DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental Science Is

REVIEWER Multidisciplinary – human development is

the vast topic that requires theories, research
The Life-Span Perspective
methods and knowledge.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING
Development Is Contextual – development
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
occurs in many context > family, schools
Development - the pattern of change that and peer group.
begins at conception and continues through
- three types of influences (Baltes, 2003):
the life span.
 Normative age-graded influences –
Life-span Perspective - the perspective that
these are influences that are similar
development is lifelong, multidimensional,
for individuals in a particular age
multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary,
group.
and contextual; involves growth,
 Normative history graded
maintenance, and regulation; and is
influences – influences that are
constructed through biological,
common to people of a particular
sociocultural, and individual factors working
generation because of historical
together.
circumstances.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN  Non-normative life events –
PERSPECTIVE unusual occurrences that have a
major impact on an individual’s life.
Development Is Lifelong – no single age is
more crucial, characterizes, or dominates Development Involves Growth,
human development Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss –
Development Is Multidimensional – 3 Development Is a Co-Construction of
dimensions: Biology, Culture, and the Individual –
 Physical – height, weight, nervous SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
system etc.
Health and Well-Being - Health
 Cognitive – intelligence, wisdom,
professionals today recognize the power of
perceptions.
life-styles and psychological states in health
 Social – emotions etc.
and well-being.
-a change in one domain may cascade and
Parenting and Education - analyze child
prompt changes in other domains.
care, the effects of divorce, parenting styles,
Development Is Multidirectional – human child maltreatment, intergenerational
change in many directions. We may show relationships, early childhood education,
gains in some ways of development, while relationships between childhood poverty and
showing losses in other areas. education, bilingual education, new
educational efforts to improve lifelong
Development Is Plastic – ability to change learning, and many other issues related to
and that many of our characteristics are parenting and education.
malleable.
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity - supportive
Health, parenting, and education—like family networks
development itself—are all shaped by their Extrafamilial Bonds to caring adults outside
sociocultural context. To analyze this Context the family
context, four concepts are especially useful: Connections to positive
organizations
 Culture – the behavior patterns, Attending effective schools
beliefs, and all other products of a
group that are passed on from
generation to generation. The Nature of Development
 Cross-cultural studies – comparison BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
of one culture with one or more other SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
cultures.
 Ethnicity – a characteristic based on Biological processes – changes in an
cultural heritage, nationality individual’s physical nature.
characteristics, race, religion, and Cognitive processes – changes in an
language. individual’s thought, intelligence, and
 Socioeconomic status (SES) – refers language.
to the grouping of people with
similar occupational, educational, Socioemotional processes – changes in an
and economic characteristics. individual’s relationships with other people,
 Gender – the characteristics of emotions, and personality.
people as males or females. Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and
Social Policy – a national government’s Socioemotional Processes
course of action designed to promote the  Developmental cognitive
welfare of its citizens. neuroscience- which explores links
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESILIENT between development, cognitive
CHILDREN AND THEIR CONTEXTS processes, and the brain
 developmental social neuroscience-
Source Characteristics which examines connections
Individual Good intellectual functioning between socio-emotional processes,
Appealing, sociable,
development, and the brain.
easygoing disposition
Self-confidence, high self-
esteem PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Talents
Faith The prenatal period – conceptions, major
Family Close relationship to caring of body is forming.
parent figure
Infancy - from birth to 18 or 24 months;
Authoritative parenting:
warmth, structure, many psychological activities—language,
high expectations symbolic thought, sensorimotor
Socioeconomic advantages coordination, and social learning.
Connections to extended
Early childhood - from the end of infancy  Third age: Approximately 60 to 79
to age 5 or 6; “preschool years.” – learn to years of age
become more self-sufficient and to care for  Fourth age: Approximately 80 years
themselves, develop school readiness skills. and older
Middle and late childhood - from about 6 Connections Across Periods of
to 11 years of age; the fundamental skills of Development
reading, writing, and arithmetic are
mastered. Achievement and self-control  A key aspect in the study of life-span
increase. development is how development in
one period is connected to
Adolescence - approximately 10 to 12 years development in another period.
of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age;
dramatic physical change/puberty. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE

