Group2 S&T Material Final

APPSC Group2 S&T Notes by Malleswari Reddy Mana La Excellence
APPSC Group 2 S&T Mains Material

Unit 1: Technology Missions, Policies and Applications
1. National S&T Policy: Recent Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, and National Strategies and
Missions
2. Emerging Technology Frontiers
3. Space Technology: Launch Vehicles of India, Recent Indian Satellite Launches and its applications,
Indian Space Science Missions
4. Defence Technology: Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO): Structure, Vision
and Mission, Technologies Developed by the DRDO, Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP)
5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT): National Policy on
Information Technology – Digital India Mission: Initiatives and Impact – E-Governance Programmes
and Services – Cyber Security concerns – National Cyber Security Policy
6. Nuclear Technology: Indian Nuclear Reactors and Nuclear Power Plants – Applications of
Radioisotopes –India’s Nuclear Programme.
1.1 National S&T Policy: Recent Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, and National Strategies and
Missions
Science & Technology in India

Science refers to the process of gaining knowledge through methodical experimentation and observation.
Often, the words science and technology are used interchangeably. But while the goal of science is the
pursuit of knowledge, technology aims to create products that solve problems and improve human life. So,
technology can be seen as the practical application of science.
Overview of S&T Infrastructure of India
Important Scientific Institutes and Organisations-

Organization Establishment Objectives Major Responsibilities
Department of May 1971 Promote new Formulate S&T policies, coordinate cross-sectoral
Science & areas of S&T, S&T areas, sponsor scientific surveys, support
Technology (DST) coordinate and scientific research institutions, oversee Science and
promote S&T Engineering Research Council, Technology
activities Development Board, National Council for S&T
Communication, National Innovation Foundation,
etc.
Department of 1986 Promote Enhance biotech efficiency and productivity,
Biotechnology biotechnology promote biotech industry, support R&D in biotech,
(DBT) in India socioeconomic development through biotech,
improve agricultural and nutritional security
Council of 1942 Build R&D base Diverse S&T research, societal interventions, patent
Scientific & in India portfolio management, promote entrepreneurship,
Industrial rank high in global institutions, significant
Research (CSIR) contributions to science and technology
Indian Council of 1911 Biomedical Coordinate medical research, translate research into
Medical Research research public health, focus on health problems of
(ICMR) vulnerable populations, promote research in
academia, support biomedical innovation and
diagnostics
Indian Council of 1929 Coordinate Manage research in agriculture, horticulture,
Agricultural agricultural fisheries, and animal sciences, pioneer Green
Research (ICAR) research and Revolution, promote food and nutritional security,
education excellence in agricultural education
Genetic Under Biotech Appraise use of hazardous microorganisms and
Engineering Environment regulation recombinants, evaluate proposals for GE organisms,
Appraisal Protection Act oversee environmental safety of biotech research
Committee 1986
(GEAC)
National Institute 1952 Virus research Monitor viral diseases, develop diagnostics, handle
of Virology (NIV) pathogenic viruses, contribute to Covid-19
management through diagnostics and vaccine
development
Indian Science 1914 Promote Organize annual congress, publish scientific
Congress science in India proceedings, manage funds for science promotion,
Association hold sessions like Children’s Science Congress,
(ISCA) Women’s Science Congress, and Young Scientist
awards
National Policies on proliferation of Science, Technology and Innovation

The chronology of various Science & Technology Policies in India is as follows — Science Policy Resolution
(1956), Technology Policy Statement (1983), Science & Technology Policy (2003) and Science, Technology &
Innovation Policy (2013) and Science Technology Innovation Policy 2020.
Science Policy Resolution 1956-

The first policy on science was adopted by India through the (SPR1958) which laid the foundation for
scientific enterprise and scientific temper in India. S&T were seen as vehicles for the onward journey towards
socio-economic transformation and nation-building.
Technology Policy Statement (1983)

