Food Spoilage and Detection - 3

Causes of Food Spoilage, Sources of Lecture No P- AP e-: 04
Microbial Contamination of Foods, Food Borne

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Illnesses, Water Activity and its Relation Revision
to Spoilage of Foods. Spoilage of Processed Page No
Products and their Detection.
Issue Date 24/11/12
1. Microorganisms are living organisms that are usually too small to be seen clearly with the na-
ked eye and include bacteria, viruses, yeasts and moulds, algae, protozoa and helminthes
2. Prokaryotes (pro=before and karyon = nut/Kernel) Ex: Bacteria
3. Eukaryotes(true = Eu, karyon = nut/Kernel) Ex: Fungi, algae, protozoa and helminthes
4. The use of microbes to reduce/degrade pollutants, industrial wastes and household garbage, a
new area referred to as “Bioremediation”
5. Helicobacter invades the stomach and causes gastric ulcers.
6. Epidemiology concerns with monitoring, control and spread of diseases in communities.
7. Pasteur in 1867 suggested that mild heating at 62.80C (1450F) for 30 min rather than boiling was
enough to destroy the undesirable organisms without ruining the taste of the product the process
was called pasteurization.
8. E.Coli, the generic name of organism named after Theodor Escherich.
9. Incineration is a sterilization procedure by which contaminated particles are burned to ashes.
10. Laminar flow hood works on the principle of application of high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters instead of membrane filters.
11. Most of the organisms are killed 1210C (i.e. 15lb/in2) in15 min.
12. Sterilization in autoclave is done with saturated steam under pressure.
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13. Saturated steam heats an object about 2500 times more efficiently than does not air at the same
temperature.
14. Autoclaving is not recommended for oils, powders, heat sensitive fluids and plastics
15. Fermenters are often called as stirred tank reactors.
16. AISI 304, AISI 316 (AISI: Austeniti Stainless Steels) are recommended to use in food indus-
tries.
17. Bacteria: Unicellular, procaryotic, cell multiplication is usually by binary fission. Cyanobacteria
(Blue Green Algae) is also a procaryotic protist.
18. Algae: Relatively simple organisms. The most primitive are unicellular. Others are
aggregations of similar cells with little or no differentiation in structure or function. Some algae
such as large brown algae have a complex structure with cell types specialized for particular
functions.
19. Fungi: Eucaryotic lower plants devoid of chlorophyll. They are usually multicellular but are not
differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. They range in size and shape from single celled
microscopic yeast to giant multicellular mushrooms and puff balls.
20. True fungi are composed of filaments and masses of cells, which make up the body of the
organism called mycelium
21. Protozoa: Unicellular, Eukaryotic. Differentiation based on their morphological, nutritional and
physiological characteristics. Best known protozoa are few that cause disease in human beings
and animals.
22. Selman A Waksman discovered antibiotic Streptomycin produced by soil bacterium for which

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he got Noble Prize in 1952.

23. The discoverer of the microbial world was a Dutch merchant Antony von Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723) with his microscope.
24. Most of the organisms require oxygen to oxidize organic compounds to CO2. Such oxygen
linked biological oxidation known as aerobic respiration provides energy that is required for
maintenance and growth.
25. Facultative anaerobes: Many other microorganisms including certain yeasts are facultative
anaerobes which have two alternative pathways of energy yielding mechanisms – in the
presence of oxygen they employ aerobic respiration – in the absence of oxygen, they employ
fermentation.
26. A. Bassi recognized that the fungus was the causative organism for disease in silkworm.
27. In 1845 M J Berkeley had proved that Potato Blight of Ireland was caused by fungus.
28. Robert Koch (1876) concluded the germ theory of disease by working on anthrax disease on
animals (sheep). His experiments and observations led to the establishment of Koch’s
postulates, which provided the guidelines to identify the causative agent of infectious diseases.
29. O. Brefeld introduced the practice of isolating single cells of fungi and their cultivation on solid
media, which were obtained by adding gelatin to the liquid medium. His methods were not
suitable for bacteria.
30. Pure cultures of bacteria were 1st obtained by Joseph Lister by serial dilution in liquid media.
Bacterium lactis was isolated into pure culture in this method.
31. In 1864 Joseph Lister developed antiseptic method of surgery.
32. Koch developed pure culture technique for bacteria. He developed streak plate method
and Pour plate method for this purpose.

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33. Most bacteria an incubation temperature of 30-37ºC is optimum.

34. Koch developed nutrient broth & its solid counter part nutrient agar. Koch also developed the
nutrient medium for the growth of bacteria.
35. Francois Appert found that highly perishable foodstuff can be preserved for long time by
enclosing them in airtight containers and heating the containers. This process is known as
Appertization and is the principle of food canning.
36. John tyndall concluded that some microorganism exist in two forms that is – a heat labile form
(Vegetative ) & heat resistant form (endospores).
37. John tyndall developed a method of sterilization by discontinuous heating, called
Tyndallisation. Which could be used to kill all bacteria in infusions.
38. Edward Jenner in 1798 used Cowpox Virus to immunize people from small pox.
39. W.M. Stanley and J.H. Northrup in 1935 isolated the TMV in crystalline form and
described the nature of virus for which they got the Noble Prize in 1946.
40. Twort (1915) and F.D. Herelle (1917) independently discovered the bacteriophages viz., the
viruses that kill the bacteria.
41. A protoplast is that portion of a bacterial cell consisting of the cytoplasmic membrane and the
cell material bound by it. This can be prepared from Gram positive bacteria by treating the cells
with an enzyme such as lysozyme, which selectively dissolves the cell wall or by culturing the
bacteria in the presence of an antibiotic such as penicillin.
42. Sphaeroplast is a protoplast surrounded by the outer membrane of cell wall. In gram-negative
bacteria only peptidoglycan layer can be removed but outer membrane is still intact surrounding
the protoplast.
43. Spore is a metabolically dormant form, which under appropriate conditions can undergo

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germination and grow out to form a vegetative cell.

44. Spores produced within the cell are called endospores and the spores produced external to cell
are called exospores.
45. Endospores are thick walled, highly refractile bodies that are produced (one per cell) by
Bacillus, Clostridium, Sporosarcina and few other genera. They are generally formed at the end
of the active growth or during stationary phase. They are extremely resistant to desiccation,
staining, disinfecting chemicals, radiation and heat.
46. Exospores are formed external to the vegetative cell by budding at one end of the cell in the
methane oxidizing genus Methylosinus. They are desiccation and heat resistant
47. The bacteria, actinomycetes form branching hyphae. From the tips of these hyphae spores
develop singly or in chains. If the spores are contained in an enclosing sac (sporangium), they
are termed SporangiosporeS, if not they are called Conidiospores.
48. Cysts resemble endospores in some ways, but their structure and chemical composition are
different. Cysts are thick walled, desiccation resistant, dormant forms that develop by
differentiation of vegetative cells. Azotobacter and some other genera produce cysts.
49. Transverse binary fission is the most common and important in the growth cycle of bacterial
population, which is an asexual reproductive process. Infrequently, in some species, binary
fission may be preceded by mating or conjugation of cells.
50. Fragmntation: Some bacteria produce extensive filamentous growth, which is followed by the
fragmentation of these filaments into small bacillary or coccoid cells, each of which give rise to
new growth. Eg. Nocardia species.
51. Spore Production: Some genera of bacteria produce reproductive spores called conidiospores
or sporangiospores at the tip of filamentous growth, each of these spores give rise to a new

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organism. Eg : Streptomyces
52. Budding: A few bacteria also reproduce by a process known as budding where in the parent cell
remains intact while a new cell buds off which again grows into a new organism.
Eg: Rhodopseudomonas, Hyphomicrobium
53. In unicellular microorganisms, growth usually, involves an increase in cell number. A single cell
continually increases in size until it is approximately double of its original size; then cell
division occurs, resulting in the formation of two cells. During this cell division cycle all the
structural components of the cell will double.
54. The formation of two cells from one parent cell is called a ‘generation time’.
55. The generation time is thus the time required for the cell number to double. Because of this the
generation time is also called as ‘doubling time’.
56. Generation time vary widely among microorganisms any where between minutes to days, 20
minutes in E. coli to 33 hours in Treponema.
57. The number of generations per hour is usually determined by plotting cell number against time
on a semi logarithmic scale and reading off directly the time required for the number to double.
Alternatively, the generation time can be calculated directly solving the equation for
n = number of generations = log N- log N (o)/ log 2.
Generation time g = t/n.
58. Growth rate is the change in cell number or mass per unit time. It is expressed as ‘R’ which is
the reciprocal of generation time ‘g’. It can be defined as the slope of the line when log of cells
versus time is plotted (R = 1/g). Microbes generally respond linearly to a limiting nutrient
concentration in the medium, which forms the principle for microbiological assays.
59. Growth cycle of bacteria: When a liquid medium is inoculated with unicellular bacteria or

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yeasts or other budding organisms, the population undergoes a characteristic sequence of events
during the increase in cell number. When the number of cell /ml is determined periodically and
plotted against time, a curve is formed showing four distinct phases of growth
• A- Lag phase / Acclimatization phase
• B- Log phase / exponential phase / Logarithmic phase
• C- Stationary phase
• D- Death phase / Declined phase
60. Immediately after transferring into a fresh medium growth does not take place but only after a
period of time called the ‘lag phase’. This period may be brief or extended. There is no
significant increase in the number of cells.
61. Lag phase represents a period of active growth without cell division and the cell contents
prepare for the cell division by extensive macromolecular synthesis.
62. The length of the lag phase depends on a variety of factors such as the age of the inoculum, the
composition of the growth medium and the environmental factors such as temperature, pH and
aeration etc.
63. Log Phase : Most unicellular microorganisms grow exponentially but rates of exponential
growth vary greatly. The rate of exponential growth is influenced by environmental conditions
(temperature, aeration, composition of culture medium) as well as by characteristics of the
organism itself. During exponential phase cells are in a steady state.
64. Metabolites which are produced during log phase are known as Primary metabolites. Primary
metabolites are producing only during this phase and are required for cell division and growth.
65. It is possible to maintain a bacterial culture continuously in exponential phase for a required

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period of time provided that the fresh medium is supplied and toxic products or metabolic
wastes accumulated in the medium are removed. Such continuous culturing is possible by
devices known as ‘chemostat’ and ‘turbidostat’.
66. Stationary Phase : Secondary metabolites include toxins, antibiotics, sterols etc. These
products inhibit the growth and survival of other microorganisms and may give competitive
advantage to the producer of Secondary metabolites
67. Most microbes grow best at pH values around 7.0. Fruits, soft drinks, vinegar and wines will
have acidic pH at which the bacteria cannot grow. But the fruits will be spoiled by molds and
yeasts, which can grow at value below 3.5
68. Most of the meats and sea foods have pH of 5.6 and above and hence these are susceptible to
bacterial as well as mold and yeast spoilage.
69. Most vegetables have higher pH values than fruits and consequently they are more subjected to
bacterial than fungal spoilage.
70. The oxidation reduction potential of a system is expressed by the symbol Eh. The Eh values
will be positive for the oxidized substances and negative for the reduced conditions (Eh of
about – 200mv) for growth initiation, while the aerobic bacteria such as Bacillus require
oxidized conditions i.e. positive Eh.
71. Antimicrobial compounds: The stability of some foods against attack by microorganisms is
due to the presence in these foods of certain naturally occurring substances, which have been
shown to have antimicrobial activities. For example lactenin and anticoliform factor in milk
and Lysozyme in egg white are antimicrobial.
72. The lowest temperature at which a microorganism has been reported to grow is –34°C while the
highest is somewhere in excess of 90°C.