Early adulthood - begins in the early 20s Conceptions of Age

and lasts through the 30s; time of  Chronological age – year since birth
establishing personal and economic is not the only way we can
independence, career development, and conceptualize age.
starting a family.  Biological age – how quickly the
Middle adulthood - from approximately 40 body is aging
years of age to about 60; expanding personal  Psychological age – psychologically
and social involvement and responsibility adaptive capacity compared to others
and reaching and maintaining satisfaction in of our chronological age.
a career.  Social age – based on social norms
of our culture and the expectations of
Late adulthood - begins in the 60s or 70s
our culture has for people of our age
and lasts until death. It is a time of life
group.
review, retirement, and adjustment to new
social roles involving decreasing strength DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
and health.
Nature-nurture issue involves the extent to
SUMMARY: Pre-natal period – infancy – which development is influenced by nature
early childhood – middle and late childhood and by nurture.
– adolescence – early adulthood – middle
- Refers to the debate about whether
adulthood – late adulthood.
development is primarily influenced by
nature or nurture. Nature refers to an
organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to
Four Ages
its environmental experiences. The “nature
 First age: Childhood and proponents” claim biological inheritance is
adolescence the most important influence on
 Second age: Prime adulthood, 20s development; the “nurture proponents”
through 50s claim that environmental experiences are the
most important.
  Nature – heredity plays the most FIVE THEORITICAL ORIENTATIONS
important role in bringing about the TO DEVELOPMENT
features.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
 Nurture – one’s environment is most
significant in shaping the way we Psychoanalytic theories [Sigmund Freud
are. (1856–1939)].
Stability – change issue Involves the degree – describe development as primarily
to which we become older renditions of our unconscious and heavily colored by
early experience (stability) or whether we emotion. Behavior is merely a surface
develop into someone different from who characteristic, and the symbolic workings of
we were at an earlier point in development the mind have to be analyzed to understand
(change). behavior. Early experiences with parents are
emphasized.
Continuity – discontinuity issue – focuses
on the extent to which development involves The ideas of an important revisionist of
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or Freud’s ideas:
distinct stages (discontinuity).
 Stage theories/discontinuous Oral Anal Phalli Latency Genital
development – development change stage stage c stage stage stage
often occurs in distinct stage that are
different from each other Infant’ Child’ Child’s Child A time of
 Continuous development – s s pleasur represses sexual
development is more slow and pleasu pleasu e sexual reawakenin
gradual re re focuse interest g; source
centers focuse s on and of sexual
Theories of Development on the s on the develops pleasure
mouth. the genital social becomes
Scientific method – an approach that can be anus. s. and someone
used to obtain accurate information. It intellectu outside the
includes these steps: al skills. family.
(1) conceptualize the problem,
(2) collect data,
6 Years Puberty
(3) draw conclusions, and Birth to onwards
(4) revise research conclusions and to 1 ½ 1 ½ to 3 to 6 Puberty
theory. Years 3 Years
Years
Theory – an interrelated, coherent set of
ideas that helps to explain and make
Erikson’s theory [Erik Erikson (1902–
predictions. 1994)]
Hypotheses – specific assumptions and – includes eight stages of human
predictions that can be tested to determine development. Each stage consists of a
their accuracy. unique developmental task that confronts
individuals with a crisis that must be
resolved.
ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFESPAN
STAGES:
Erikson’s Stages Developmental
Period
Integrity versus Late adulthood
despair (60s onward)
Generativity versus Middle adulthood
stagnation (40s, 50s)
Intimacy versus Early adulthood
isolation (20s, 30s)
Identity versus Adolescence
Identity confusion (10 to 20 years)
Industry versus Middle and late Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive
inferiority childhood Theory [Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)]
(elementary school
years, 6 years to - A sociocultural cognitive theory that
puberty) emphasizes how culture and social
Initiative versus Early childhood interaction guide cognitive development.
guilt (preschool years,
Information-processing theory –
3 to 5 years)
emphasizes that individuals manipulate
Autonomy versus Infancy
shame and doubt (1 to 3 years) information, monitor it, and strategize about
Trust versus Infancy it. Central to this theory are the processes of
mistrust (first year) memory and thinking.
COGNITIVE THEORIES  Robert Siegler (2006, 2007), a
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory leading expert on children’s
[Piaget (1896–1980)] information processing, states that
-States that children actively construct their thinking is information processing.
understanding of the world and go through
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
four stages of cognitive development.
COGNITIVE THEORIES
PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning [B. F.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.
Skinner (1904–1990)]
 For Skinner the key aspect of
development is behavior, not
thoughts and feelings. He
emphasized that development
consists of the pattern of behavioral
changes that are brought about by
rewards and punishments.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

