Topic 4_Quality Control Tools

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QUALITY NEED TO BE MANAGED,
CONTROLLED AND IMPROVED

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Quality Tools

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The following quality tools are being used as
part of quality management effort in various
companies and organization worldwide

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Quality Control Tools (7 QC Tools)
1) Pareto chart
2) Histogram
3) Flow Chart
4) Check sheet
5) Cause and effect diagram
6) Scatter diagram
7) Control chart

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 1)Pareto Principle
• A Pareto chart is a specific type of histogram that ranks causes or issues by
their overall influence.
• A Pareto chart assists in prioritizing corrective actions as the issues with
the greatest impact are displayed in order. In addition, the Pareto chart
also represents the cumulative percentage of the causes.
• Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) Italian economist
– 20% of the population has 80% of the wealth
• A Pareto chart is named after Pareto’s Law that states that a relatively
small number of causes will typically produce a large majority of the
problems or defects. This is commonly known as the 80/20 rule, where
80% of the problems are due to 20% of the causes.
• Juran used the term “vital few, trivial many”. He noted that 20% of the
quality problems caused 80% of the dollar loss.

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• A Pareto distribution is one in which the
characteristics observed are ordered from
largest frequency to smallest. A Pareto
diagram is a histogram of the data from the
largest frequency to the smallest.

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 Pareto chart (examples of
complaint received for garment)
30 28
% Complaints

25

20
16
15
12 12
10
6
5 4 3
0
Loose Stitching Button Material
Threads flaws problems flaws

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 Advantage of Pareto Chart
• Hepls a team focus on causes/factors that
have the greates impact
• Displays the relative importance of problems
in a simple visual format

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 PARETO Chart
70 (64)

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Percent from each cause 50

40

30

20
(13)
(10)
10 (6)
(3) (2) (2)
0

Causes of poor quality 10

 2)Histogram
• Displays large amounts of data that are difficult
to interpret in tabular form
• A histogram is a type of bar chart showing a
distribution of variables. Shows centering,
variation, and shape (You can see a curve)
• A histogram represents each attribute or
characteristic as a column and the frequency of
each attribute or characteristic occurring as the
height of the column.
• Provides useful information for predicting future
performance
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 Histogram

25

20
Frequency

15

10

Category

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 Histogram vs Pareto Chart

• A histogram is a bar graph that illustrates the

frequency of an event occurring using the
height of the bar as an indicator.
• A Pareto chart is a special type of histogram
that represents the Pareto philosophy (the
80/20 rule) through displaying the events by
order of impact.

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• A histogram may be used to represent the
number of students who scored between a
certain score range, such as 0 to 20%, 20 to
40%, etc.
• A Pareto chart may be used to analyze the
causes of customer dissatisfaction. The causes
would be ordered by frequency of occurring,
allowing the team to focus on those issues
with the biggest impact on customer
satisfaction. 14
 3) Flow Chart
• A flowchart/diagram or process map identifies
the sequence of activities or the flow of
materials and information in a process.
• Flowcharts help the people involved in the
process understand it much better and more
objectively by providing a picture of the steps
needed to accomplish a task
• Graphical description of how work is done.

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 Flow Diagrams
" Draw a flowchart for whatever you do. Until
you do, you do not know what you are doing,
you just have a job.”

-- Dr. W. Edwards Deming.

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 Flowchart symbols
Activity/operation

Start
or end

Yes
Decision
Each graphical symbol
has its own meaning

No

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Flowchart

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Example Flow Diagrams

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 4)Check Sheets
• Check sheets are special types of data
collection forms in which the results may be
interpreted on the form directly without
additional processing.