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73. The psychrotrophs found most commonly on foods belong to the genera Alcaligenes,
Pseudomonas and Streptococcus. These organisms grow well at refrigerated temperatures and
cause spoilage to meats, fish, poultry, eggs and other foods normally held at this temperature.
74. Most thermophilic bacteria that grow on foods belong to the genera Bacillus and Clostridium.
75. The higher water content, and favourable pH range of most vegetables favours the growth of
spoilage bacteria. Erwinia and Pseudomonas are the important among spoilage bacteria and
among spoilage fungi the genus Botrytis is the predominant one.
76. Penicillium, Botrytis, Rhizopus, Aspergillus etc. Are generally found to be associated with fruit
spoilage.
77. The temperatures used for canning foods ranges from 100°C for high acid foods to 121°C for
low acid foods.
78. Batch fermentations: In a batch cultures an organism is supplied with suitable raw material
and cultural conditions. At the end of fermentation period the complete contents of fermentation
vessel are used for extracting the end product. Therefore, the fermentation is carried out in
batches.
79. Continuous fermentations: In this process, the culture is supplied with fermentation medium
or raw materials continuously and from some point of time after starting of fermentation, the
contents of fermentation tank are removed continuously. The important feature of continuous
cultures is that the culture is continuously growing and a part of the culture is continuously
removed along with the fermented medium.
80. Fed batch fermentations: Also called as semi continuous fermentation. In this type
intermittently substrate is added to fermentation tank. Eg. Biogas production
81. Surface culture: In this method, an organism is allowed to grow on the surface of a liquid

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medium without agitation. At the end of the incubation period, the culture filtrate is separated
and the cell mass is processed to obtain desired end product. This method is time consuming
and needs large space. Ex: citric acid fermentation.
82. In submerged culturing the organism is grown in a liquid medium with vigorous aeration and
agitation. The fermentation vessels may be open or closed type based on the cultural conditions
of fermentation. This culturing may be of batch type or continuous type. Most fermentation
industries today use the submerged culture methods.
83. Solid state fermentations: The culture medium is layered with a carrier such as wheat bran,
potato pulp, etc. the suitable organism is allowed to grow on the medium, which provides a
greater surface area for growth. The recovery of the end product is easier in this process. Ex. –
Production of amylase using wheat bran, production of mushrooms etc.
84. The Blue green algae are also being produced on large scale and used as biofertilizers in rice
cultivation.
85. Parasitism is a symbiosis in which two phylogenetically unrelated microorganisms coexist over
a prolonged period of time. In this type of association, one organism, usually the physically
smaller of the two (called the parasite) benefits and the other (called the host) is harmed to some
measurable extent. The activities of various hyperparasites, i.e., those agents that parasitize
plant pathogens, can result in biocontrol.
86. Antagonism (ammensalism) one microorganism produces a substance that is inhibitory to other
microbial population results in a negative outcome for later one. Production of oxygen may
alter the population of obligate aerobes. Ammonia produced during decompositions of proteins
and amino acids at concentrations inhibitory to nitrite oxidizing populations of Nitrobacter.
87. Competition within and between species results in decreased growth, activity and/or fecundity

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of the interacting microorganisms. For example biocontrol can occur when non-pathogens
compete with pathogens for nutrients in and around the host plant.
88. Predation refers to the killing of one microorganism by another for consumption and
sustenance. While the term predator typically refer to animals that feed at higher trophic levels
in the macroscopic world, it has also been applied to the actions of microbes, e.g. protists, and
mesofauna, e.g. fungal feeding nematodes and microarthropods, that consume pathogen
biomass for sustenance. E.g. Dinidium nasutum preys on Paramecium
89. Bacteria grow fastest in the pH range 6.0 – 8.0, yeasts 4.5 – 6.0 and filamentous fungi 3.5 – 4.0.
Usually between pH 5.0 & 6.0.
90. Molds can grow over a wide range of pH vales than the yeast and bacteria. Bacteria which are
acid formers are favoured by moderate acidity. Active proteolytic bacteria, can grow in media
with a high pH (alkaline.) Ex: Egg white.
91. The pH of post – rigor mammalian muscle, round 5.6 and it is lower than that of fish (6.2 - 6.5)
and this contributes to the longer storage life of meat.
92. Head space in an “evacuated” can of food contain low oxygen tension compared to air.
93. Yeasts – Aerobic and facultative.
94. Bacteria – Aerobic, anaerobic and facultative.
95. High O - R potential favours aerobes and facultative organisms.
96. Low O-R potential favours anaerobic and facultative organisms.
97. Highly oxidised substrate would have a positive Eh and a reduced substrate have a negative Eh.
Aerobic microorganisms require positive Eh. Ex: Bacillus, micrococcus, pseudomonads
acinetobacters.
98. Anaerobic micro organisms required negative Eh. Ex: Clostridium

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99. Some microorganisms use fermentable carbohydrates and results in acid production which
suppresses the proteolytic bacteria and hence it is called sparing action on the nitrogen
compounds.
1. Egg white contains biotin but also contains avidin. This avidin ties up biotin mating it
unavailable to microorganisms and eliminating possible spoilage organisms.
2. Inhibitory substances: These originally present in the food or added purposely to prevent
growth of micro organisms.
• Freshly drawn milk – Lactenins, anticoliform factors.
• Egg white – Lysozyme
• Cran berries – Benzoic acid
• Allicin – Garlic, onion, leeks
• Eugenol – Allspice (pimento), cloves, cinnamon
• Thymol – thyme and oregano
• Cinnamic aldehyde – cinnamon and Cassia
• Oleuropein – The bitter principle of green olives have antimicrobial properties.
• Lysozyme present in milk, egg is most active against gram positive bacteria.
• Egg – Ovotransferrin, avidin ovolflaroprotein.
• Milk – Lactoferrin
3. Ovoflavo protein and avidin in egg white which sequester biotin and riboflavin restricting the
growth of those bacteria.
4. Milk has capacity to generate antimicrobials in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The milk
enzyme lactoperoxidase will catalyse the oxidation of thiocyanate by H2O2 to produce inter alia

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Hypo-thiocyanate. This can kill gram negative bacteria and inhibit gram positives.
5. Propionic acid produced by the propionibacteria in a swiss cheese is inhibitory to molds.
6. Nisin produced by certain strains of Streptococcus lactis may be useful in inhibiting lactate
fermenting, gas forming clostridia in curing cheese.
7. Browning concentrated sugar syrups may result in the production of furfural and hydroxyl
methyl furfural which are inhibitory to fermenting organisms.
8. Hydrophilic colloids (gels) make water unavailable.
9. Salmonellosis associated with eggs has been reduced because of the pasteurization of egg
products.
10. Kinds of bacteria in natural waters are chiefly of in Pseudomonas, Chromobacterium, Proteus,
Micrococcus, Bacillus, Streptococcus, Enterobacter and Escherichia coli.
11. The term "mold" is a common one applied to certain multicellular filamentous fungi whose
growth on foods usually is readily recognized by its fuzzy or cottony appearance. Colored
spores are typical of mature mold of some kinds and give color to part or all of the growth. The
thallus, or vegetative body, is characteristic of thallophytes, which lack true roots, stems, and
leaves.
12. Some molds do produce various toxic metabolites (mycotoxins).
13. Hyphae and Mycelium The mold thallus consists of a mass of branching, intertwined filaments
called hyphae (singular hypha), and the whole mass of these hyphae is known as the mycelium.
14. The hyphae may be submerged, or growing within the food, or aerial, or growing into the air
above the food.
15. Special mycelial structures or parts aid in the identification of molds. Examples are the rhizoids,
or "holdfasts," of Rhizopus and Absidia, the foot cell in Aspergillus, and the dichotomous, or Y-

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shaped, branching in Geotrichum.

16. Molds can grow from a transplanted piece of mycelium. Reproduction of molds is chiefly by
means of asexual spores. Some molds also form sexual spores. Such molds are termed
“perfect".
1. Most molds would be considered mesophilic i.e., able to grow well at ordinary temperatures.
The optimal temperature for most molds is around 25 to 30ºC, but some grow well at 35 to 37ºC
or above, e.g., Aspergillus spp., and some at still higher temperatures.
2. Molds are aerobic; i.e., they require oxygen for growth; this is true at least for the molds
growing on foods.
3. Most molds can grow over a wide range of hydrogen-ion concentration (pH 2 to 8.5), but the
majority are favored by an acid pH.
4. Mucor racemosus, M. rouxii is used in the "Amylo" process for the saccharification of starch,
and mucors help ripen some cheese, (e.g., Gammelost) and are used in making certain Oriental
foods.
5. Rhizopus stolonifer, the so-called bread mold, is very common and is involved in the spoilage of
many foods: berries, fruits, vegetables, bread, etc.
6. Thamnidium elegans is found on meat in chilling storage, causing "whiskers" on the meat.
7. Pencillium expansum : blue-green-spored mold, causes soft rots of fruits
8. Pencillium digitatum with olive, or yellowish-green conidia, causing a soft rot of citrus fruits
9. Pencillium italicum, called the “blue contact mold” with blue green conidia, also rotting citrus
fruit
10. Pencillium camemberti, with grayish conidia, useful in the ripening of Camembert cheese; and
Pencillium roqueforti, with bluish-green conidia, aiding in the ripening of blue cheeses, e.g.,

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Roquefort.
11. Geotrichum candidum (Oospora lactis), often called the "dairy mold,” gives white to cream-
colored growth.
12. Neurospora (Monilia) sitophila, the most important species in foods, sometimes is termed the
"red bread mold" because its pink, loose-textured growth often occurs on bread.
13. Monascus purpureus are thin and spreading and reddish or purple in color. Found on dairy
products and on Chinese red rice (ang -khak).
14. The form of yeasts may be spherical to ovoid, lemon shaped, pearshaped, cylindrical, triangular,
or even elongated into a false or true mycelium. They also differ in size. Visible parts of the
structure are the cell wall, cytoplasm, water vacuoles, fat globules, and granules, which may be
metachromatic, albuminous, or Starchy.
15. The range of temperature for growth of most yeast is 25 to 30ºC and the maximum about 35 to
47ºC.
16. The growth of most yeasts is favored by an acid reaction in the vicinity of pH 4 to 4.5, and they
will not grow well in an alkaline medium unless adapted to it.
17. Saccharomyces cerevisiae suited to different uses, e.g., bread strains, beer strains, wine strains,
and high-alcohol-producing strains or varieties.
18. S. cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus is a high-alcohol-yielding variety used to produce industrial
alcohol, wines, and distilled liquors.
19. Saccharomyces uvarum, a bottom yeast, is used in making beer.
20. Clostridium thermosaccharoolyticum is an example of a saccharolytic obligate thermophile; this
organism causes gaseous spoilage of canned vegetables.
21. Erwinia carotovora is associated with the market disease called "bacterial soft rot.

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22. The ability of Leuconostoc dextranicum and Leuconostoc cremoris to ferment citric acid of milk
and produce the desirable flavoring substance diacetyl and to stimulate the lactic streptococci.
This led to their inclusion as "lactic starter" for buttermilk, butter, and cheese.
23. Bacillus stearothermophilus – thermophilic flat sour spoilage of low acid canned foods.
24. Extreme halophiles grow in the heavily brined foods 15 – 30% salt. EX: Halobacterium,
Halococcus
25. Osmophilic bacteria are those which grow in high concentrations of sugar. Ex: Leuconostoc.
26. Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of the food.
• By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes, e.g., by blanching
• By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions, e.g., prevention of oxidation by
means of an antioxidant
27. Thermal death point (TDP) is the temperature necessary to kill all the organisms in 10
minutes
28. Aspergillus, Penicillum and Mucor are more resistant to heat than other molds.
29. Detection of the bovine phosphatase enzyme in processed milk usually indicates that the milk
was not properly pasteurized.
30. HTST Method (High temperature short time): Temperature is 71.7°C and time is 15 sec.
31. LTLT Method (Low temperature long time): Temperature is 62.8°C and time is 30
minutes time.
32. Ultra pasteurization: Temperature is 137.8°C for at least 2 seconds.
33. Pasteurization temperature was set based on pathogenic organism present in milk
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This bacterium killed at 61.7°C, but other organism Coxiella
burnetti, a rickettsia causing Q fever is survived pasteurization temperature. Hence to kill

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Coxiella burnetti, Pasteurization temperature was raised to 62.8°C. Coxiella burnetti is

transmitted by milk.
34. Internal temperature of bread, cake or other bakery products approaches but never reaches
100°C as long as moisture is present.
35. Simmering is the incipient or gentle boiling with the temperature about 100°C.
36. Milk can be heated to temperatures up to 150°C by use of steam injection or steam infusion
followed by flash evaporation of the condensed steam and rapid cooling. Processes such as this
for milk have been referred to as ultrahigh temperature or UHT processes.
37. Nicolas Appert called “Father of canning” because he did experiments on the heating of
foods in sealed containers and given directions for preservation by canning.
38. C – Enamel contains zincoxide, so that the white Zn S is formed instead of dark Fe S when low
acid, Sulfur bearing foods such as corn are canned, and dark erring of the interior of the can is
thus avoided.
39. TDT (Thermal Death Time): Time required to kill known no. of micro organisms at a given
temperature.
40. DRT (Decimal Reduction Time): Time required to reduce the microbial population at
specified temperature. It is designated as “D”.
41. Banana stored and keeps best at 13.3 – 16.7°C
42. Sweating is storage, usually in bins or boxes for equalization of moisture or readdition of
moisture to a desired level. Ex: Almonds, walnuts.
43. Numerous commercially prepared foods which contain 20 – 40% moisture and have non
refrigerated shelf stability have been refined to as intermediate moisture products. Ex: Soft
candies, jams, jellies, honey, many dried fruits, some bakery items, meat products like

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pepperoni, country ham, Jerky and some dried fish.

