactance Xo

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 EXAMPLE I3.10

transformer has primary and sccondary resistances R345 N and

Asingle-phase, 50-kVA, 4400-V220-V,50-z leakage reactances are X- 52 and X, = 0.015 2 Calculate for
R)0.009 2, respectively. The values of the
this transfomer (o) the cquivalent resistance ns referred to the primary, (b) the cquivalcnt resistance as refcrredthe
to
the prinary,(d) the equivalent reactance as referred lo
Lhe sccondary, (c) the equivalent reactance aS referred tothe primary,W the cquivalent impedance as referred to the
rcferred to
secondary, (e) the cquivalent impedance asusing by using the
secondary, (g)thetotal copper loss first by the individual resistances of the two windings and then
cquivalent resistances as referred to cnch side.
kVA 50000
= |1.36 A
Solutlon Full-load primary current, = 4400
kVA 50000
Full-load secondary current, I 227.27 A
220
2201
Transformation ratio, Km4 4400 20 0.05

(a) Re=R +(RyK)=3.45 +[0.009/o.05)'= 7.0s 2n

(6) Re =K R+R= (0.05) x 3.45 +0.009 = 0.0176
(c) Xe-X t 4yK)- 5.2 +[0.015/0.o5)']- 1.2 Q
() N-KX +X,- (0.05) x 5.2 +0.015 0.028 2
(e) Z4=R +XË = (q.05)²+(112)² =13.23 2
(n ZeR+ X½ (o.o176) +(0.028, 0.0331 Q
(e) Total copper loss íR, +1; R=(11.36)'x3.45 +(277)x 0.009 909 w
By considering equivalent resistances,
Tolal copper loss / Rel (1136)x 7.05 -909.8W
Total copper loss =/ Reg - (227.27)'x 0.0176 - 909 W