- American psychologist Albert Bandura
(1925–) is the leading architect of social
cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2004,
2007, 2008, 2009, 2010a, b) emphasizes that from earlier in the chapter that
cognitive processes have important links culture refers to the behavior
with the environment and behavior. patterns, beliefs, and all other
Social cognitive theory – the view of products of a group of people that are
psychologists who emphasize behavior, passed on from generation to
environment, and cognition as the key generation.
factors in development. 5. Chronosystem - consists of the
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY patterning of environmental events
and transitions over the life course,
Ethology – stresses that behavior is strongly as well as sociohistorical
influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, circumstances. For example, divorce
and is characterized by critical or sensitive is one transition.
periods.
AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL
 Contributions of ethological theory ORIENTATION
include a focus on the biological and
evolutionary basis of development, - An orientation that does not follow any one
and the use of careful observations in theoretical approach, but rather selects from
naturalistic settings. each theory whatever is considered the best
in it.
ECOLOGICAL THEORY
A COMPARISON OF THEORIES AND
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory - ISSUES IN LIFESPAN
Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems DEVELOPMENT
theory that focuses on five environmental
systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
1. Microsystem - is the setting in
which the individual lives. These
contexts
include the person’s family, peers,
school, and neighborhood.
and teachers, for example.
2. Mesosystem - involves relations
between microsystems or
connections between contexts.
Examples are relation to experiences.
3. Exosystem - consists of links
between a social setting in which the
individual does not have an active
role and the individual’s immediate
context.
4. Macrosystem - involves the culture
in which individuals live. Remember
 between two or more events or
characteristics.
Observed Correlation: As permissive
parenting increases, children’s self-control
decreases.

Research in Life-Span Development

Correlation coefficient – a number based
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA on statistical analysis that is used to describe
Observation the degree of association between two
 Laboratory – a controlled setting in variables.
which many of the complex factors
Experimental Research – to study
of the “real world” are removed.
causality, researchers turn to experimental
 Naturalistic observation -
research.
observing behavior in real-world
settings. Experiment - is a carefully regulated
procedure in which one or more factors
Survey and Interview – the best and
believed to influence the behavior being
quickest way to get information about
studied are manipulated while all other
people is to ask them for it. One technique is
factors are held constant.
to interview them directly.
-Two types of change-able factors, or
Standardized Test – A test with uniform
variables:
procedures for administration and scoring.
 Independent variable - is
Case study – is an in-depth look at a single
a manipulated, influential,
individual.
experimental factor. This variable
Physiological Measures – researchers are can be manipulated independently of
increasingly using physiological measures other factors to determine its effect.
when they study development at different  Dependent variable - is a factor that
points in the life span. can change in an experiment, in
response to changes in the
RESEARCH DESIGNS
independent variable; they measure
Descriptive Research - has the purpose of the dependent variable for any
observing and recording behavior. resulting effect.