44. Intermediate moisture products are also referred as “reduced – water activity products”.
45. Propionic acid is found naturally in Swiss cheese up to 1%.
46. Sorbic acid and its salts are known to inhibit yeast and molds but are less effective against
bacteria. They are effective at low pH Values. (PH < 6.0)
47. Sodium diacetate has been used in cheese spreads and malt syrups and as treatment for
wrappers used on butter.
48. A roentgen (r) is the quantity of gamma or x-radiation which produces one electrostatic unit of
electric charge of either sign in a cubic centimetre of air under standard conditions.
49. A roentgen-equivalent-physical (rep) is the quantity of ionizing energy which produces, per
gram of tissue, an amount of ionization equivalent to a roentgen.
50. A megarep is 1 million rep. One r, or 1 rep, is equivalent to the absorption of 83 to 90 erg per
gram of tissue.
51. The rad now is employed chiefly as the unit of radiation dosage, being equivalent to the
absorption of 100 erg per gram of irradiated material.
52. A megarad (Mrad) is 1 million rad, and a kilorad (Krad) is 1,000 rad.
53. An electronvolt (eV) is the energy gained by an electron in moving through a potential
difference of 1 volt. A meV is 1 million electron volts.
54. A Gray (Gy) equals 100 rads and is being used as a term to replace rads in some references.
55. Radappertization is a term used to define "radiation sterilization" which would imply high dose
treatments, with the resulting product being shelf-stable.
56. Radurization refers to "radiation pasteurization" low-dose treatments, where the intent is to
extend a product's shelf life.

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57. Radicidation also is a low-dose "radiation pasteurization" treatment, but with the specific intent
being the elimination of a particular pathogen.
58. Picowaved is a term used to label foods treated with low-level ionizing radiation.
59. Microwave heating and processing of foods: Specific frequencies are usually at either 915
megacycles or 2,450 megacycles
60. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP): Also called as pascalization. This technique is applied to
foods, which can be liquid or solid, packaged or unpackaged, to high pressure (which varies
depending upon application) usually for 5 minutes or less.
61. Bactofugation: The centrifugal procedure used for removing bacteria from milk, known as
bactofugation.
62. Vacreation: Rapid heating of cream is accomplished by injecting steam or by a combination of
steam injection and evacuation in a process known as vacreation.
63. Coxiella burnetii, a rickettsia responsible for Q fever which can be transmitted in milk is
effectively killed at 62.8ºC for 30 min
64. Butter in storage is held at -17 to -18ºC or lower, where no microbial growth can take place.
65. In frying, outside of the food is very hot, but the center ordinarily does not reach 100°C.
66. Blue Milk: Pseudomonas syncyanea produces a bluish-gray to brownish color in milk in pure
culture but when growing with an acid former like Streptococcus lactis causes a deep-blue
color.
67. Yellow Milk: Pseudomonas synxantha may cause a yellow color in the cream layer of milk,
coincident to lipolysis and proteolysis. Species of Flavobacterium can also give yellowness.
68. Red Milk: Red milk usually is caused by species of Serratia, e.g., S. marcescens, but is rare
because other bacteria ordinarily outgrow the red-pigmented species. Brevibacterium

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erythrogenes produces a red layer at the top of the milk, followed by proteolysis.
69. Brown Milk: A brown color may result from Pseudomonas putrefaciens or by the enzymic
oxidation of tyrosine by P. fluorescens.
70. Hydrocooling: Cooling before normal cold storage is done immediately after harvesting by use
of a cold water spray, a practice referred to as hydrocooling. Freshening of leafy vegetables by a
water spray will cool the products and help in preservation.
71. Vegetables that are high in protein, such as green peas and lima beans, as well as some
cauliflower are preserved by the addition of enough salt to prevent any fermentation. i.e., 70
-80°C salometer (18.6 to 21.2% salt) to saturation 26.5% salt (100° salometers).
72. The most commonly occurring types of spoilage in Fruits and vegetables are as follows:
73. Bacterial soft rot: Caused by Erwinia caratovora. These are fermenters of pectins.
Pseudomonas marginalis and Clostridium, Bacillus sps have also been isolated from these rots.
It results in a water soaked appearance, a soft mushy consistency and often a bad odor.
74. Gray mold rot: Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis name derived from the gray mycelium of the mold.
It is favored by high humidity and a warm temperature.
75. Rhizopus soft rot: It is caused by sps of Rhizopus Ex: Rhizopus stolonifer. This rot is often soft
and mushy. The cottony growth of the mold with small, black dots of sporangia often covers
masses of the foods.
76. Anthrachose: Usually caused by Collectotrichum lindemuthianum, Collectotrichum coccodes,
defect is spotting of leaves and fruits or seed pods.
77. Alternaria Rot: Caused by Alternaria tenuis. Areas become greenish brown early in the growth
of the mold and later turn to brown or black spots.
78. Blue mold rot: Caused by Penicillium digitatum. Bluish green color spores are produced.

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79. Downey mildew: Caused by Phytopthora bremia.

80. Watery soft rot: Caused chiefly by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Found in mostly vegetables.
81. Stem end rots: Caused by Diplodia, Alternaria, Phomopsis, Fusarium.
82. Black mold rot: Caused by Aspergillus niger. Dark brown to black masses of spores of the
mold termed “Smut” called by layperson.
83. Black rot: Caused by Alternaria, Ceratostomella, Physalospora.
84. Pink mold rot: Caused by pink spored Trichothecium roseum.
85. Fusarium rots: Caused by Fusarium sps.
86. Green mold rot: Caused by Cladosporium, Trichoderma.
87. Brown rot: Caused chiefly by Sclerotinia (Monilinia fructicola) sps.
88. Most cereals have low water activity, Storage temperature of about 4.4 to 7.2°C is
recommended for the dry products.
89. Moisture content of flour less than 13% has been reported to prevent the growth of all micro
organisms.
90. 15% moisture permits growth of mold in cereal flours.
91. 17% moisture permits growth of bacteria & molds in cereal flours.
92. Bread mold – Rhizopus stolonifer or Rhizopus nigricans bread mold contains white cottony
mycelium and black dots of sporangia.
93. Red bread or bloody bread is due to the occurrence of red color from the growth of pigmented
bacteria Serratia marcescens.
94. Chalky bread is due to white, chalk like spots. It is due to the yeast like fungi Endomycopsis
fibuligera and Trichosporon variable.
95. Meat chilling temperatures vary from -1.4 to 2.2°C.

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96. Flat fish spoil more readily than round fish because they pass through rigor mortis more rapidly.
But flat fish like halibut keeps longer because of the low pH (5.5) of its flesh.
97. Giblet means: gizzard, heart and liver
98. Candling: To candle an egg, it is held and rotated in front of a light to examine it for defects
such as cracks, rots, molds, blood, developing embryo, crusted or sided yolk, weak white, or
large air cell.
99. Flavor reversion is defined as the appearance of objectionable flavors from less oxidation than
is needed to produce rancidity. Oils that contain linolenic acid, fish oils, and vegetable oils, for
example, are subject to flavor reversion.
1. Flat sour spoilage of acid foods, e.g., tomatoes or tomato juice, is caused by a special
facultatively thermophilic species, B. coagulans.
2. The bacterium causing "thermophilic anaerobe spoilage in canned foods has been nick named T
A, which is short for "thermophilic anaerobe not producing hydrogen sulfide," or for the species
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum.
3. Alcoholic beverages and beverages containing caffeine (such as coffee, tea, and colas) are not
the best choices of water source because they have a diuretic (water-excreting) effect.
4. Six to eight 8-ounce glasses of water are generally recommended on a daily basis.
5. Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are
transported in plants.
6. Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule,
occurs naturally in mammalian milk.
7. Glycemic Index: The glycemic index of a carbohydrate represents how quickly its
consumption increases blood sugar levels. Values range from 1 (the slowest) to 100 (the fastest,

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the index of pure glucose).

8. The glycemic index tends to be lower for complex carbohydrates than for simple carbohydrates,
but there are exceptions. For example, fructose (the sugar in fruits) has little effect on blood
sugar.
9. Food Poisoning: Illness caused both by the ingestion of toxins as well as organism resulting
from the infection through the intestinal tract.
10. Intoxication: Illness caused by the consumption of a bacterial toxin formed in the food. Ex:
Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus.
11. Infection: Illness caused by the entrance of the bacteria into the body through ingestion of
contaminated food and reaction of the body to their presence or to their metabolites.
12. Endotoxin: These are soluble proteins found in cell extracts or in the growth medium called as
endotoxins or endogenous toxins. Ex Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membranes
of Gram –ve bacteria.
13. Exotoxins: These are soluble proteins secreted outside the bacteria through their cell wall and
these substances are heat labile, being inactivated by boiling.
14. Enterotoxin: These toxins stimulate cells of gastrointestinal tract in an abnormal way.
• Cholera toxin – Vibrio cholerae
• Heat labile enterotoxin (LT) -- Escherichia coli
• Heat stable enterotoxin (St) -- Escherichia coli
• Shiga toxin -- Shigella dysentriae
15. Neurotoxins: These toxins interfere with normal transmission of nerve impulses.
• Botulinum toxin - Clostridium botulinum

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• Tetanus toxin - Clostridium tetani

Cytotoxins: These toxins affect the host cells by enzymatic attack
• Diptheria toxin -- Corynebacterium diptheriae
• Streptolysin O and Streptolysin S -- Streptococcus pyogenes
16. Botulism is a disease caused by the ingestion of food containing the neurotoxin produced by the
Clostridium botulinum.
17. Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic Gram positive spore forming and rod shaped bacterium.
It is widely distributed in soils, fresh water and marine sediments. It produces neurotoxin
(BoNT Botulism Neuro Toxin).
18. The bacterium responsible for this gastroenteritis is Staphylococcus aureus
19. Staphylococcus aureus produces 6 serologically distinct enterotoxins (A, B, C1, C2, d and E)
20. Vibriosis caused by V. parahaemolyticus. It causes gastroenteritis. Mainly contamination from
sea food products. Natural habitat of Vibrio sps is sea.
21. E.coli is used as an indicator for fecal contamination of water.
22. E. coli sero type 0157:47 has been recognized as the cause of a number of out breaks of
haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome.
23. E.coli is a catalase positive, oxidage negative, fermentative, short Gram negative, non spore
forming rod.
24. Bacillus cereus virulence factor is a hemolytic enterotoxin complex designated HBL and it
exhibits hemolysis, dermonerosis and vascular permeability properties.
25. Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes. Listeriae are Gram positive, non spore forming
and non acid fast rods.
26. Salmonellosis caused by Salmonella sps. Salmonellae are small, Gram negative, non sporing

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rods.
27. Widal test is used to detect the Salmonella
28. Aspergillus flavus produces Aflatoxin B is the most potent of all. Aspergillus parasiticus
produces B1, G1, B2 and G2.
29. Patulin (Clavicin or expansin) is produced by a large number of fungi including Penicillium
claviforme, Penicillium expansum Penicillium patulum Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus
terreus, Byssochlamys nivea and Byssochlamys fulva.
30. Ochratoxin is a potent nephrotoxin was first isolated from Aspergillus ochraceus in South
Africa. It is commonly contaminant of cereals, barley, infected with Penicillium verrucosum,
A.ochraceus, A. alliaceus, A. ostianus, A. mellus, A. niger and A. carbonarius.
31. Citrinin mycotoxin is produced by Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium viridicatum.
32. Weak acids are lipophilic and penetrate the membrane. The primary effect of such acids is to
lower cytoplasmic pH and undissociated acids may have specific effects on metabolism that
amplify the effects of the weak acid.
33. Acid-potentiated ions, such as carbonate, sulfate, and nitrate, which are inhibitors at lower pH.
34. Fumonisins are produced by Fusarium sacchari, Fusarium subglutinans, and Fusarium
thapsinum.
35. Sambutoxin is associated with dry – rotted potatoes and is produced primarily by Fusarium
sambucinum. This toxin causes oesophageal cancer.
36. Zeralenone toxin is produced by Fusarium graminearum and F. tricinctum. These fungi invage
field corn at the silking stage, especially during heavy rain fall.
37. Ergotism is caused by the alkaloids produced by fungi Caviceps purpurea and C. paspali