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Examples of check sheet

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 Example Check Sheet

Shifts

   

 
Defect Type

 

 

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 5)Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
• Show the relationships between a problem
and its possible causes.
• Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (1953)
• Also known as …
– Fishbone diagrams
– Ishikawa diagrams

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Cause and Effect “Skeleton”

Materials Procedures

Quality
Problem

People Equipment

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 Fishbone Diagram
Measurement Human Machines

Faulty testing equipment Poor supervision Out of adjustment

Incorrect specifications Lack of concentration Tooling problems

Improper methods Inadequate training Old / worn

Quality
Inaccurate Problem
temperature Poor process design
control Defective from vendor
Ineffective quality
Not to specifications management
Dust and
Dirt Material- Deficiencies
handling problems in product design

Environment Materials Process

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 Cause and effect diagrams
• Advantages
– making the diagram is educational in itself
– diagram demonstrates knowledge of problem
solving team
– diagram results in active searches for causes
– diagram is a guide for data collection

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 Cause and effect diagrams

To construct the skeleton, remember:

• For manufacturing - the 4 M’s
-man, method, machine, material
• For service applications
-equipment, policies, procedures, people

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6) Scatter Diagram

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• Scatter diagrams and tightness of points
plotted on the graph gives an indication of
the strength of the relationship. A cluster
of points resembling a straight line
indicates the strongest correlation
between the variables. In this graph, there
is a strong positive correlation between x
and

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 7)Control charts
• STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)- methodology
for monitoring a process to identify special causes of
variation and signal the need to take corrective
action when appropriate or needed
• Statistical tools is heavily used in industry to monitor
the quality due to the volume of data collected or
measured daily/ hourly/weekly from various
resources such equipment, raw material, enviroment
etc
• SPC relies on control charts- e.g Run charts
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 Purpose of SPC
• The purpose of doing SPC is to detect the
presence of an assignable cause(s) or common
causes.
• So all the control charts being developed for
each machine or process in a way should be of
values to each other.
• Also the charts(data) used to determine
“process capability’
• PROVIDE AND AIMMEDIATE VISUAL FEEDBACK
• It can show whether the process is in a stable
state or not 32
 STATISTICS
• A science of tabulation, collection, analysis,
intepretation of quantitative data

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• The goal is to decide whether the process can
be continued or should be adjusted to achieve
a desired quality level of a product

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VARIATIONS (next weeeek)

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• In manufacturing, variations exists in the
production and no two objects are ever made
excatly alike.
• The ability to measure variation is necessary
before it can be controlled.

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• Source of variations – equipment
- e.g Tool wear and tear, machine vibaration,
hydraulic and electrical fluctuations
• Source of variations – material
- e.g Chemical s concentration, raw material
tensile strength, ductility, thickness, porosity
etc

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• Source of variations – evironment
- e.g temperature, light, radiation, electrostatic
discharge, particle size, pressure, humidity
• Source of variations – operators
- e.g skills, experience, personality, personal
issues, mistakes

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 Variation
• The variation concept is a law of nature in
that no two natural items are the same.
❑The variation may be quite large and easily
noticeable
❑The variation may be very small. It may
appear that items are identical; however,
precision instruments will show difference
❑The ability to measure variation is
necessary before it can be controlled
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 Variation
There are three categories of variation in
piece part production:
1. Within-piece variation: Surface
2. Piece-to-piece variation: Among pieces produced
at the same time
3. Time-to-time variation: Difference in product
produced at different times of the day

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 Variation
Sources of Variation in production processes:
Measurement
Operators Methods
Materials Instruments

INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS

Tools Human
Machines Environment Inspection
Performance

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 Variation
Sources of variation are:
1. Equipment:
examples
1. Toolwear
2. Machine vibration
3. Electrical fluctuations etc.
2.Material
examples
1. Tensile strength
2. Ductility
3. Thickness
4. Porosity etc. 42
 Variation
Sources of variation are:
3. Environment
1. Temperature
2. Light
3. Radiation
4. Humidity etc.
4. Operator
1. Personal problem
2. Physical problem.
3. Skills etc