Correlational Research - the goal is to Experimental and Control Groups

describe the strength of the relationship
  Experimental group - is a group informed of its purpose and the
whose experience is manipulated. methods that were used.
 Control group - is a comparison 4. Deception. In some circumstances,
group that is as much like the telling the participants beforehand
experimental group as possible and what the research study is about
that is treated in every way like the substantially alters the participants’
experimental group except for the behavior and invalidates the
manipulated factor (independent researcher’s data.
variable).
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
MINIMIZING BIAS
Cross-sectional approach - a research
Gender Bias - our society has had a strong
strategy in which individuals of different
gender bias a preconceived notion about the
ages are compared at one time.
abilities of women and men that prevented
Longitudinal approach – a research individuals from pursuing their own interests
strategy in which the same individuals are and achieving their potential.
studied over a period of time, usually several
Cultural and Ethnic Bias - the realization
years or more.
that research on life-span development needs
Cohort effects - effects due to a person’s to include more people from diverse ethnic
time of birth, era, or generation but not to groups has also been building.
actual age.
 Ethnic gloss - using an ethnic label
 cohort is a group of people who are such as African American or Latino
born at a similar point in history and in a superficial way that portrays an
share similar experiences as a result, ethnic group as being more
such as living through the Vietnam homogeneous than it really is.
War or growing up in the same city
around the same time.
CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
BEGINNINGS
1. Informed consent. All participants
The Evolutionary Perspective
must know what their research
participation will involve and what NATURAL SELECTION AND ADAPTIVE
risks might develop. BEHAVIOR
2. Confidentiality. Researchers are
responsible for keeping all of the Natural selection – is the evolutionary
data they gather on individuals process by which those individuals of a
completely confidential and, when species that are best adapted are the ones
possible, completely anonymous. that survive and reproduce.
3. Debriefing. After the study has been Adaptive behavior – is behavior that
completed, participants should be promotes an organism’s survival in the
natural habitat (Johnson & Losos, 2010). For
example, attachment between a caregiver DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same
and a baby ensures the infant’s closeness to 23 pairs of chromosomes.
a caregiver for feeding and protection from
Meiosis – a specialized form of cell division
danger, thus increasing the infant’s chances
that occurs to form eggs and sperm (or
of survival.
gametes).
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
Fertilization – a stage in reproduction
Evolutionary psychology – emphasizes the whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a
importance of adaptation, reproduction, and single cell, called a zygote.
“survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior.
Zygote – a single cell formed through
“Fit” in this sense refers to the ability to bear
fertilization.
offspring that survive long enough to bear
offspring of their own. Identical twins (also called monozygotic
twins) -develop from a single zygote that
Connecting Evolution and Life-Span
splits into two genetically identical replicas,
Development
each of which becomes a person.
As an example, consider Alzheimer disease,
Fraternal twins (called dizygotic twins) -
an irreversible brain disorder characterized
develop from separate eggs and separate
by gradual deterioration. This disease
sperm, making them genetically no more
typically does not appear until age 70 or
similar than ordinary siblings.
later. If it were a disease that struck 20-year-
olds, perhaps natural selection would have Mutated gene – produce when a mistake by
eliminated it eons ago. cellular machinery, or damage from an
environmental agent such as radiation,
Genetic Foundations of Development.
which is a permanently altered segment of
THE COLLABORATIVE GENE DNA (Lewis, 2010).
Chromosomes – threadlike structures that Susceptibility genes - those that make the
come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair individual more vulnerable to specific
coming from each parent. Chromosomes diseases or acceleration of aging.
contain the genetic substance DNA.
Longevity genes - those that make the
DNA – a complex molecule that contains individual less vulnerable to certain diseases
genetic information. and be more likely to live to an older age.
Genes – units of hereditary information Genotype – a person’s genetic heritage; the
composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to actual genetic material.
reproduce themselves and manufacture the
Phenotype - the way an individual’s
proteins that maintain life.
genotype is expressed in observed and
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES measurable characteristics.
Mitosis – cellular reproduction in which the GENETIC PRINCIPLES
cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with two new
Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle - one
cells being formed, each containing the same
gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is
dominant, overriding the potential influence Fragile X syndrome – a genetic disorder
of the other gene, called the recessive gene. involving an abnormality in the X
This is the dominant-recessive genes chromosome, which becomes constricted
principle. and often breaks.
Sex-Linked Genes - When a mutated gene Turner syndrome – a chromosome disorder
is carried on the X chromosome, the result is in females in which either an X chromosome
called X-linked inheritance. The is missing, making the person XO instead of
implications for males may be very different XX, or the second X chromosome is
from those for females. partially deleted.