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growing on the plants of rye and other members of the family Graminae. The symptoms of
ergotism include hyperexcitability, belligerency, tremors, stumbling and collapse.
38. Cyclopiazonic acid is a toxic indole tetramic acid that is produced by the numerous sps of
Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is a natural contaminant of corn and peanuts and was implicated
in human intoxication involving millet.
39. Rubratoxin produced by Penicillum rubrum which infects cereals and legumes. It causes
haemorrhagic enterocolitis and abortion.
40. Amanita muscaria is also a poisonous species of mushroom, which results in death of healthy
person.
41. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: This syndrome is contracted by eating toxic mussels, oysters,
scallops or cockles. They become toxic after feeding on certain dinoflagellates of which
Gonyaulax catenella.
42. Saxitoxin- Saxidomas giganteus.
43. Gonyatoxin - G.catenella; G.tamarensis.
44. Ciguatera poisoning : This poisoning occurs from the ingestion of fish that feed on herbivorous
or reef fishes which in turn feed on dinoflagellates. The responsible dinoflagellate is Gambier
discus toxicus which produces ciguatoxin.
45. Tetrodo toxin is present in fugu or puffer fish. This algal toxin accumulates in the gonads and
viscera of the fish that feed on the Calcareous alga of Jania sp.
46. Scombro toxic fish poisoning results from the bacterial action on Scombroid fish such as tuna
or mackerel. Bacteria act as indirect agents of food poisoning by converting food components in
to harmful compounds.
47. Amebiasis (amoebic dysentery) caused by Entamoeba histolytica. It is often transmitted by the

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fecal oral route, water, food handlers and foods. The edible oils serve a number of purposes in
this role
48. Sarcocystosis caused by Sarcocystis hominis, S. suihominis, when humans ingest a sacrocyst,
bradyazoites are released and penetrate the lamina propria of the small intestine. Symptoms are
stomachache, diarrhea, nausea.
49. Cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium partum source of contamination from faecal
matter. It causes diarrhea.
50. Cyclosporiasis caused by Cyclospora cayetanensis. Symptoms include diarrhea, loss of
appetite, fatigue and weight loss.
51. Hepatitis A is the cause of infections hepatitis. Hepatitis A is transmitted by the faecal- oral
route. Milk, fruits like strawberries and raspberries, vegetables lettuce and shellfish are common
food vehicles.
52. Arsenic absorption occurs predominantly from ingestion from the small intestine. Arsenic exerts
its toxicity by inactivating up to 200 enzymes.
53. WHO – maximum acceptable level of Hg in foods other than fish is 0.05ppm
54. Provisional tolerable intake set by WHO for Cadmium is 57-71 µg/ day.
55. Food generally contains less than 0.05ppm of cadmium, providing estimated 0.5mg cadmium
per week.
56. The provisional to liberate weekly intake of lead as laid down by the FAO/WHO joint expert
committee is only 3mg per person (or) 0.05mg/kg body weight.
57. Types of Pesticides:

1. Chlorinated pesticides

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2. Non chlorinated pesticides

58. Chlorinated pesticides: 1. DDT, 2. BHC, 3. Chlordane, 4. Toxaphene, 5. Aldrin, Dieldrin, 6.
Methoxychlor, 7. Heptachlor 8. Mirex, 9. Dicofol, 10. Endosulfan, 11. Telodrin, 12.
Chlordecone (Kepone)
59. Non chlorinated Insecticides
• Carbamates: Dome ton, pyrolan, Isolan, Carbaryl, propoxur (Baygon), Mexacarbate
(Zectran), Aminocarb, Mathiocarb, Metacil, prome carb (Carbamult),Aldicard,
Aldoxicarb (Aldicarb sulfone), Landrin, Dioxacarb, Primicarb, Bendiocarb (Ficam)
Indoxacarb, Alanycarb, Furathio carb, Carbosulfan and Fenoxy carb.
• 3 groups of organophosphates (Ops)
-Aliphatic Ops 2. Phenyl Ops 3. Hetero cyclic (Ops)
60. Aliphatic Ops:These are carbon chain like structures. The first Op used in Agriculture, TEPP
Ex: Schadan, TEEP, Dime fox, Malathion, Demeton, Mevinphos, Phorate, Dichlororos, Ethion,
Alephate, Monocrotophos, Dicrotophos etc.
61. Phenyl Ops: The Phenyl Ops contain a phenyl ring one of the ring hydrogens replaced by
attachment to the phosphorous moiety and other hydrogens replaced by Cl, No2 CH3 CN or S.
The phenyl Ops are generally more stable than the aliphatic. First phenyl Op brought to
agricultural use was ethyl parathion. Ex: Parathion, methyl Parathion, profenophos,
Dichlorophos, Fenamiphos, Tetra chlorvinphos, Iodofephos, crotoxyphos, phenthoate, Fenthion
chlorfenviphos, Fenitrothion.
62. Hetero cyclic Ops: This group contains heterocyclic ring in their structure.
Ex: Coumaphos, Diazinon, Azinphos, morphothion, phosalone, Methidathion, Chlorpyriphos,
Quinalphos, Triazophos, Primiphos.

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63. Goitrogens: Goiter is defined as a noncancerous and non inflammatatory enlargement of the
thyroid gland and has been recognized since ancient times.
64. Favism: Favism is a hemolytic disorder and caused by exposing to pro oxidant chemicals found
in fava beans (Vicia faba). Syptoms of favism include hemolytic anemia, jaundice and
hyperbilirubinemia.
65. Neurolathyrism is an ancient disease caused by consumption of peas of the genus Lathyrus
sativus commonly known as vetch pea, chickling pea or grass pea.
66. Neurolathyrism is known to occur in humans following consumption of atleast 300g/day of the
peas for a period of at least 3 months.
67. Cyanogenic glycosides are cyanide-containing compounds naturally present in seeds from
apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums, quinces, and also in almonds, sorghum, lima
beans, cassava, corn, yams, chickpeas, cashew nuts, and kirsch.
68. Canavanine is produced in other legumes as well, such as the jack bean. It is an analog of
arginine and, as such, can substitute for this amino acid in cellular proteins, thereby
compromising their function. Canavanine inhibits the enzyme nitric oxide synthetase and
induces heat-shock proteins in human cells
69. Allyl isothiocyanates are a group of major naturally occurring compounds that confer a pungent
flavor to foods, such as mustard and horseradish, where it is present at about 50 to 100 ppm.
70. Isothiocyanates occur in cruciferous vegetables as glucosinolate conjugates that are hydrolyzed
when the plant releases enzymes such as during chewing. Isothiocyanates are toxic goitrogens
which inhibit binding of iodine in the thyroid gland.
71. Safrole is found in sassafras tea and makes up 85% of oil of sassafras (Sassafras albidum),
which was once used to flavor root beer.

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72. Glycyrrhyzin is a saponin-like glycoside derived from the dried roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra,
popularly known as licorice. Licorice is one of the oldest folk medicines traditionally used as an
expectorant, flavoring agent (also used to mask the bitter taste of medicines), and demulcent.
73. Protease inhibitors are proteins which inhibit proteolytic enzymes by binding to the active sites
of the enzymes.
74. Gossypol is a plant antinutritive factor present in oil and protein that gained importance as a
dietary oil and protein source, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. This antinutritive
is a yellow pigment present in all parts of the cotton plant.
75. Optimum pH for sodium benzoate is 2.5 – 4.0.
76. Propianates – (sodium or calcium propionate) are used most extensively in the prevention of
mold growth and rope development in backed goods and for mold inhibition in many cheese
foods and spreads. Also used in butter jams, jellies, figs, apple slices and malt extract.
77. Diacetyl: One of the most effective flavoring agents is diacetyl, which imparts the aroma of
butter.
78. A sanitizer is a substance that reduces, but not necessarily eliminates microbial contaminants on
inanimate surfaces to levels that are considered to be safe from a public health standpoint. A
sanitizer is effective in destroying vegetative cells.
79. Chlorine gas may be injected slowly into water to form the antimicrobial form, hypochlorous
acid (HOCl). Liquid chlorine is a solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in water.
Hypochlorous acid is 80 times more effective as a sanitizing agent than an equivalent
concentration of the hypochlorite ion.
80. Natto is a product resembling cheese, which is produced from soya bean by fermenting with
Bacillus sps .

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81. Tempehe is prepared from cooked soya bean by fermenting with Aspergillus Oryzae
82. Flat sour: Mostly occurred in non –acid foods like vegetables and caused by the thermophilic
species of Bacillus such as Bacillus coagulans and Bacillus Sterothermophilus, which produce
acid with out formation of gas.
83. Thermophilic acid (TA) spoilage: The cans swell due to production of carbon dioxide and hy-
drogen by Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum. This spoilage mostly occurs in low and medi-
um acid foods.
84. Sulphide spoilage (Sulphur stinker): it is caused by Clostridium nitrificans in low acid foods.
85. Bacteria used as Test organisms

Bactria used Processing or test purpose
Clostridium sporogenes (P.A, 3679) Inoculated pack studies
Bacillus subtilis Var. niger (Syn. B.globigii, ATCC9372) Hot air and ethylene oxide studies
Bacillus pumpilus (ATCC 27142) Cobalt or gamma radiation sterilization
B. Stearothermophillus (ATCC 7953) Steam sterilization
B. subtilis (ATCC 6653) Steam sterilization
86. F is the time in minutes required to destroy the organisms in a specified medium at 121.1°C.
87. Sauerkraut is an acid cabbage; it is clean whole some product with characteristic flavor, ob-
tained by complete fermentation of shredded cabbage in the presence of 2-3% salt. It contains
not less than 1.5% acid expressed as lactic acid.
88. The organism involved in Sauerkraut is Leuconostac mesentroids which convert sugar to lactic
acid, acetic acid, alcohol, carbon dioxide and other products which contribute to the flavor of
product. As acid accumulates L. Mesentroides is inhibited but fermentation is continued by
Lactobacillus brevis, pediococcuss, cerevisiae and finally Lactobacillus plantarum

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89. Ergot alkaloids of Claviceps perpuria are found in cereals especially in Rye, jowar, bajra. The
responsible alkaloids are Erotamine, Ergotoxin and Ergometine .
90. At a concentration of 70% or more sugar, helps in with drawl of water from microorganisms
due to high osmotic pressure.
91. Humectant is a substance added to foods to avoid undesirable drying of foods and to maintain
the moisture level. The substances employed for this purpose are glycerin, sorbitol, Mannitol,
dextrose and corn syrup.
Water activity of foods
1. Water activity (aw) affects food chemistry and can be controlled by removal (dehydration or
drying) or by chemically binding the water, reducing its activity. Water activity in foods ranges
from 0.95 to 1.00 in fresh meats and vegetables to 0.20 in dried milk.
2. Water activity (aw) may be defined in a number of ways, qualitatively, aw is a measure of un-
bound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions.
3. Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes, and chemical reactants en-
counter and is affected by at the micro environmental level in food materials.
4. Two foods with the same water content can have very different aw values depending upon the
degree to which the water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.
5. The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ra-
tio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the
same temperature.
6. Water activity or aw is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour pressure of the solution
compared with the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Under equilibrium
conditions water activity equals:

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aw = RH / 100
7. When a food is in moisture equilibrium with its environment, then the water activity of the food
will be quantitatively equal to the RH divided by 100.
8. At the usual temperatures permitting microbial growth, most bacteria require a water activity in
the range of about 0.90 to 1.00.
9. Sugar and glycerol are two important ingredients for decreasing aw.
10. Humectants are additives that bind water and control aw.
11. Water activity reduction achieved by adding humectants to food enhances stability, maintains
texture, and reduces microbial activity.
12. The integrated approach: Using these concepts one can now better explain the effect of water
content on chemical and biological reaction rates as proposed by Labuza et al (1970) in the
form of the water activity stability map shown in Figure

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13. Series of general rules with respect to the measured water activity and food stability which are
listed below.
• aw ~ 0.2 to 0.3 BET monolayer, at and below this value reactions requiring water
phase do not occur
• aw ~ 0.2 to 0.3 below this rate of lipid oxidation increases
• aw ~ 0.35 to 0.4 onset of stickiness
• aw ~ 0.4 to 0.5 onset of loss of crispness on gain of moisture

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• aw ~ 0.5 onset of hardening (e.g. raisins) on loss of moisture
• aw ~ 0.6 onset on microbial growth
• aw ~ 0.65 to 0.85 maximum reaction rate in amorphous systems as function of aw

(e.g. enzymes, Non- Enzymatic Browning (NEB) , lipid oxidation)
• aw ~ 0.85 onset of growth of bacterial pathogens
14. The likelihood of Maillard reactions browning a product increases as the water activity in-
creases, reaching a maximum at water activities in the range of 0.6 to 0.7.
15. Most enzymatic reactions are slowed down at water activities below 0.8. But some of these re-
actions occur even at very low water activity values.
16. Some common spoilage organisms and their aw limits are listed in the table below
Microbial Group Example aw Products affected
Normal bacteria Salmonella species Fresh meat, milk
0.91
Clostridium botulinum
Normal yeast Torulopsis species Fruit juice con-
0.88
centrate
Normal molds Aspergillus flavus 0.80 Jams, jellies
Halophilic bac- Wallemia sebi Honey
0.75
teria
Xerophilic molds Aspergillus echinulatas Flour
0.65
Osmophilic yeast Saccharomyces bisporus 0.60 Dried fruits