By 1980, India had developed advanced scientific and technological infrastructure in the areas of space,
industrial research, nuclear energy, defence research, biotechnology, agriculture, and health. Subsequently,
with a focus to achieve technological competence and self-reliance through the promotion and development
of indigenous technologies, the TPS was launched in 1983.
These S&T policies took recourse to mass education and cultivation of science and scientific research in HEIs
for attaining technological competence. Economic liberalization and globalization brought new challenges
and opportunities in Science and Technology.
Science & Technology Policy (2003)

From 2000 onwards, India focused on the conversion of knowledge into wealth and value, addressing socio-
economic needs of the country and to amalgamate science, technology, and innovation (STI). Accordingly,
Science and Technology Policy 2003 brought together the areas of S&T with the aim of increasing the
investment required for R&D and innovation in the areas impacting the economy and society.
Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013:

In 2013, Government of India released science, technology and innovation policy that laid greater thrust on
innovation, establishing research institutes and encourages women scientists with an aim to position itself
among the top five scientific powers in the world by 2020.
India has declared 2010-20 as the “Decade of Innovation”. The Government has stressed the need to
enunciate a policy to synergize science, technology and innovation and has also established the National
Innovation Council (NlnC).
The key elements of the STI Policy - 2013

1. Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society.
2. Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social strata.
3. Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and bright minds.
4. Establishing world class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in some select frontier
areas of science.
5. Positioning India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020.
6. Linking contributions of science, research and innovation system with the inclusive economic growth
agenda and combining priorities of excellence and relevance.
7. Creating an environment for enhanced Private Sector Participation in R&D.
8. Enabling conversion of R&D outputs into societal and commercial applications by replicating hitherto
successful models as well as establishing of new PPP structures.
9. Seeding S&T-based high-risk innovations through new mechanisms.
10. Fostering resource optimized, cost-effective innovations across size and technology domains.
11. Triggering changes in the mindset and value systems to recognize, respect and reward performances
which create wealth from S&T derived knowledge.
12. Creating a robust national innovation system.
Investment in Research & Development
1. Global investments in science, technology and innovation are estimated at $1.2 trillion as of 2009.
India’s R&D investment is less than 2.5% of this and is currently under 1 % of the GDP.
2. Achieving this in the next five years is realizable if the private sector raises its R&D investment to at
least match the public sector R&D investment from the current ratio of around 1 :3. The new
paradigm is “Science technology and innovation for the people”.
3. A National Science, Technology and Innovation Foundation will be established as a Public Private
Partnership (PPP) initiative for investing critical levels of resources in innovative and ambitious
projects.
National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2020 (STIP 2020)