Genetic imprinting – occurs when the XYY syndrome – a chromosomal disorder
expression of a gene has different effects in which males have an extra Y
depending on whether the mother or the chromosome.
father passed on the gene.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) – a genetic
Polygenic Inheritance - Genetic disorder in which an individual cannot
transmission is usually more complex than properly metabolize an amino acid. PKU is
the simple examples we have examined thus now easily detected but, if left untreated,
far gene-gene interaction is increasingly results in mental retardation and
used to describe studies that focus on the hyperactivity.
interdependence of two or genes
Sickle-cell anemia – a genetic disorder that
affects the red blood cells and occurs most
often in people of African descent.
Reproductive Challenges and Choices
PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
- ultrasound test is often conducted
seven weeks into a pregnancy and at
various times later in pregnancy.
Ultrasound sonography – is a prenatal
medical procedure in which high-frequency
Down syndrome – a chromosomally sound waves are directed into the pregnant
transmitted form of mental retardation, woman’s abdomen.
caused by the presence of an extra copy of MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) - uses
chromosome. a powerful magnet and radio images to
Klinefelter syndrome – a chromosomal generate detailed images of the body’s
disorder in which males have an extra X organs and structures.
chromosome, making them XXY instead of Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) - is a
XY. prenatal medical procedure in which a small
sample of the placenta (the vascular organ
that links the fetus to the mother’s uterus) is Heredity and Environment Interaction:
removed. The Nature-Nurture Debate
Amniocentesis - is a prenatal medical BEHAVIOR GENETICS
procedure in which a sample of amniotic
Behavior genetics - the field that seeks to
fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for
discover the influence of heredity and
chromosomal or metabolic disorders.
environment on individuals differences in
Maternal blood screening - identifies human traits and development.
pregnancies that have an elevated risk for
Twin study – a study in which the
birth defects such as spina bifida (a defect in
behavioral similarity of identical twins is
the spinal cord) and Down syndrome.
compared with the behavioral similarity of
Triple screen - it measures three substances fraternal twins.
in the mother’s blood; current blood test.
Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD) -
is increasingly being explored as an
alternative to such procedures as chorionic
villus sampling and amniocentesis.
INFERTILITY AND REPRODUCTIVE
Adoption study – a study in which
TECHNOLOGY
investigators seek to discover whether, in
In vitro fertilization (IVF) - in which eggs behavior and psychological characteristics,
and sperm are combined in a laboratory adopted children are more like their adoptive
dish. parents, who provided a home environment,
or more like their biological parents, who
Meta-analysis - (a statistical technique that
contributed their heredity. Another form of
combines the results of multiple studies to
the adoption study is to compare adoptive
determine the strength of the effect) revealed
and biological siblings.
that in vitro fertilization twins have a slight
increased risk of low birth weight Passive genotype-environment
(McDonald & others, 2010) and another correlations - correlations that exist when
meta-analysis found that in vitro fertilization the natural parents, who are genetically
singletons have a significant risk of low related to the child, provide a rearing
birth weight. environment for the child.
ADOPTION Evocative genotype-environment
correlations -correlations that exist when
Adoption - is the social and legal process by
the child’s genotype elicits certain types of
which a parent-child relationship is
physical and social environments.
established between persons unrelated at
birth.
- The Increased Diversity of Adopted
Children and Adoptive Parents
- Outcomes for Adopted Children
Active (niche-picking) genotype- division, and the attachment of the zygote to
environment correlations - correlations the uterine wall.
that exist when children seek out
environments they find compatible and Blastocyst - the inner layer of cells
stimulating. that develops during the germinal
period. These cells later develop into
SHARED AND NONSHARED the embryo.
ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCES
Trophoblast - the outer layer of
Shared environmental experiences - cells that develops in the germinal
siblings’ common environmental period. These cells provide nutrition
experiences, such as their parents’ and support for the embryo.
personalities and intellectual orientation, the
family’s socioeconomic status, and the Embryonic period - the period of prenatal
neighborhood in which they live. development that occurs two to eight weeks
after
Nonshared environmental experiences - conception. During the embryonic period,
the child’s own unique experiences, both the rate of cell diff erentiation intensifi es,
within the family and outside the family, that support systems for the cells form, and
are not shared by another sibling. Thus, organs appear.
experiences occurring within the family can
be part of the “nonshared environment.” Amnion - The life-support system
that is a bag or envelope that
THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE contains a clear fluid in which the
X ENVIRONMENT (G X E) developing embryo floats.
INTERACTION
Umbilical cord - A life-support
Epigenetic view - emphasizes that system containing two arteries and
development is the result of an ongoing, one vein that connects the baby to
bidirectional interchange between heredity the placenta.
and environment.
Placenta - A life-support system that
Gene 3 environment (G x E) interaction –
consists of a disk-shaped group of
the interaction of a specific measured tissues in which small blood vessels
variation in the DNA and a specific from the mother and off spring
measured aspect of the environment. intertwine.