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 Variation
• Variation due to inspection or measurement
should be one tenth of the four other
sources of variation.
• Variation may be due to chance causes
(random causes) or assignable causes.
• When only chance causes are present, then
the process is said to be in a state of
statistical control. The process is stable and
predictable. 44
 What is assignable cause?
• An assignable cause related to relatively
strong changes, outside the random pattern of
the process
• It is “assignable”, i.e it can be discovered and
corrected at the machine level.
• Although the detecteion of an assignable
cause can be automated, its identification of
ten requires uderstanding of the
manufacturing proces (i.e machine etc)
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 Example of assignable cause
• Symptoms: significant yield drop on 28th
march 2015
• Assignable cause: leaky vaccum chamber
during etching process on 24th March 2015

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 What is common cause?
• Sources of variation that affect all the
individual values of the process output being
studied. The sources generally are numerous
and individually of small importance but
cannot be detected or identified at a first
glance
• .Also called chance, random, and unknown
causes of variation

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 Control Charts

❑Variable data
❑ x-bar and R-charts
❑ x-bar and s-charts
❑ Charts for individuals (x-charts)

❑Attribute data
❑ For “defectives” (p-chart, np-chart)
❑ For “defects” (c-chart, u-chart)

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 Common Control Charts
Continuous Categorical or Discrete
Numerical Data Control Numerical Data
Charts

Variables Attributes
Charts Charts

R X P C
Chart Chart Chart Chart

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 Control Charts for Variables

The control chart for variables is a mean of

visualizing the variations that occur in the central
tendency and the mean of a set of observations. It
shows whether or not a process is in a stable state.

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 Control chart
• Three important lines on a control chart are
the upper control limit (UCL) and lower
control limit (LCL) and central line (process
mean)
• Common control charts used in the SPC; the
average Xbar and the range R:

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Control Charts

Example of a control chart

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 Control Charts

Example of a method of reporting inspection53

results
 Variable Control Charts
The objectives of the variable control charts are:
1.For quality improvement
2.To determine the process capability
3.For decisions regarding product specifications
4.For current decisions on the production
process. To stop or to continue
5.For current decisions on recently produced
items
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 Control Chart Techniques
Procedure for establishing a pair of control charts for
the average Xbar and the range R:
1. Select the quality characteristic
2. Choose the rational subgroup
3. Collect the data
4. Determine the trial center line and control limits
5. Establish the revised central line and control limits

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 Quality Characteristic
The Quality characteristic must be measurable and
can be expressed in numbers.
Examples:
1. Length

2. Mass

3. Time

4. Electrical current

5. Temperature

6. Luminosity

7. Pressure
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 Subgroup Size
❑ Choose the size of the subgroup.As the subgroup
size increases, the control limits become closer to
the central value, which make the control chart
more sensitive to small variations in the process
average
❑ As the subgroup size increases, the inspection cost
per subgroup increases
❑ When destructive measurement is used and the
item is expensive, a small subgroup size is required

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Example of Run Chart

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How do we produce control limits
for the control charts?
 Trial Central Lines
Central gLines are obtained using:
g

X i R i
X = i =1
and R = i =1
g g
where
X = average of subgroup averages
X i = average of the ith subgroup
g = number of subgroups
R = average of subgroup ranges
Ri = range of the ith subgroup

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 Control Limits
Control limits are established at ±3 standard
deviations from the central value
UCLX = X + 3 X UCLR = R + 3 R
LCLX = X − 3 X LCLR = R − 3 R
where
UCL=upper control limit
LCL=lower control limit
 X = population standard deviation of the subgroup averages
 R = population standard deviation of the range

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 Trial Control Limits

Figure 6-5 Xbar and R chart for preliminary data with trial control limits
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Figure 6-6 Trial control limits and revised control limits for Xbar63and R charts
 Achieve the Objective