1. Covid-19 pandemic has shown the world that it has to take research in science and technology more
seriously than before. In India, the pandemic presented an opportunity for R&D institutions,
academia, and industry to work with a shared purpose, synergy, collaboration and cooperation.
2. With the growing realisation, that science can address many of society’s pressing problems, the
Government of India has released a draft 2020 policy.
3. The STIP will be guided by the vision of positioning India among the top three scientific superpowers
in the decade to come.
4. Apart from it, the policy outlines strategies for strengthening India’s STI ecosystem to achieve the
larger goal of Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India).
Novel Ideas of the Policy & their Significance-
A. Open Science Framework & Inclusiveness:
1. Open Science fosters more equitable participation in science through increased access to research
output, greater transparency and accountability in research.
2. Apart from this, it would ensure better resource utilisation through minimal restrictions and a
constant exchange of knowledge between the producers and users of knowledge.
3. All data used in and generated from publicly-funded research will be available to everyone under
FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable) terms. A dedicated portal to provide access
to the outputs of such publicly-funded research will be created through Indian Science and
Technology Archive of Research (INDSTA).
B. One Nation, One Subscription & Democratization:
1. The STIP envisions free access to all journals, Indian and foreign, for every Indian against a centrally-
negotiated payment mechanism.
2. In the present mechanisms, consumers of knowledge such as line departments, innovators,
industry, the society at large, etc., do not have access to these research journals.
3. Hence, the policy seeks to democratise science by providing access to scholarly knowledge to not
just researchers but also to every individual in the country.
C. Science & Gender Parity:
1. India has valued women’s participation in science and education from ancient times. Some of the
earliest women scientists, including Leelavati, Gargi, and Khana, made significant contributions to
mathematics, natural science, and astronomy.
2. Over the last six years, women’s participation in S&T has doubled in India; however, women’s
overall participation in R&D continues to be only about 16%.
3. Therefore, the policy has envisaged gender parity by addressing career breaks for women by
considering academic age rather than biological/physical age.
4. Apart from this, it proposes an inclusive culture that'll be facilitated through the equal opportunity
candidates from rural-remote areas, marginalised communities, differently-abled, Divyangjans,
irrespective of their socio-economic backgrounds.
D. Traditional Knowledge & Carving Own Niche:
1. The policy envisages establishing an institutional architecture to integrate Traditional Knowledge
Systems (TKS) and grassroots innovation into the overall education, research and innovation
system.
2. This focus on indigenous know-how may help India shine globally, standing on its merit and unique
technologies based on timeless ancient wisdom curated/enhanced by modern science and
technology.
E. Collaboration & Ease of Doing Research:
1. The proposed Science Technology Innovation Observatory will have an important governance role
in the collaboration networks.
2. The policy proposes creating a National STI Observatory that will act as a central repository for all
kinds of data related to and generated from the STI ecosystem.
3. Further, an STI Development Bank will be set up to facilitate a corpus fund for investing in direct
long-term investments in select strategic areas.
Technology Missions
In 1987, then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi appointed Sam Pitroda advisor to the Prime Minister on National
Technology Missions.
These missions focus on five critical areas:
1. Drinking water
2. Immunizations
3. Literacy
4. Oil seeds
5. Telecommunications
Later, 6th mission is added.
6. Dairy production
Technology Mission Specific Goals Achievements/Key Initiatives
Drinking Water - Provide clean potable water to - Identified 100,000 problem villages using
100,000 problem villages. - Ensure 40 geohydrological mapping. - Established
liters/day per person and 30 liters/day water quality and quantity standards. -
per head of livestock. Educated villagers on pump repair,
distributed repair manuals in 15 languages.
Immunizations - Immunize 20 million pregnant - Implemented oral polio vaccine with cold
women and 20 million children per chain for refrigeration. - Developed India's
year. polio vaccine production capacity. - India
declared polio-free in 2013.
Literacy - Teach 80 million people (ages 15-35) - Focused on motivating adults to learn and
to read and write at the rate of 10 providing materials and teachers. - Awarded
million each year. UNESCO’s NOMA Literacy Prize in 1999.
Oilseeds - Increase oilseed production by up to - Encouraged farmers to plant oilseeds by
18 million tons. - Reduce or eliminate restructuring the marketing system. - India
India’s annual 10-billion rupee import started exporting oil cakes at the rate of 600
bill for edible oils. million per year.
Telecommunications - Improve service, dependability, and - Developed indigenous telecom
accessibility of telecommunications, technologies. - Expanded rural telephony
including rural areas. and public call offices (PCOs). - Introduced
digital switching systems and local
manufacturing.
Dairy (added later) - Increase dairy production from 44 to - Implemented technologies for breeding,
61 million metric tons per year. - Raise animal health, fodder, and milk production.
dairy employment and incomes. - - India became the number one producer of
Expand dairy cooperatives by 42%. milk in the world.
National Science and Technology Missions-