Organogenesis - Organ formation

CHAPTER 3: THE COURSE OF that takes place during the fi rst two
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (divided months of prenatal development
into 3 periods)
Fetal period - lasting about seven months,
Germinal period - the period of prenatal the prenatal period between two months
development that takes place in the fi rst two after conception and birth in typical
weeks after conception. It includes the pregnancies.
creation of the zygote, continued cell
 • Time of exposure. Teratogens do
more damage when they occur at
some
points in development than at others
(Weiner & Buhimschi, 2009).

Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs

Psychoactive drugs - are drugs that act on

the nervous system to alter states of
consciousness, modify perceptions, and
change moods.

Caffeine - People often consume caffeine

by drinking coffee, tea, or colas, or by eating
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO
chocolate. A recent study revealed that
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
pregnant women who consumed 200 or
more milligrams of caffeine a day had an
Neurons - Nerve cells, which handle
increased risk of miscarriage.
information processing at the cellular level
in the brain.
Alcohol - Heavy drinking by pregnant
women can be devastating to offspring.
Teratogen - From the Greek word tera,
•Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
meaning “monster.” Any agent that causes a
(FASD) are a cluster of
birth defect.
abnormalities and problems that
appear in the offspring of mothers
-The field of study that investigates
who drink alcohol heavily during
the causes of birth defects is called
pregnancy.
teratology influence both the severity
of the damage to an embryo or fetus
Nicotine - Cigarette smoking by pregnant
and the type of defect:
women can also adversely infl uence
prenatal development, birth, and postnatal
• Dose. The dose effect is rather
development (Blood-Siegfried &
obvious—the greater the dose of an
Rende, 2010).
agent,
such as a drug, the greater the effect.
Cocaine - The most consistent finding is
that cocaine exposure during prenatal
• Genetic susceptibility. The type or
development is associated with reduced birth
severity of abnormalities caused by
weight, length, and head circumference
a
(Smith & others, 2001).
teratogen is linked to the genotype of
the pregnant woman and the
Methamphetamine - like cocaine, is a
genotype of the embryo or fetus
stimulant, speeding up an individual’s
(Lidral & Murray, 2005).
nervous system. Babies born to mothers who
use methamphetamine, or “meth,” during
pregnancy are at risk for a number of
problems, including high infant mortality, AIDS is a sexually transmitted
low birth weight, and developmental and infection that is caused by the human
behavioral problems (Forester & Merz, immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
2007). which destroys the body’s immune
system. A mother can infect her
Marijuana - An increasing number of offspring with HIV/AIDS in three
studies find that marijuana use by pregnant ways:
women also has negative outcomes for
offspring. Other Parental Factors - Here we will
explore other characteristics of the mother
Heroin - it is well documented that and father that can affect prenatal and child
infants whose mothers are addicted development, including nutrition, age, and
to heroin show several behavioral emotional states and stress.
difficulties at birth (Steinhausen,
Blattmann, & Pfund, 2007). Maternal Diet and Nutrition - A
developing embryo or fetus depends
Incompatible Blood Types - completely on its mother for
Incompatibility between the mother’s and nutrition, which comes from the
father’s blood types poses another risk to mother’s blood (Shapira, 2008).
prenatal development.
Maternal Age - When possible
Environmental Hazards - Many aspects of harmful effects on the fetus and
our modern industrial world can endanger infant are considered, two maternal
the embryo or fetus. Some specific hazards ages are of special interest: (1)
to the embryo or fetus include radiation, adolescence, and (2) 35 years and
toxic wastes, and other chemical pollutants older (Malizia, Hacker, & Penzias,
(O’Connor & Roy, 2008). 2009).
•Down syndrome has distinctive
Maternal diseases - and infections can facial characteristics, short limbs,
produce defects in offspring by crossing the and retardation of motor and mental
placental barrier, or they can cause damage abilities.
during birth. Rubella (German measles) is
one disease that can cause prenatal defects. Emotional States and Stress - When a
Women who plan to have children should pregnant woman experiences intense fears,
have a blood test before they become anxieties, and other emotions or negative
pregnant to determine if they are immune to mood states, physiological changes occur
the disease (Coonrod & others, 2008). that may affect her fetus (Entringer &
others, 2009; Leung & others, 2010).
Syphilis (a sexually transmitted
infection) is more damaging later in Paternal Factors - Men’s exposure to lead,
prenatal development—four months radiation, certain pesticides, and
or more after conception. Damage petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in
includes eye lesions, which can sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases,
cause blindness, and skin lesions. such as childhood cancer (Cordier, 2008).
The father’s smoking during the mother’s
pregnancy also can cause problems for the body or to block consciousness.
offspring. (Lieberman & others, 2005).