Continuing use of control charts, showing improved quality

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 State of Control
Process in Control
❑ When special causes have been eliminated
from the process to the extent that the
points plotted on the control chart remain
within the control limits, the process is in a
state of control
❑ When a process is in control, there occurs a
natural pattern of variation
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 State of Control

Natural pattern of variation of a control chart

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 State of Control
Types of errors:
❑ Type I, occurs when looking for a special
cause of variation when in reality a common
cause is present
❑ Type II, occurs when assuming that a
common cause of variation is present when
in reality there is a special cause

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 State of Control
When the process is in control:
1. Individual units of the product or service will
be more uniformed
2. Since the product is more uniform, fewer
samples are needed to judge the quality
3. The process capability or spread of the
process is easily attained from 6ơ
4. Trouble can be anticipated before it occurs
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 State of Control
When the process is in control:
5. The % of product that falls within any pair of
values is more predictable
6. It allows the consumer to use the producer’s
data
7. It is an indication that the operator is
performing satisfactorily

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 Common
Causes

Special
Causes

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 State of Control

Figure 6-11 Frequency Distribution of subgroup averages with control limits

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 State of Control
When a point (subgroup value) falls outside its
control limits, the process is out of control.
Out of control means a change in the process
due to a special or assignable cause.A process
can also be considered out of control even
when the points fall inside the 3ơ limits

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 State of Control
❑ It is not natural for seven or more
consecutive points to be above or below the
central line.
❑ Also when 10 out of 11 points or 12 out of
14 points are located on one side of the
central line, it is unnatural.
❑ Six points in a row are steadily increasing or
decreasing indicate an out of control
situation 73
Patterns in Control Charts

Some unnatural runs-process out of control

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 Out-of-Control Condition
1. Change or jump in level.
2. Trend or steady change in level
3. Recurring cycles
4. Two populations (also called mixture)
5. Mistakes

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 State of Control
• Simplified rule: Divide space into two equal
zones of 1.5σ.
• Out of control occurs when two consecutive
points are beyond 1.5σ.
• See Figure 6-13

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 Out-of-Control Patterns

Change or jump inlevel Trend or steady change in level

Recurring cycles Two populations

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 Specifications

Comparison of individual values compared to averages

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Control Limits & Specifications

Relationship of limits, specifications, and distributions

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 Control Limits vs Specifications
❑ The control limits are established as a
function of the average
❑ Specifications are the permissible variation in
the size of the part and are, therefore, for
individual values (specifications value
obtained from expert in that process such
design engineers to meet a particular
function
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 Process Capability & Tolerance
❑ The process spread will be referred to as the
process capability and is equal to 6σ
❑ The difference between specifications is
called the tolerance
❑ When the tolerance is established by the
design engineer without regard to the spread
of the process, undesirable situations can
result
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 Process Capability & Tolerance
Three situations are possible:
❑ Case I: When the process capability is less
than the tolerance 6σ<USL-LSL
❑ Case II: When the process capability is equal
to the tolerance 6σ=USL-LSL
❑ Case III: When the process capability is
greater than the tolerance 6σ >USL-LSL

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 Process Capability & Tolerance
Case I: When the process capability is less than
the tolerance 6σ<USL-LSL

Figure 6-24 Case I 6σ<USL-LSL

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 Process Capability & Tolerance
Case II: When the process capability is less
than the tolerance 6σ=USL-LSL

Figure 6-24 Case I 6σ=USL-LSL

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 Process Capability & Tolerance
Case III: When the process capability is less
than the tolerance 6σ>USL-LSL

Figure 6-24 Case I 6σ>USL-LSL

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 Process Capability
❑ The range over which the natural variation
of a process occurs as determined by the
system of common or random causes
❑ Measured by the proportion of output that
can be produced within design
specifications

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 Capability Index
Process capability and tolerance are combined
to form the capability index.
USL − LSL
Cp =
6 0
where C p = capabilityindex
USL − LSL = tolerance
6 0 = process capability