1. Climate Change Programme - National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) Missions, 2008
S.No Mission Objective Key Focus Areas Coordinating Agency
1 National Solar Mission Promote solar Solar power capacity, Ministry of New and
energy off-grid applications Renewable Energy
2 National Mission for Improve energy PAT scheme, MTEE, Bureau of Energy
Enhanced Energy efficiency EEFP, FEEED Efficiency, Ministry of
Efficiency Power
3 National Mission on Sustainable urban Urban transport, energy Ministry of Housing
Sustainable Habitat planning conservation, waste and Urban Affairs
management
4 National Water Mission Conserve water Efficient water use, Ministry of Jal Shakti
resources basin-level management
5 National Mission for Assess and sustain Vulnerability Department of
Sustaining the Himalayan Himalayan assessment, ecosystem Science & Technology
Ecosystem (NMSHE) ecosystem health
6 National Mission for a Afforestation and Forest cover Ministry of
Green India reforestation enhancement, Environment, Forest
sustainable agriculture and Climate Change
7 National Mission for Sustainable Drought-proofing, soil Ministry of Agriculture
Sustainable Agriculture agricultural health management & Farmers Welfare
practices
8 National Mission on Build capacities in Human and institutional Department of
Strategic Knowledge for climate science capacities, strategic Science & Technology
Climate Change knowledge
(NMSKCC)
2. National Super Computing Mission, 2015

Aspect Details
Objective Provide supercomputing infrastructure to meet computational demands
Focus Areas Academia, research, MSMEs, startups
Implementing Department of Science and Technology (DST), Ministry of Electronics and IT
Agencies (MeitY)
Execution Partners Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune; Indian Institute
of Science (IISc), Bengaluru
3. National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), 2018

Aspect Details
Objective Develop technologies and applications in Cyber Physical Systems
Focus Areas AI, ML, Robotics, Cyber Security, Data Analytics, Advanced
Communication, Quantum Technologies
Budget Rs. 3660 crore (approved in 2018 for five years)
Implementing Agency Department of Science & Technology (DST)
Technology Innovation Hubs 25 TIHs established in reputed institutes across India
(TIHs)
4. National Quantum Mission (NQM), 2023

Aspect Details
Objective Develop and scale quantum technologies
Focus Areas Quantum computing, communication, sensing, materials
Budget Rs. 6003.65 crore (2023-24 to 2030-31)
Implementing Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Agencies
Thematic Hubs Quantum Computing, Quantum Communication, Quantum Sensing & Metrology,
Quantum Materials & Devices
National Science Missions-

Prime Minister’s Science, Technology & Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC – Established in 2018) has
identified nine national science missions aim to address major scientific challenges to ensure India’s
sustainable development.
The Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC), is an overarching
Council that facilitates the Principal Scientific Adviser’s Office to assess the status in specific science and
technology domains, comprehend challenges in hand, formulate specific interventions, develop a futuristic
roadmap and advise the Prime Minister accordingly.
Each of these 9 missions will be led by concerned Ministries and will engage international and national
institutional partners, young scientists and industry.
The Nine Missions-
Mission 1: Natural Language Translation:
1. It aims to make opportunities and progress science and technology accessible to all in their mother
tongue and remove the barrier that the requirement of high-level of proficiency in English.
2. Using a combination of machine and human translation, the mission will eventually enable access to
teaching and research material bilingually i.e. in English and one’s native Indian language.
Concerned ministries:
1. Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
2. Ministry of Education
3. Department of Science and Technology
Mission 2: Quantum Frontier