THE BIRTH PROCESS Oxytocin - is a synthetic hormone

that is used to stimulate
Stages of Birth contractions; pitocin is the most
•The first stage is the longest of the three widely used oxytocin. The benefi ts
stages. Uterine contractions are 15 to 20 and risks of oxy-
minutes apart at the beginning and last up to tocin as a part of childbirth
a minute. These contractions cause the continues to be debated
woman’s cervix to stretch and open (Vasdev, 2008).
•The second birth stage begins when the
baby’s head starts to move through the Natural and Prepared Childbirth
cervix and the birth canal.
•Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time Natural childbirth - is the method
the placenta, umbilical cord, and other that aims to reduce the mother’s pain
membranes are detached and expelled. by
decreasing her fear through
education about childbirth and by
teaching her and her partner to use
breathing methods and relaxation
Childbirth Setting and Attendants techniques during delivery.
 Midwifery - is practiced in most
countries throughout the world Prepared childbirth ,or the Lamaze
(Wickham, 2009). method - French obstetrician
 Doula - is a Greek word that means Ferdinand Lamaze developed a
“a woman who helps.” A doula is a method similar to natural childbirth.
caregiver who provides continuous It includes a special breathing
physical, emotional, and educational technique to control pushing in the
support for the mother before, final stages of labor, as well as more
during, and after childbirth detailed education about anatomy
and physiology.
Methods of Childbirth
Medication - three basic kinds of Cesarean delivery - The baby is
drugs that are used for labor are removed from the mother’s uterus
analgesia, anes- through an incision made in her
thesia, and oxytocin/pitocin. abdomen.
•breech position - The
Analgesia - is used to relieve pain. baby’s position in the uterus
Analgesics include tranquilizers, that causes the buttocks to be
barbiturates, and narcotics (such as the first part to emerge from
Demerol). the vagina.

Anesthesia - is used in late fi rst- ASSESSING THE NEWBORN

stage labor and during delivery to
block sensation in an area of the
Apgar Scale - A widely used method to
assess the health of newborns at one and five Kangaroo care - Treatment for preterm
minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale infants that involves skin-to-skin contact.
evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory
eff ort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex
irritability.

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral

Assessment Scale (NBAS) - A measure
that is used in the first month of life to
assess the newborn’s neurological
development, reflexes, and reactions to
people and objects.

Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) - An “off
spring” of the NBAS, the NNNS provides an
assessment of the newborn’s
behavior,neurological and stress responses,
and regulatory capacities
PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH
WEIGHT INFANTS

Low birth weight infants - An

infant that weighs less than 5½
pounds at birth.

Preterm infants- Those born before

the completion of 37 weeks of
gestation (the time between
fertilization and birth).

Small for date infants - Also called

small for gestational age infants,
these infants’ birth weights are below
normal when the length of pregnancy
is considered. Small for date infants
may be preterm or full term.

Extremely preterm infants - are

those born less than 28 weeks
preterm,and very preterm infants are
those born less than 33 weeks of
gestational age