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 Capability Index
The capability index does not measure process
performance in terms of the nominal or target
value. This measure is accomplished by Cpk.
Min{(USL − X ) or ( X − LSL)
C pk =
3
where C p = capabilityindex
USL − LSL = tolerance
6 0 = process capability
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 Capability Index
Cp = USL - LSL
6 ơo

The Capability Index does not measure

process performance in terms of the
nominal or target

Cpk = min{ (USL- ¯X), (¯X-LSL)}

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 Capability Index
1. The Cp value does not change as the process
center changes
2. Cp=Cpk when the process is centered
3. Cpk is always equal to or less than Cp
4. A Cpk = 1 indicates that the process is
producing product that conforms to
specifications
5. A Cpk < 1 indicates that the process is
producing product that does not conform to
specifications
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 Capability Index
6. A Cp < 1 indicates that the process is not
capable
7. A Cpk=0 indicates the average is equal
to one of the specification limits
8. A negative Cpk value indicates that the
average is outside the specifications

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 Cpk Measures

Cpk = negative number

Cpk = zero

Cpk = between 0 and 1

Cpk = 1

Cpk > 1

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 Process capability

Process capability calculations make little

sense if the process is not in statistical
control because the data are confounded by
special causes that do not represent the
inherent capability of the process.

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Capability Versus Control

Control
Capability In Control Out of Control

Capable IDEAL

Not Capable

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 Other Tools for Process Improvement
• Poka-Yoke
• Kaizen Blitz

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Poka-yoke (POH-kah YOH-kay)
is an approach for mistake-proofing
processes using automatic devices
or methods to avoid simple human
error.

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 Mistake-Proofing Processes
• Typical reasons for mistakes and errors:
– Forgetfulness due to lack of concentration
– Misunderstanding because of the lack of
familiarity with a process or procedures
– Poor identification associated with lack of proper
attention
– Lack of experience
– Absentmindedness
– Delays in judgment when a process is automated
– Equipment malfunctions
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 Poka-Yoke
• Poka-yoke is based on:
– Prediction, or recognizing that a defect is about to
occur and providing a warning
– Detection, or recognizing that a defect has
occurred and stopping the process.
• Three levels:
– Designing potential errors out of the process.
– Identifying potential defects and stopping a
process before the defect is produced.
– Finding defects that enter or leave a process.
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 Poka-Yoke - Examples

Retail stores and libraries use "electronic article

surveillance" systems to prevent removal of
merchandise and books that have not been paid
for or checked out
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SEM JAN – APRIL 2011 CMT651-QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCE

Poka-Yoke - Examples
This Stove burner turns off
automatically when pot or pan is
removed

Many Elevators are equipped with an

electric eye to prevent doors from
shutting on people. They also are
equipped with sensors and alarms to
prevent operation when overloaded.
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SEM JAN – APRIL 2011 CMT651-QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCE

Poka-Yoke - Examples

A Poka-yoke classic: the go/no-go gauge

applied to customers of a play area in a
mall. Look for this type of device anywhere
kids are

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 Kaizen
• Kaizen – a Japanese word that means gradual and
orderly continuous improvement
• Focus on small, gradual, and frequent
improvements over the long term with minimum
financial investment, and participation by
everyone in the organization.

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 Key Idea
A kaizen blitz is an intense and rapid
improvement process in which a team or a
department throws all its resources into an
improvement project over a short time
period, as opposed to traditional kaizen
applications, which are performed on a
part-time basis.

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 Kaizen Blitz
Kaizen Blitz approach is a technique used to
achieve performance improvement quickly.
Basically it from Kaizen approach, which is
Japanese for continuous improvement “.
Meanwhile, the `Blitz` the same `or` flash of light
thought of as something happening very quickly.
So, Kaizen Kaizen Blitz is an approach that is fast
and gives results fast. (www.lrtjournal.com)

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