1. It aims to initiate work in control of the quantum mechanical systems, with a large number of
degrees of freedom, as one of the great contemporary challenges in fundamental science and
technology.
2. Building excellence in the quantum frontier will also be essential for national security and in the
development of quantum computers, quantum chemistry, quantum communication, new materials,
quantum sensors and quantum cryptography.
3. Joining the race with other technologically advanced nations, the Indian government has given
primacy to building quantum capabilities in the Budget 2020-21.
4. The Union budget for 2020-21 allocated $1.12 bn (Rs. 8000 crores). Moreover, the Department of
Science & Technology has set up Quantum-Enabled Science & Technology (QuEST) – a research
program to build quantum capabilities.
5. As a part of the program, DST will invest a sum of $11.2 mn (Rs 80 crore) over three years to facilitate
research in this field.
Lead Agencies:
2. ISRO
3. Department of Atomic Energy
Mission 3: Artificial Intelligence (AI)
1. It will focus on addressing societal needs in areas such as healthcare, education, agriculture, smart
cities and infrastructure, including smart mobility and transportation.
2. This mission will work with extensive academia-industry interactions on developing core research
capability at national level which will include international collaborations.
3. It will help push technology frontiers through the creation of new knowledge and in developing and
deploying applications.
Lead Agencies:
1. NITI Aayog
2. Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
4. Department of Biotechnology
Mission 4: National Biodiversity Mission
It will include
1. a comprehensive documentation of India’s biodiversity with the potential for cataloguing and
mapping all lifeforms in India including associated cultural and traditional practices
2. assessment of the distribution and conservation status of India’s biodiversity
3. development of a cadre of professionals adept at handling large sets of environmental data for
management and monitoring of biodiversity
4. establishment of a vibrant biodiversity-based economy on a solid foundation of reliable information
5. engagement with the public
6. enhanced options for agricultural production and livelihood security and the general well-being of
society.
Lead Agencies:
1. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
Mission 5: Electric Vehicles (EVs)

1. It will develop vehicle sub-systems and components for Indian requirements including rare earth
based electric motors, Li-ion batteries, power electronics (like high voltage electric systems) etc. using
academia industry collaboration.
2. This mission is critical for India to reduce fossil fuel consumption and mitigate emissions.
3. For EVs to become economically viable and scalable, focused research, development and innovation
are needed to build indigenous capability.
4. Vehicles need to be energy efficient, use light and efficient batteries that function well in India
specific conditions with materials that are recyclable.
Lead Agencies:
1. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
3. Department of Heavy Industries
4. Ministry of Power
5. NITI Aayog
Mission 6: Bioscience for Human Health
1. It aims to construct comprehensive reference maps of genomes and to understand the dynamics of
how exposure to different environments have impact on our bodies.
2. The mission will focus on the genomic study of populations of humans to identify and unravel the
genetic basis and prevalence of rare and inherited diseases.
3. The outcome will help stimulate better diagnosis and treatment that can feed into the health care
system of the country.
4. The diversity of Indians and of its environment requires a large-scale study of human genomes
specific to our lifestyle and how this impact health and disease patterns.
Lead Agencies:
2. Department of Health
Mission 7: Waste to Wealth
1. It aims to identify, develop and deploy technologies to treat waste to generate energy, recycle
materials and extract worth.
2. The mission will assist and augment the Swachh Bharat and Smart Cities project by leveraging science,
technology and innovation to create circular economic models that are financially viable for waste
management to streamline waste handling in India.
3. An economic system which prioritises the re-use and recycling of resources in order to eliminate
waste and keep them circulating around.
Lead Agencies:
3. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
4. Ministry of Urban Development
5. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
Mission 8: Deep Ocean Exploration

1. It aims to scientifically explore the deep oceans towards improving India’s understanding of the blue
frontier.
2. It will address issues arising from long term changes in the ocean due to climate change.
3. The focus areas cover:
a. the development of technologies for deep sea exploration and exploitation of living (biodiversity)
and non-living (minerals) resources
b. development of underwater vehicles and underwater robotics
c. development of ocean climate change advisory services
d. technological innovations and conservational methods for sustainable utilisation of marine bio-
resources
e. offshore based desalination techniques and renewable energy generation
Lead Agencies:
1. Ministry of Earth Sciences
2. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
3. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
4. Department of Space
5. Defence Research and Development Organisation
6. Geological Survey of India
7. National Biodiversity Authority
Mission 9: AGNIi (Accelerating Growth of New India’s Innovations)
1. The mission aims to support the national efforts to boost the innovation ecosystem in the country by
connecting innovators across industry, individuals and the grassroots to the market and helping
commercialise innovative solutions.
2. It will provide a platform for innovators to bring their technology ready products and solutions to industry
and the market thereby helping propel techno-entrepreneurship which can usher a new era of inclusive
socio-economic growth.
3. The mission includes services across the techno-commercialization chain required to support and upscale
market-ready indigenous innovations.
4. The initiative includes
a. working with government R&D laboratories and academia to help commercialise their innovations;
b. collaborate and value add to existing innovation programs;
c. training and capacity building of scientists, innovators, technology transfer offices and technology
license offices
d. Linking specific needs of industry to research laboratories to enable development of cost-effective
marketable solutions
Lead Partner: Invest India
Indian Scientists and Their Contributions-