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17. Factors used for food preservation are called ‘hurdles’ and there are numerous hurdles that have
been applied for food preservation.
18. Potential hurdles for use in the preservation of foods can be divided into physical, physico-
chemical, microbially derived and miscellaneous hurdles
19. Hurdles used for food preservation influence the quality as well as the safety of foods. The ef-
fects of hurdles on food quality can be positive or negative, depending on their intensity
20. Most important hurdles for food preservation
Symbol Parameter Application
F High temperature Heating
T Low temperature Chilling, freezing
aw Reduced water activity Drying, curing, conserving
pH Increased acidity Acid addition or formation
Eh Reduced redox potential Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate
Pres. Preservatives Sorbate, sulfite, nitrite,
c.f. Competitive flora Microbial fermentations
21. Physical hurdles: Aseptic packaging, electromagnetic energy (microwave, radio frequency,
pulsed magnetic fields, high electric fields), high temperatures (blanching, pasteurization, steril-
ization, evaporation, extrusion, baking, frying), ionic radiation, low temperature (chilling freez-
ing), modified atmospheres, packaging films (including active packaging, edible coatings), pho-
todynamic inactivation, ultra-high pressures, ultrasonication, ultraviolet radiation
22. Physico-chemical hurdles: Carbon dioxide, ethanol, lactic acid, lactoperoxidase, low pH, low
redox potential, low water activity, Maillard reaction products, organic acids, oxygen, ozone,
phenols, phosphates, salt, smoking, sodium nitrite/nitrate, sodium or potassium sulphite, spices
and herbs, surface treatment agents

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23. Microbially derived hurdles: Antibiotics, bacteriocins, competitive flora, protective cultures
24. Acetic acid (CH3COOH; pKa = 4.75; MW 60.05) is the primary component of vinegar.
25. Acetic acid is used in food preservation in two forms, namely as 5 to 10% vinegar and as 25 to
80% aqueous solutions of synthetic acetic acid.
26. If the food destined for preservation is adjusted to a pH of about 3 by the addition of acid, the
antimicrobial effect of the acetic acid is 10 to 100 times as powerful as that of other acids, such
as hydrochloric acid
27. Acetic acid is generally more effective against yeasts and bacteria than against molds
28. The water activity value of saturated salt solution is only about 0.75 and a number of microor-
ganism varieties are able to grow even below this limit, it is impossible to protect food stuff re-
liably from all microbial attack by using salt alone, unless the flavor becomes completely unac-
ceptable.Moderately halophilic microorganisms tolerate 5-20% salt and extremely halophilic
strains up to 30%.
29. Many factors can influence shelf-life, and can be categorised into intrinsic and extrinsic factors
30. Food acidity is measured by pH. The pH scale runs from 1 to 14. A pH of 1 is extremely acidic,
14 is very alkaline, and 7 is neutral (distilled water).
31. Low-acid canned foods (LACF) – pH is 4.6 or higher. Are at considerable risk for botulism or-
ganism growth. They require heat treatment of 240 to 250oF for a specific amount of time to
destroy the botulinum organism.
32. Acidified low-acid foods – pH is 4.6 or lower. An acid or acid food has been added so that
every component of the food reaches pH 4.6 or lower within 24 hours after thermal processing.

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33. Acid foods – natural pH of 4.5 or lower. Natural pH controls bacterial growth. Molds can grow
at a pH below 4.5. Molds are capable of consuming acids and raising the pH to a level that al-
lows C. botulinum to grow.
34. pH levels for common foods
pH range Food
4.0-7.0 Vegetables
3.3-7.1 Fruits
5.0-7.0 meats
4.8-7.3 Fish
6.3-8.5 Milk
3.1-4.5 Berries
5.3-5.8 Bread
7.1-7.9 Eggs
5.0-5.5 Sweet sorghum juice
35. Intrinsic factors are the properties of the final product. They include the following:
• Water activity (aw) (available water).
• PH value and total acidity; type of acid.
• Redox potential (Eh).
• Available oxygen.
• Nutrients.
• Natural microflora and surviving microbiological counts.
• Natural biochemistry of the product formulation (enzymes, chemical reactants).

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• Use of preservatives in product formulation (e.g. salt).

36. Extrinsic factors are those factors the final product encounters as it moves through the food
chain. They include the following:
• Time–temperature profile during processing; pressure in the headspace.
• Temperature control during storage and distribution.
• Relative humidity (RH) during processing, storage and distribution.
• Exposure to light (UV and IR) during processing, storage and distribution.
• Environmental microbial counts during processing, storage and distribution.
• Composition of atmosphere within packaging.
• Subsequent heat treatment (e.g. reheating or cooking before consumption).
• Consumer handling.
37. The interaction of such intrinsic and extrinsic factors as these either inhibits or stimulates a
number of processes which limit shelf-life. These processes can be conveniently classified as:
• Microbiological.
• Chemical.
• Physical.
• Temperature relate
38. Growth of a specific microorganism during storage depends on several factors, the most import-
ant being: the initial microbial loading at the start of storage; the physicochemical properties of
the food, such as moisture content, pH, presence of preservatives; the processing method used
in the production of the food; and the external environment of the food, such as the surrounding
gas composition and storage temperature.

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39. Minimum growth conditions for selected microorganisms

Type of Minimum pH for Minimum Aw for Anaerobic growth Minimum growth
growth growth temp. (00C)
microorganism
Salmonella 4.0 0.94 Yes 7
Staphylococcus 4.0 (4.5 for 0.83 (0.90 for yes 6 (10 for toxin)
aureus toxin) toxin)
Bacillus cereus 4.4 0.91 Yes <4
(psychrotrophic)
Clostridium
botulinum
a).Proteolytic 4.6 0.93 Yes 10
A,B,F
Non-proteolytic 5.0 0.97 Yes 3.3
B, E, F
Listeria 4.3 0.92 Yes 0
monocytogenes
Escherichia coli 4.4 0.95 Yes 7.0
Vibrio 4.8 0.94 Yes 5
parahaemolyticu
s
Yersinia 4.2 0.96 Yes -2
enterocolitica
E. coli 0157 4.5 0.95 Yes -6.5
Pseudomonas 5.5 0.97 No <0
Enterobacter 4.4 0.94 Yes 2
aerogenes
Lactic acid bacteria 3.8 0.94 Yes 4
Micrococci 5.6 0.9 No 4

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Yeasts 1-5 0.8 Yes -5

Moulds <2.0 0.6 N0 <0
40. The basic premise of an accelerated test is that by changing a storage condition, the chemical or
physical process that leads to deterioration is accelerated, and that a predictive shelf-life rela-
tionship related to ambient conditions can be defined.
41. Some of the processes that can take place at elevated temperatures and that change the deterior-
ative processes are as follows:
• Phase changes from the melting of fats, and change in solvent properties.
• Crystallization of amorphous carbohydrates.
• Change in the relative rate of chemical reactions with different activation energies.
• Increased water activity.
• Denaturation of proteins.
• Decreased solubility of gases.
42. There are a range of points in the food chain where manufacturers can influence the mix of in-
trinsic and extrinsic factors which affect shelf-life. These include:
• Raw material selection and quality.
• Product formulation and assembly.
• The processing environment.
• Processing and preservation techniques.
• Packaging.
• Storage and distribution.
• Consumer handling

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43. Heat processing of vacuum-packed products at low temperatures for long times is called the
‘sous vide’ process. The principle of the process is to avoid the use of high temperatures, which
lead to irreversible damage (e.g. loss of succulence in meats and loss of crispness in
vegetables).
44. High pressure processing involves pressurizing the foods to pressures of up to 6 000 atmo-
spheres to pasteurise and 10 000–12 000 atmospheres (with 60–80ºC) to achieve sterilization.
45. The irradiation treatment involves exposing packaged food to gamma rays, electron beams or
X-rays. Since this is a cold process the food product does not become cooked.
46. The optimal radiation dose varies with product types and application. Typically the medium
range of doses of 1–10 kGy is suitable for extending the shelf-life of cooked and raw foods.
47. Deterioration of fruit and vegetable products
Product Deterioration mechanisms Limiting changes
Soft fruit Enzymic breakdown Textural softening
Mould growth Visible mould
Moisture loss Dry appearance
Hard fruit Enzymic action Textural softening, bruising
Moisture loss Dry texture
Potatoes Enzymic action Softening , poor cooking

Sprouting Sprouting, toxin production
cucumber Enzymic action Loss of crispness, gross
structure
breakdown

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Coleslaw Moisture loss from Loss of viscosity in

vegetables dressing,
appearance changes,
Fat oxidation microbial
growth
Rancidity
Prepared salads Moisture loss Loss of crispness, drying
Oxiation Browning
Fruit preserves Syneresis Serum separation, mould

growth
Oxidation Flavour loss
48. Deterioration of meat and meat products

Fresh red meat Oxidation Loss of red colour, rancidity
Microbial growth Off-odours and flavours
Frozen meat Oxidation Rancidity
Ice sublimation Freezer burn
Fresh fish Microbial growth Microbial
Chemical reactions Off-odours
Appearance changes
Fresh poultry Microbial growth Microbial
Off-odours
Fresh sausages Microbial growth Microbial
Oxidation Rancidity
Fresh bacon Microbial growth Microbial
Oxidation Rancidity, colour changes
Canned ham Chemical reactions Flavour loss
Can deterioration Gas generation

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49. Deterioration of cereal and other dry products

Bread Starch retrogradation Stale texture and flavour
Moisture migration Dry texture, mould growth
Snack foods Moisture uptake Loss of crispness
Oxidation Rancidity
Cakes Moisture loss Drying and hardening
Starch changes Stale flavour and texture
Microbial growth Mould formation
Dried pasta Starch changes Texture changes, breakage
Protein changes Staling
Breakfast cereals Moisture migration Softening (cereal),
Starch retrogradation hardening (fruit)
Oxidation Stale flavour and texture
Rancidity
Dry mixes Moisture uptake Caking
Non-enzymic browning
Spices Microbial growth Mould and bacterial growth
Volatile loss Flavour changes
Chemical reactions Colour loss
Chocolate Fat migration Fat crystallisation (bloom)
confectionery Texture changes
Oxidation Staling, rancidity
Sugar Moisture uptake Texture changes
confectionery Oxidation Rancidity
50. Deterioration of beverages

Carbonated Gas evolution Carbonation loss
beverages Hydrolysis/oxidation Flavour loss, off-flavours,

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rancidity
Beer Oxidation Off-flavours
Microbial growth Turbidity
Coffee Volatile loss Flavour change
Oxidation Rancidity
Fruit juices Oxidation Flavour and nutrient loss
Enzymic reactions Cloud instability
Tea Volatile loss Flavour loss
Volatile absorption Off-flavours
Wine Oxidation Off-flavours
Colour change
Low-calorie soft drinks Hydrolysis Sweetness loss
51. Deterioration of dairy products
Ice-cream Moisture migration Ice crystal formation
Oxidation Rancidity
Fluid milk Oxidation, hydrolytic Rancidity and other off-
reactions flavours
Microbial growth
Dried milk Moisture uptake Caking
Oxidation Flavour change, rancidity
Butter Oxidation Rancidity
Cheese Oxidation Rancidity
Lactose crystallisation Gritty texture
Microbial growth Mould production
Low-fat spreads Microbial growth Mould
Oxidation Rancidity
Yoghurt Syneresis Serum separation
Oxidation Rancidity
Fruit yoghurt Syneresis Serum separation
Oxidation Rancidity
Microbial growth Mould

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52. Examples of accelerated treatments

Product Treatment Deterioration accelerated
Canned food 37 ºC storage Tin pick-up
55 ºC storage Indicator for thermophilic
organisms
Beer 27 ºC storage General spoilage
Cakes and pastry products 25 ºC or 30ºC/75% RH Mould growth
storage
Emulsion 30 ºC storage Sedimentation
products 55 ºC storage Rapid stability test
Mechanical agitation Coalescence
Thickeners Repeated cooling to 0 ºC Syneresis

Frozen foods Freeze–thaw cycling Starch suitability
Packaged foods High humidity Moisture transfer and
uptake
53. Asporogenous: Bacteria which don’t form endospores.

54. Endospores: are intracellular bodies, resistant to heat, dryness and chemicals.
55. Arthrosporoidia: A spore resulting from fragmentation of hypa. Thin walled cells.
56. Ascus: A sac like structure containing ascospores. Ascospores result from karyogamy and
Meiosos.
57. Assimilation: To take up and incorporate into cell cytoplasm Aerobic.
58. Ballistospore: spores produced on sterigmata that protrude from vegetative cells and are ejacu-
lated into the air by the so called drop mechanism.
59. Karyogamy: The fusion of two nuclei.
60. Reniform: Bean shaped.
61. Chlamydospores: these are thick-walled spores produced in mycelium or in conidia.

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62. Sporangiospore: spores produced in asac-like structure called a sporangium.

63. Anthracnose: Any of several diseases of plants caused by fungi in our case by collectortrichum
spp.
64. Bacteria soft rot: storage rot caused by Erwinia carotovora.
65. Blue mold: refers to penicillium.
66. Brown rot- A rot of stone fruit caused by Monilinia fructicola.
67. Bull’s eye rot- rot caused by phytophthora on tomato fruits.
68. Canker- A necrotic area in plant surrounded by healthy tissue.
69. Dominant flora: The dominant floras are those microorganisms that cause the spoilage under
standard storage and handling conditions.
70. Howard mold count method: A method to determine mold hyphae in food products.
71. Leak: soft rot allowing the content to escape as in strawberry leak.
72. Scald: A superficial discoloration on fruit, Vegetables and leaves.
73. Smudge: disease in which the fungus makes the vegetable appears dirty / sooty.
74. Cresols: Refers to any of three isomeric phenols used as a disinfectant which occurs in smoke
found in smoked meat.
75. Giblets: The heart, liver and gizzard of a fowl.
76. Stabilization / thermo stabilization: A mild heat treatment to kill a fertile egg without coagulat-
ing the proteins.
77. Flat sour: pertaining to bacteria that produce acid but not gas in the spoilage of canned foods.
78. Thermal death point: The temperature that will kill a micro organism in ten minutes.

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79. Auto sterilization: Holding a processed can below the growth temperature of flat sour bacteria,
allowing the viable spores to die with time. For auto sterilization to occur product is under pro-
cessed.
80. D-value: The time it takes to kill 90% of the microbial population.
81. F-value: A value determined on a thermal death time curve. It is the time to kill all the spores at
a designated temperature, usually 121.1°C (250°F).
82. Partial vaccum: An incomplete vaccum formed in the tin can is usually in the range from 1 to 20
inches of Hg.
83. Z-value: A value taken from a thermal death time curve. It is the number of degrees Fahrenheit
to traverse on log cycle. This value and the F-value are used in the process calculations.
84. Bourbon: A whisky distilled from a fermented mash containing not less than 51% corn.
85. Floaters: cucumbers and olives filled with gas which causes them to float.
86. Sour mash: A mash to which a lactic acid bacterium has been added to lower the pH. A sweet
mash doesn’t have these bacteria.
87. Starter culture: culture of any micro organism that are used to ensure the success of the ferment-
ation.
88. Frozen foods: foods that is stored at temp below their freezing points.
89. Refrigerated foods: foods that is stored at temperature above their freezing point.
90. Stormy fermentation: A very vigorous fermentation with large quantities of gas.
91. Yeasts are pathogenic and saprophytic.
92. Most yeast grows at 27-300C
93. Yeast is a good source of protein.

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94. Phytophthora infestans attacks potato and tomato plants. This fungus caused the “blight in Ire-
land during 1845-1846.
95. Aspergillus oryzae, Mucor rouxii, Rhizopus delemar or Rhizopus oligosporus are fungi known
to produce amalyases.
96. Rhizopus oligosporus is the fungus used in the production of Temph.
97. Oxgall, crystal violet and rose Bengal may be added to media to isolate fungi.
98. Fungi which produce ascospore are called Ascomycetes where as fungi not producing sexual
spores are called Fungi imperfect.
99. Nonseptate mycelium is called Coenocytic.
1. A structure that contains gametes is a gametangium.
2. Parthenogenesis is sexual reproduction from the female gamete alone.
3. The bulbous head terminating the conidiophores of aspergillus is a vesicle.
4. Match pairs:
1) N source (c) a. coli forms, leuconostate, Lactobacillus
2) C source (d) b. -log (H+)
3) Osmotic pressure (e) c. amino acid
4) pH (b) d. sugars
5) Biological structure (g) e. Heavy syrups
6) O – R potential (f) f. sodium thioglycollate
7) Water activity (h) g. egg shell
8) Co enzyme (I) h. 1.0 to 0.0 scale

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9) Vitamin (J) i. Mn
10) Metabiosis (a) j. Biotin
5. Fresh fish are in bright in appearance, bright convex (bulging) eyes with a dark pupil,
• Fish is transparent and slimy.
• Bright red gills with no slime.
• Firm belly, doesn’t leave finger mark on pressing
• Fresh sea weedy odour.
• Flesh is translucent.
6. The dominant spoilage flora of fish are 1.Pseudomanas 2.Flavobacterium 3.Micrococcus

7. Fish and sea foods spoil rapidly because of high pH, the vitamins and the proteins.
8. Chemical indicators of quality of fish and sea foods are 1.Indole 2.Ammonia 3.pH
9. Riboflavin chelates cations.
10. The pH of egg white and yolk is higher than that of most foods.
11. Formic, acetic and succinic acids are indicators of egg quality
12. A heat treatment of 54.4°C (130°F) for 15 min thermo stabilizes the egg.
13. If a food product with a water activity of 0.60 is placed in an environment with an ERH of 95%
Moisture will increase.
14. Molds are the first micro organisms to grow on dehydrated foods when the moisture increases
enough for growth to occur.

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15. Aspergillus and pencillium are two genera which occur with a high frequency in spoiling dehyd-
rated foods.
16. Salmonella bacteria associated with poultry meat can cause infection and others are clostridium
perfringens (anaerobic) and staphylococcus.
17.
1) Flat sour (f) a. Butyric anaerobic
2) B.coagulans (i) b. PA 3679
3) D.nigrificans (j) c. D value
4) Thermophilic anaerobic (g) d. F and Z - value
5) C.botulinum (h) e. A mold that spoils canned food
6) Pencillium striatum (e) f. B.stearothermophilus
7) Thermal death time parameters (d) g. C.thermosaccharolyticum
8) Rate of destruction parameters (c) h. food poision
9) Clostridium sporogenes (b) i. tomato products
10) Clostridium butyricium (a) j. sulphide stincker
18. Sorbic acid: A fungistat used in apple juice, bread / or cheese to prevent mold growth.
19. Allyl Isothiocyanate an antimicrobial compounds in mustared.
20. Acrolein: A compound having antimicrobial properties in garlic and onions.
21. Isobutylthiocyanate: A compound having antimicrobial properties in horseradish.
22. Functions of salt in Kraut fermentation: salt is selective and allows lactic acid bacteria to dom-
inate in the fermentation.

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23. Bacteria in the final stage of the Kraut fermentation are L.plantarum, L.brevis and L.fermenti.
24. Malt is an enzyme preparing by germinating barley.
25. Mashing is an enzymatic process in which starch is hydrolyzed to fermentable sugars and some
proteins are degraded to amino acids for food for the yeasts.
26. Food yeasts: S.cerevisiae, Candida utilis, C.tropicalis.
27. Food poisioning and Mycotoxin
1) C.perfringens (g) a. causes most death in home canned foods
2) C.botulinum (a) b. produces skin irritations
3) B.cereus (h) c. cows eat B, and excrete M1
4) Aflatoxin (c) d. pencillium expansum
5) Alpha toxin (g) e. Clostridium botulinum
6) Type A to G (e) f. carcinogenic to trout
7) Ochratoxin (f) g. Associated with poultry meats
8) Patulin (d) h. Facultative anaerobic that causes food poising
9) T-2 toxin (b) I. A fungus toxin
10) Mycotoxin (I)
28. Spices and their action
1) Cinnamon (f) a. Nicotinic acid interferes with its inhibition.
2) Mustard (g) b. ties up acetaldehyde
3) Garlic and onions (j) c. interferes with the synthesis of pantothenic acid

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4) Horseradish (i) d. interferes with the dehydrogenase systems

5) Cloves (h) e. 2660A°
6) So2 (b) f. cinnamic aldehyde
7) Propionic acid (c) g. Allyl iso thiocyanate
8) Sorbic acid (d) h. eugenol
9) Benzoic acid (a) i. acrolein
10) U.V (e) j. Isobutylthiocyanate
29.
1) Kraut (b) a. alcohol
2) S.cerevisiae (a,c,m) b. Homo-heterofermentative bacteria
3) Acetobacteraceti (a, h, j) c. Food yeasts
4) α – amylase (e,m) d. Ferments lactose
5) β – amylase (e, m) e. Malt
6) Ferments cucumbers (b) f. aging
7) Ester production (f) g. salt stock
8) Acetic acid production (a, h) h. aerobics
9) Alcohol production (i) I An aerobic
10) Brandy (j) j. fruit juices
11) Bourbon (k) k. corn
12) Solegin (l) l. sloe berry

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13) Mashing (m) m. Beer

14) Floaters (n) n. Enterobacter aerogenes
15) Rhodotorula (o) o. pink Kraut
30.
1) C.perfringens (f) a. patulin
2) C.botulinum type A (e) b. Aflatoxin
3) B.cereus (d) c. ochratoxin
4) Aspergillus flavus (b) d. facultative anaerobe
5) P. expansum (a) e. F = 2.78 min
6) Aspergillus ochraceus (c) f. alpha toxin
7) C.botulinum type E (g) g. Marine foods
8) C.botilinum (j, k) h. M-aflatoxin
9) B-aflatoxin (h) i. sterigmatocystin
10) C.botulinum (k,j) j. seven types
11) Activates botulin toxin (l) k. most toxic toxin known
12) Meats and gravies (m) l. tryptin
13) Home-canned foods (n) m. C.perfringens
14) Cereals (o) n. C.botulinum
15) Aspergillus versicolor (i) o. mycotoxins
31.

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1) Rhizopus (d) a. Deuteromycetes

2) Phytophthora (c) b. Ascomycetes
3) Alternaria (a) c. Omycetes
4) Hansenula (b) d. Zygomycetes
5) Kloeckera (a)
6) Schizosaccharo (b)
7) Neurospora (b)
Spoilage Manifestations:
32. pH range: Acid and medium acid products, pH above 4.5
33. Type of organism: Flat sour
34. Can: Can flat
35. Manifestations: possible loss of vaccum on storage
36. Product: Appearance not usually altered, pH markedly lowered sour, may have slightly abnor-
mal order sometimes cloudy liquor.
37. Thermophilic anaerobe: Can usually swell – may burst.
38. Product: fermented, sour, cheesy / butyric odor.
39. A pH of 4.6 may be used as the dividing line between medium acid and acid products.
40. The minimum growth temp for most mesophilic organisms is about 10°C.
41. Latent zone of chilling: Storage of foods below 0°C but above freezing point.

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42. The optimum water activity for bacterial growth is 0.89 to 0.99 and below 0.86 may bacteria
will not grow, for moulds 0.7 is the lower unit.
43. Water activity limits for the growth of different microorganism
Aw below which growth

S.No Organism
is inhibited
Gram-negative rods, bacterial spores and
1 0.95
some yeasts
Most cocii, lactobacilli, bacilli and some
2 0.91
molds
3 Most yeasts 0.87
4 Most molds, staphylococcus aureus 0.80 – 0.75
5 Xerophilic molds 0.65
6 Osmophilic yeasts 0.60
44. Chemical Preservatives
Preservatives Maximum Organism Foods

tolerance affected
Propionic 0.32% Molds Bread, cakes, some cheeses. Rope
acid / inhibitor in bread dough.
propionates
Sorbic acid / 0.2% Molds Hard cheese, syrups, salad dressing,
sorbates jelly.
Benzoic acid / 0.1% Yeasts and Margarine, soft drinks, tomato
Benzoate molds ketchup.
So2 / sulfites 200-300 ppm Insects, Molasses, wine making, lemon juice
microorgani
sms

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Ethylene / 700 ppm Yeasts, Fumigant for spices, nuts

propylene molds
oxides
Sodium 0.32% molds Bread
diacetate
Dehydroacetic 65 ppm Insects Pesticide on straw berries, squash
acid
Sodium nitrite 120 ppm Clostridia Meat curing preparations
Caprylic acid - molds Cheese wraps
Ethyl formate 15-200 ppm Yeasts and Dried fruits, nuts
molds
45. Metabolites produced by micro organisms

Product Micro organisms
1. Protease ------- Bacillus subtilis, Mortierella semispora
2. Invertase ------- S.cervisiae
3. Amylase ------- Aspergillus niger
4. Pectinases ------- Aspergillus wentir, Byssochalamys fulva
5. Citric acid ------- A.niger
6. Fumaric acid ------ Rhizopus stolanifer
7. Riboflavin --------- Eremothecium ashbyl
8. Vitamin – B12 ----- Pseudomonas denitrificans
9. Penicillin ----------- Penicillium notatum, P.chrysogenum

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10. Streptomycin ------ Streptomyces griseous

11. Cephalosporins ---- Cephalosporium acrimonium
46. Food spoilage indices
Food Type of Some micro organisms involved

Spoilage
Bread Moldy Rhizopus nigricans
Penicillium
Aspergillus niger
Syrups Ropy Bacillus subtilis
Ropy Enterobacter aerogenes
Yeasty Saccharomyces
Zygosaccharomyces
Pink Micrococcus roseus
Moldy Aspergillus
Penicillium
Fresh fruit Soft rot Rhizopus, Erwinia
and Gray mold Botrytis
Vegetables rot A. niger
Black mold
rot
Pickles Film Yeasts Rhodotorula
Pink Yeasts

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Fresh meat Putrefaction Alcaligenes

Clostridium
Proteus vulgoris
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Fish Moldy Aspergillus

Rhizopus
Penicillium
Souring Pseudomonas
micrococcus
Greening, Lactobacillius
Stone Leuconstac
Pseudomonas
Discoloration Alcaligenes
Putrefaction flavobacterium
Eggs Green rot P.fluorescens

Colorless Pseudomonas
rots Alkali genes
Proteus
Black rots
Concentrated “off” flavor Lactobacillus

orange juice Leuconostac
Acetobacter

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poultry Slime, odour Pseudomonas

Alcaligenes
47. Thermal Process Determination

48. C.botulinum, types A and B are the most heat resistant and are most frequently, the cause of
botulism in canned foods.
49. Factors affecting the thermal resistance of spores may be classified into 3 groups
(1) Inherent resistance (2) Environmental factors prevailing during the growth and form-
ation of cells/spores (3) Environmental factors at the time of heating of cells/spores
50. Inherent resistance:
• Thermal inactivation rates: (D value, i.e., time required to inactivate 90% of the population
at a particular temp) can vary from <0.1 sec at 2300F (1100C) for the spores of C.botulinum,
type-E to about 40 min for the spores of Stearothermophilus
1. Young moist spores are more heat resistant than old ones.