Name Contributions Achievements
Jagadish Chandra Pioneering work in plant physiology and IEEE Milestone, Fellow of the Royal
Bose radio waves Society
M. Visvesvaraya Contributions to engineering and Bharat Ratna, Knight Commander of
irrigation projects the Indian Empire
Prafulla Chandra Father of Indian Chemistry; established Knighthood, Fellow of the Royal
Ray Bengal Chemicals Society
C.V. Raman Discovered the Raman Effect, scattering Nobel Prize in Physics (1930), Bharat
of light Ratna
Srinivasa Made substantial contributions to Fellow of the Royal Society, several
Ramanujan mathematical analysis, number theory, theorems named after him
and continued fractions
Satyendra Nath Work on quantum mechanics, Bose- Padma Vibhushan, Fellow of the Royal
Bose Einstein condensate Society
Meghnad Saha Developed the Saha Ionization Equation Fellow of the Royal Society, Padma
Bhushan
Birbal Sahni Pioneer in the study of paleobotany and Padma Bhushan, Founder of Birbal
plant fossils Sahni Institute
A.K. Saha Contributions to spectroscopy and atomic Fellow of the Royal Society
physics
Yellapragada Discovered ATP function; Developed Father of Chemotherapy; Herald-
Subba Rao methotrexate (cancer chemotherapy); Tribune's most eminent medical minds
Discovered aureomycin (antibiotic); of the century
Synthesized folic acid; Cure for filariasis
Homi J. Bhabha Father of Indian Nuclear Program; Padma Bhushan, Founder of TIFR
Established BARC
Subrahmanyan Work in stellar evolution and black holes Nobel Prize in Physics (1983), Copley
Chandrasekhar Medal
Vikram Sarabhai Father of Indian Space Program; Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan
established ISRO (posthumously)
Har Gobind Deciphered the genetic code and its Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Khorana function in protein synthesis (1968)
Asima Chatterjee Research in organic chemistry, medicinal Padma Bhushan, Shanti Swarup
plants; developed anti-malarial and anti- Bhatnagar Award
epileptic drugs
Yash Pal Contributions to cosmic rays and science Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan
communication
U.R. Rao Pioneering contributions to Indian Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan
satellite technology
Raja Ramanna Indian physicist and director of BARC Padma Vibhushan, Padma Shri
G.N. Developed Ramachandran plot for Fellow of the Royal Society, Shanti
Ramachandran understanding peptide structure Swarup Bhatnagar Award
M.S. Indian geneticist and leader of India's Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, Padma
Swaminathan Green Revolution; Head of ICAR and IRRI; Vibhushan, Ramon Magsaysay Award,
Chairman of the National Commission of TIME magazine's 20 most influential
Farmers Asians of the 20th century
Satish Dhawan Contributions to fluid dynamics and space Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan
technology
Prafulla Chandra Father of the White Revolution in India; Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan,
Ray transformed India into the largest milk Padma Shri
producer
Dr. V. Shanta Renowned oncologist; significant Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan,
contributions to cancer care and research Padma Shri
A.P. Mitra Contributions to atmospheric science and Padma Bhushan