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2. Media, incubation times and temp for spore production
Incubation
Microorganisms Media temperature Time days
(0C)
Aerobic
B.subtilis and related Nutrient broth (NB)
20-30 2-4
species and agar
Facultative anaerobic
B.stearothermophilus and NB and A or
other flat sour basamin agar 2-3
thermophilus Dextrose tryptone
agar
Thermoacidurans
B.Coagulans 50-55 2-4
agar or protease
peptone agar
Obligate anaerobic
Liver/beef-heart
broth with or
C. botulinum without casein 28-30 7-14
reinforced
clostridial medium
Liver/beef-heart
broth with or
C. sporogenes and related without casein
38 14
species reinforced
clostridial medium
and trypticase broth
C. thermosaceharolyticum Liver broth with 50-55 7-14
iron strips or pea-
peptone broth with
marble chips corn
liver medium PE-2

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medium
Liver-tomato broth
C. pasteurianum with 10% soil 28-30 4-14
added
Anaerobe producing H2S
Iron sulphate agar
D. nigrificans fluid theoglycollate 50-55 14
medium with iron
Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology

1. Microbial analysis is destructive, so that 100% inspection of batch is impossible.
2. Microbiological quality criteria applied for the purpose of
• An assessment of spoilage potential and keeping quality/shelf life of foods
• An assessment of public health hazard of food interms of the presence of pathogens and
also the presence of toxins or toxigenic organisms.
• Microbial counts which can be related to the hygienic standards of production, and or
which may be considered in an aesthetic sense to be undesirable in the food.
• Microbiological quality that relates to the food conforming to legal standards or specifica-
tions.
3. In the UK a particular style of laboratory coat, known as the “Howie” coat: - this has side/back
opening, a high neck, elasticated or close fitting cuffs.
4. Spilled cultures should be flooded with a suitable disinfectant solution (an iodophor such as
0.5% wescodyne or phenolic such as 2.5% hycolin) and this left for 15-30 min before cleaning
up.

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5. The cotton wool plug in a pipette is there to prevent the contamination of the liquid being pipet-
ted and not to prevent infection of the user.
6. Positive-pressure inoculation chambers are used for sterility testing.
7. Homogenizers and blenders must not be used with bacterial cultures except in a safety cabinet
(Aerosols)
8. QA tests on food samples involving colony counts, most probable number (MPN) counts or any
other cultural procedures must never be performed in laboratories in which starter cultures are
prepared for use in Food fermentations and ban should apply even when the colony counts are
intended to quantity the viable population of the starter organisms.
9. On completion of work, the work area should finally be swabbed down with an disinfectant
solution C dophor 0.5% wescodyne)
10. The location of the first-aid cabinets, eye irrigation bottles and fire extinguishers should be
known by all laboratory workers.
11. Certain laboratory activities should be performed only by staff competent in those procedures
- Personal protection should be used
- Even quite alkali dilute solutions of alkalis can cause permanent corneal damage
- Take care when diluting/dissolving corrosive reagent
- Glassware assemblies should be supported adequately with clamps and stands.
12. Borosilicate glass (Pyrex) or factory washed soda-glass apparatus needs no special treatment
before being used, other than normal wash.
13. New unwashed soda glass should be soaked in HCL overnight to neutralize partially the alkali
contained in the glass.

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14. All glassware containing microbial cultures or otherwise contaminated by microorganisms

should be sterilized by autoclaving for 40 min at 1210C.
15. Plastic petri dishes and petri pipettes and bottles that are disposable should be sterilized by auto-
claving for 40 min at 1210C before discarding.
16. In hot air oven for sterilization the holding time should be a minimum of 2G beginning when
the over thermometer indicates 1600C. The oven should be allowed to cool before the door is
opened as other wise the glasswar may crack.
17. Sterilization in the autoclave: 1210C for 15-30 min in pure saturated steam at 103.4 Kpa (15lb
in-2) above atmospheric pressure.
18. Filter intended to remove bacteria may have a quoted pore size range of 0.22 ±0.02 µm.
19. There are 4 types of test for evaluation of disinfectants:
• The phenol coefficient tests, such as the Rideal-Walkar test
• Suspensions tests, which determine the survivor - time curves for disinfectant
• Capacity tests, such as Kelsey-skykes test which determine the ability of the dis-
infectant to be soiled with MOs and organic or other material and still remain ef-
fective.
• Hard-carrier tests, which determines the ability of a disinfectant/sanitizers
20. Standard hard water used to prepare the dilutions of the disinfectants :
• 17.5 ml of 10% (W/v) solution of CaCl2.6H2O and 5 ml of 10% (W/v) solution of Mg-
SO4-7H20 are added to 3.347 of distilled water sterilize by auto claving.

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21. In storage conditions conducive to bacterial growth, such as a moist atmosphere and a temperat-
ure range between –1 and 25 °C, a wide range of genera are responsible for organoleptic spoil-
age.
22. In the food industry at present the identification methods used are either immunological-based
or nucleic acid-based.
23. In the case of immunological techniques, these use antibodies which are raised to react to the
surface antigens of specific bacteria known to be responsible for food spoilage and/ or contam-
ination
24. The ELISA test (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is the most commonly used immunolo-
gical method and is based on the use of an enzyme label. Those used at present are targeted at
the detection of food borne pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, toxins produced by
Staphylococcus aureus and proteases from the food spoilage genus Pseudomonas.
25. Nucleic acid based procedures use probes in the form of small segments of complementary
single-stranded nucleic acid which are then applied to detect specific gene sequences (either
DNA or RNA) in test samples and thereby identify accurately specific microorganisms
26. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) allows for rapid and selective identification and/or detection
of microorganisms by amplifying specific gene fragments and then detecting the amplicons by
gel electrophoresis.
27. Yeast spoilage is favored in products with low pH, generally 5.5 or lower, and by the presence
of sugars, organic acids and other easily metabolized carbon sources.

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28. Many high-sugar products are also susceptible to spoilage by yeasts. Yeast spoilage is often
manifested by growth on the surface of products such as cheeses and meats and by fermentation
of sugars in liquid and semi-liquid products.
29. Yeasts, as well as bacteria, are readily stained for microscopic observation by using crystal viol-
et. A small drop of 0.5% crystal violet may be mixed directly with the product on a microscope
slide or mixed with a drop of product that has been diluted 1:10 with distilled water. Since there
are occasions when viable microorganisms are not recovered from spoiled product, microscopic
detection provides a clue to the identity of the spoilage organism.
30. Most spoilage yeasts usually grow well at 25ºC on standard YM agar (3 g yeast extract, 3 g malt
extract, 5 g peptone, 10 g glucose, 20 g agar, l liter water, pH 5 to 7); consequently, this medium
can be used for detection as well as enumeration by standard plate count methods.
31. Spread plates, rather than pour plates, are recommended for both isolation and enumeration be-
cause the increased aeration of surface growth favors recovery and subsequent growth of the
yeast cells.
32. Once spoilage yeasts are isolated and purified, they can be maintained by growing on YM or
5% ME agar at 25ºC for 2–3 days followed by storage for several months in a refrigerator be-
fore the need to retransfer. Exceptions are species of Dekkera (anamorph Brettanomyces),
which often die in culture after a week or two because of accumulation of acetic acid.
33. A rapid means for temporary preservation is to suspend the yeast cells in 10% glycerol and
freeze at –80ºC. Long-term storage should be by lyophilization or freezing in the vapor phase of
liquid nitrogen.

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34. The transition from phenotypic identification of yeasts to molecular identification began with
determination of the mol% guanine + cytosine ratios of nuclear DNA. These analyses demon-
strated that ascomycetous yeasts range from ca. 28 to 50 mol% G + C, whereas basidiomycet-
ous yeasts range from ca. 50 to 70 mol% G + C.
35. The early methods to enumerate and identify molds in foods were based on bacterial detection
where the plates were simply incubated for longer times and filamentous colonies were ex-
amined microscopically by using water mount slides.
36. Potato dextrose agar acidified to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid became widely used for enumeration
of yeasts and molds.
37. There are two major types of plating: direct for internal mold contamination and dilution plating
for total mold count
38. In the direct method, intact foods such as grains, nuts or seeds are decontaminated to remove
surface molds because the intent is to determine whether molds have invaded the food particles
and could outgrow once proper conditions are obtained.
39. In dilution plating, a sample is weighed, blended with diluent and plated onto agar that is incub-
ated at a set temperature for 5 days.
40. The ideal medium for enumeration of molds should: (1) be nutritious enough to support fastidi-
ous molds, (2) suppress bacteria, (3) slow mold colony growth but not prevent spreading molds
from growing, and (4) promote growth of the spoilage molds but suppress the growth of molds
that are not involved in the spoilage of the food being evaluated.

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41. Table: Selective media and incubation conditions used to isolate, enumerate and identify
specific groups of molds in foods
Type of molds Selective media Incubation condi-

tions
Acidophilic Acetic dichloran yeast extract sucrose agar 25°C for 5–7 days
(ADYS)
Aflatoxin producers Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus agar (AFPA) 30°C for 2–3 days
Fusarium species Czapek iprodione dichloran agar (CZID) 25°C for 5 days
a
Heat-resistant Malt extract agar (MEA) or potato dextrose 28–30°C for 30
agar (PDA) with 50 ppm chloramphenicol and days
50 ppm chlorotetracycline
Ochratoxin A pro- Dichloran rose bengal yeast extract sucrose agar 20°C for 7–8 days
ducers (DRYES)
and dichloran yeast extract sucrose glycerol
agar (DYSG)
Penicillium species Dichloran rose bengal yeast extract sucrose agar 20°C for 5 days
(DRYES)
Preservative resist- Acetic dichloran yeast extract sucrose agar 25°C for 5–7 days
ant (ADYS)
Proteinophilic Dichloran creatine sucrose bromocresole agar 25°C for 7 days
(CREAD)
Xerophilic Dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG18) 25°C for 7 days
Xerophilic – ex- Malt yeast 50% glucose agar (MY50G) 25°C for 7–21
treme days
a
Heat 100 g of product to 75 °C and hold for 30 min before plating onto the agar.

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42. The time during which it remains stable and retains the desired quality is called the shelf-life.
During this time the product should:
• remain safe;
• comply with any label declaration of nutritional data;
• retain the desired sensory, chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics of

that product.
43. Nonmicrobial spoilage defects
Description Causes
Rancidity Oxidation of fats. Exacerbated by elevated temperature, light or oxygen
levels.
Colour loss Bleaching or fading of colour due to enzymatic action. Exacerbated
by light.
Staleness Associated with high fat products. Enzymatic changes, e.g. oxidation.
Separation Formation of separate layer, e.g. in mayonnaises and sauces.
Caused by enzymatic reactions.
Dryness Loss of moisture from product. Exacerbated by elevated temperature.
Limpness Product has lost turgidity, e.g. cut vegetables. Enzymatic action.
44. Most foods will contain microorganisms that have the potential to grow and spoil the food un-
less they have received a commercial sterility heat process, i.e. >FO 3 (heat treatment equivalent
to 3 minutes at 121 °C).
45. Apples and pears are commonly spoiled by Penicillium expansum, which causes a characteristic
brown, spreading rot.

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46. Penicillium expansum is commercially important both as a major spoilage fungus, and as the
main source of the mycotoxin patulin, which occurs in apple and pear juice as the result of rot-
ting of fruit due to P. expansum.
47. Penicillium digitatum produces destructive brown rots on oranges and less frequently other
types of citrus.
48. Penicillium italicum also causes rots in citrus, principally in lemons. Fungal growth in the rots
is blue or blue green.
49. Anaerobic spore-formers were isolated and described by Kitasato in 1889, who was the first to
isolate tetanus bacillus and by Van Ermengem (1896), who was the first to isolate C. botulinum.
50. B. coagulans is typically described as facultative thermophilic.
51. The four thermophilic or facultative-thermophilic groups commonly referred to are non-hydro-
gen sulphide (H2S) producing anaerobes (e.g. Thermoanaerobacterium thermosaccharolyticum,
formerly Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum), aciduric flat-sour aerobic bacteria (e.g. B. co-
agulans), thermophilic flat-sour (non-aciduric) aerobic bacteria (e.g. Geobacillus stearothermo-
philus, formerly B. stearothermophilus), and Thermophilic sulphide (or H2S-producing) anaer-
obes (e.g. Desulfotomaculum nigrificans).
52. A fifth group of facultative thermophilic facultative anaerobes (e.g. B. subtilis) is also associ-
ated with thermophilic spoilage.

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53. Foods spoiled by different groups of spore-forming bacteria and the effects observed
Spoilage group Spoilage organisms Typical foods affected Spoilage effects
Thermophilic aciduric B. coagulans (formerly B. ther- Low pH, canned/her- Acid production (de-
flat sours moacidurans), B. smithii metically sealed crease in pH), off-
products, e.g. toma- taste, off-odour, little
toes (pH 4.2–4.4). or no gas production.
Higher pH dairy In evaporated milk,
products, example causes firm coagula-
evaporated milk tion
powder
Thermophilic flat G. stearothermophilus High pH canned/her- Acid production (de-
sours (formerly B. stearothermo- metically sealed crease in pH) off-taste,
philus) products (most meats, off-odour, little or no
milk, vegetables) gas production
Facultative thermo- B. subtilis High pH canned/her- Some gas production,
philes, facultative an- metically sealed sometimes acid pro-
aerobes products. Bread held duction, causes soft
at high ambient tem- swells. Causes ‘rope’
peratures in bread
Thermophilic non- Thermoanaerobacterium ther- Canned/hermetically Hard swells, acid pro-
H2S producing anaer- mosaccharolyticum (formerly sealed, high pH or duction (decreasing
obes C. thermosaccharolyticum), acidic (pH 4.1–4.4) pH), gas (H2, CO2),
products held at high cheesy or butyric
C. thermoaceticum
temperature (30–60 odours
°C) for extended peri-
ods, e.g. vending ma-
chine soups, veget-
ables, pet foods
Thermophilic H2S Desulfotomaculum nigrificans Canned/hermetically H2S production
producing anaerobes (formerly C. nigrificans) sealed products held at (‘sulphide stinkers’),
high temperature (>55 blackening
°C) for extended peri-
ods
Mesophilic facultat- B. coagulans, B. smithii, Canned/hermetically Hydrolyse starch,
ive anaerobes some gas forming

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B. amyloliquefaciens, B. circu- sealed products types (P. macerans, B.

lans, Fresh vegetables subtilis-pumilus
Brevibacillus laterosporus growing/held at high group). Some produce
ambient temperatures flat-sour.
(formerly B. laterosporus),
P. macerans). Soft rot
Brevibacillus brevis (formerly
of fresh vegetables. B.
B. brevis), Paenibacillus ma- betanigrificans causes
cerans black beets
(formerly B. macerans), B.
pumilus,
Paenibacillus polymyxa
(formerly
B. polymyxa), B. betanigrific-
ans
54. Members of the genus Bacillus are Gram-positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, typically
catalase-positive, rod-shaped, motile, endospore-forming bacteria.
55. Members of the genus Clostridium are Gram-positive, obligately anaerobic, rod-shaped, spore-
forming, usually catalase negative and unable to carry out dissimilatory sulphate reduction.
56. Aspergillus is a genus of Hyphomycetes. The fruiting structures are distinctive: the conidio-
phores have large, heavy walled stipes and swollen apices, termed ‘vesicles’, which are usually
roughly spherical. The cells from which spores are formed, phialides, or metulae and phialides,
are produced from the vesicle.
57. Significant mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus species and their toxic effects

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Mycotoxin Toxicity Species

Aflatoxin B1 and B2 Acute liver damage, cirrhosis, A. flavus,
carcinogenic (liver), teratogenic, A. parasiticus,
immunosuppressive
A. nomius
Aflatoxin G1 and G2 Similar effects to B aflatoxins: A. parasiticus,
G1 toxicity less than A. nomius
B1 but greater than B2
Cyclopiazonic acid Degeneration and necrosis of A. flavus,
various organs, tremorgenic, low A. tamarii
oral toxicity
Ochratoxin A Kidney necrosis (especially pigs), A. ochraceus
teratogenic immunosuppressive, A. carbonarius,
probably carcinogenic
A. niger occational
Sterigmatocystin Acute liver and kidney damage, A. versicolor,
carcinogenic Emericella spp.
Fumitremorgens Tremorgenic (rats and mice) A. fumigatus
58. Endotoxin: These are soluble proteins found in cell extracts or in the growth medium called as
endotoxins or endogenous toxins.
Ex Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membranes of Gram –ve bacteria.
59. Exotoxins: These are soluble proteins secreted outside the bacteria through their cell wall and
these substances are heat labile, being inactivated by boiling.
60. Enterotoxin: These toxins stimulate cells of gastrointestinal tract in an abnormal way.
Ex: Cholera toxin – Vibrio cholerae
- Heat labile enterotoxin (LT) -- Escherichia coli
- Heat stable enterotoxin (St) -- Escherichia coli

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- Shiga toxin -- Shigella dysentriae

61. Botulism is a disease caused by the ingestion of food containing the neurotoxin produced by the
Clostridium botulinum.
62. Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic Gram positive spore forming and rod shaped bacterium.
It produces neurotoxin (BoNT- Botulism Neuro Toxin).
63. Based on serological properties of Clostridium botulinum, BoNTs are classified into 6 types.A,
B, E, & F types cause disease to humans.
64. Human pathogenic strains of Clostridium botulinum, BoNTs are divided into three groups.
• Group I – Proteolytic and Mesophilic. Include Type A, B, F
• Group II – Non proteolytic and Psychrotrophic. Include Type E and non proteolytic of
strains of B & F.
• Group III: Includes types C & D; they are non proteolytic and share a common metabol-
ic pattern.
65. Staphylococcal gastroenteritis is caused by the ingestion of food that contains one or more en-
terotoxins. The bacterium responsible for this gastroenteritis is Staphylococcus aureus.
66. Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive coccus forming spherical to ovoid cells about 1 µm in
diameter. These are facultative anaerobes. It is a typical mesophile with a growth temperature
between 7 and 48°C and an optimum temperature is 37°C. Growth occurs at pH 6-7.
67. Staphylococcus aureus produces 6 serologically distinct enterotoxins (A, B, C1, C2, d and E)
and A is most poisoning.

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68. Vibriosis: Vibriosis caused by V. parahaemolyticus. It causes gastroenteritis. Mainly contamina-

tion from sea food products. Natural habitat of Vibrio sps is sea.
69. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is known to cause extra intestinal infections in humans.
70. Vibrio cholera: Vibrio cholera is best known as the cause of human cholera. Strains that cause
epidemic/pandemic cholera belonged to serovar O group 1.
71. E.coli is used as an indicator for fecal contamination of water.
72. Based on disease syndromes and characteristics and also on their effect on certain cell cultures
and serological groupings, five virulence groups of E. coli are recognized:
• Entero aggregative E.coli or Facultative entero pathogenic E.coli
• Entero hemorrhagic E.coli (EHEC)
• Entero invasive E.coli (EIEL)
• Entero pathogenic E.coli (EPEC)
• Entero toxigenic E.coli (ETEC)
73. E. coli sero type 0157:47 has been recognized as the cause of a number of out breaks of haem-
orrhagic colitis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome.
74. E.coli is a catalase positive, oxidage negative, fermentative, short Gram negative, non spore
forming rod.
75. IMVIC test is used to differentiate from other members of the Enterobacteriaceae.
• I = Indole from tryptophan
• M =sufficient acid to reduce the medium pH below 4.4, the break point of the indicator methyl
red (M).

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• V = Acetoin (acetyl methyl carbinol);
• C = the ability to utilize citrate
76. E.coli is a typical mesophile growing from 7-10°C up to 50°C (opt temp 37°C) and produces
both gas and acid on carbohydrate.
77. Entero pathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC): They do not produce entero toxins but causes
diarrhea.
78. Entero invasive Escherichia coli (EIEC): It does not produce entero toxins. It causes ulceration
and inflammation in the epithelial cells of the colon. It causes symptoms of invasive bacillary
dysentery normally associated with Shigella.
79. Entero haemorrhagic E.coli (EHEC): Produces two basic toxins. Usually they are called shiga
like toxin SLT-I SLT-II. Also known as Vero toxin producing E.coli (VTEC).
80. Entero toxigenic E. coli (ETEC): Primary enterotoxins which are heat labile and stable are pro-
duced.
81. Facultative entero pathogenic E. coli (FEEC): It is associated with sporadic diarrhea out breaks.
82. Eosin methylene blue agar is a popular selective and differential medium for isolation and iden-
tification of E.coli from suspected samples.
83. Traveler’s Diarrhea: E.coli is well established as one of the leading causes of acute watery
diarrhea that often occurs among new arrivals in certain foreign countries caused by ETEC
strains, EPEC and ST producing strains .
84. B. thuringiensis has been isolated from foods and it produces Vero-cell active toxin.

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85. Bacillus cereus virulence factor is a hemolytic enterotoxin complex designated HBL and it ex-
hibits hemolysis, dermonerosis and vascular permeability properties.
86. Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes. Listeriae are Gram positive, non spore forming
and non acid fast rods.
87. Salmonellosis caused by Salmonella sps. Salmonellae are small, Gram negative, non sporing
rods.
88. Widal test is used to detect the Salmonella.
89. Most useful technique for differentiating genus of Salmonella is based on their antigens site
• Somatic (O) ----- Salmonella typhi,
• Flagellar (H) antigens -------- Salmonella Dublin,
• Capsular (vi) antigens ---Salmonella paratyphi C
90. Shigellosis caused by Shigella sps. Belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae.

91. Citrinin mycotoxin is produced by Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium viridicatum.
92. The consumption of poisonous mushroom may cause serious illness, even death. Amanita phal-
loides and Amanita verna are highly toxic among the other Amanita sps. Poison causes paralysis
of nervous system and degeneration of the liver starts.
93. Tetrodo toxin: Tetrodo toxin is present in fugu or puffer fish. This algal toxin accumulates in
the gonads and viscera of the fish that feed on the Calcareous alga of Jania sp.


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Causes of Food Spoilage, Sources of Lecture No P- AP e-: 04

Microbial Contamination of Foods, Food Borne

2. Prokaryotes (pro=before and karyon = nut/Kernel) Ex: Bacteria

5. Helicobacter invades the stomach and causes gastric ulcers.

6. Epidemiology concerns with monitoring, control and spread of diseases in communities.

8. E.Coli, the generic name of organism named after Theodor Escherich.

9. Incineration is a sterilization procedure by which contaminated particles are burned to ashes.

12. Sterilization in autoclave is done with saturated steam under pressure.

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15. Fermenters are often called as stirred tank reactors.

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he got Noble Prize in 1952.

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33. Most bacteria an incubation temperature of 30-37ºC is optimum.

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germination and grow out to form a vegetative cell.

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shaped, branching in Geotrichum.

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Coxiella burnetti, Pasteurization temperature was raised to 62.8°C. Coxiella burnetti is

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pepperoni, country ham, Jerky and some dried fish.

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79. Downey mildew: Caused by Phytopthora bremia.

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the index of pure glucose).

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• Tetanus toxin - Clostridium tetani

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57. Types of Pesticides:

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2. Non chlorinated pesticides

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85. Bacteria used as Test organisms

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• aw ~ 0.2 to 0.3 below this rate of lipid oxidation increases

• aw ~ 0.35 to 0.4 onset of stickiness

• aw ~ 0.4 to 0.5 onset of loss of crispness on gain of moisture

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• aw ~ 0.5 onset of hardening (e.g. raisins) on loss of moisture