radio science
Roddam Contributions to aerospace engineering Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan
Narasimha and fluid dynamics
E.C. George Contributions to quantum optics and Padma Vibhushan, Dirac Medal
Sudarshan Sudarshan-Glauber representation
A. P. J. Abdul Contributions to aerospace engineering Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan
Kalam and missile development
C. N. R. Rao Contributions to solid-state and structural Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan
chemistry
R. Chidambaram Contributions to Indian nuclear program Padma Vibhushan, Padma Shri
Raj Reddy Pioneering work in artificial intelligence Turing Award, Padma Bhushan
and robotics
Manmohan Contributions to chemical engineering Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan
Sharma
Jayant Narlikar Contributions to cosmology and Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan
astrophysics
Darshan Significant contributions to bio-organic Fellow of the Indian National Science
Ranganathan chemistry, including protein folding and Academy
supramolecular assemblies
Sam Pitroda Telecom and IT revolution in India; Padma Bhushan

contributions to public policy and
innovation
Anil Kakodkar Contributions to India's nuclear energy Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan
program
G. Madhavan Nair Contributions to Indian space missions, Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan
including Chandrayaan-1
Dr. Indira Hinduja Pioneering work in gynecology; credited Padma Shri
with the birth of India's first test-tube
baby
Srikumar Contributions to metallurgy and nuclear Padma Shri, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar
Banerjee materials Award
A. Sivathanu Pillai Contributions to BrahMos missile Padma Bhushan
program
K. Radhakrishnan Leadership in Indian space missions, Padma Bhushan
including Mars Orbiter Mission
K. S. Manam Contributions to computer science and Padma Shri
development of Tejas fighter jet avionics
Dr. Venkatraman Nobel Prize-winning biologist; Atomic Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Louis-Jeantet
Ramakrishnan structure of the ribosome; Work on Prize for Medicine, Heatley Medal,
histone and chromatin structure Padma Vibhushan
Gagandeep Kang Noted virologist; contributions to the Fellow of the Royal Society
development of the rotavirus vaccine
Tessy Thomas Key contributions to the Agni series of Padma Shri, known as "Missile Woman
missiles; Project Director for Agni-IV and of India"
Agni-V
M. Vanitha Project Director of Chandrayaan 2; Part of Best Woman Scientist by Astronomical
Cartosat-1, Oceansat-2, Megha- Society of India
Tropiques; Worked with ISRO for 34 years
Ritu Karidhal Mission Director of Chandrayaan 2; ISRO Young Scientist Award by APJ
Deputy Director of Mangalyaan (Mars Abdul Kalam; "Rocket Woman" of India
Mission); Aerospace engineer with ISRO
since 1997
1.3 Space Technology: Launch Vehicles of India, Recent Indian Satellite Launches and its applications,
Indian Space Science Missions
Space technology involves the development and application of tools, systems, and techniques for exploring
and utilizing space.
Key Components of Space Technology
1. Satellites: Artificial objects placed in orbit around celestial bodies. They are used for communication,
weather forecasting, navigation, and scientific research.
2. Launch Vehicles: Rockets and spacecraft used to transport satellites and humans into space.
3. Spacecraft: Vehicles designed for travel or operation in outer space.
4. Ground Systems: Infrastructure on Earth that supports space missions, including control centers,
tracking stations, and data processing facilities.
Keywords related to Space Technology-

1. Outer Space:
It is a 3-dimensional region that begins where the Earth’s atmosphere ends. Geo space, up to 100 km
(Karman Line), is governed by sovereign laws, while no nation can claim sovereignty in outer space.
Interstellar space is the region between the Sun's heliosphere and the astrospheres of other stars.
2. Karman Line:
A boundary 100 kilometers (62 miles) above mean sea level that marks the edge of Earth's atmosphere and
the beginning of outer space.
3. Outer Space Treaty, 1967:
An international agreement prohibiting the placement of weapons of mass destruction in outer space,
nuclear weapons in orbit, and claims of sovereignty over celestial bodies. India is a signatory.
4. Artemis Accords:
Non-binding principles established by the U.S. and NASA with other countries for governing civil exploration
and use of outer space, the Moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids for peaceful purposes. India joined as the
27th member.
5. Microgravity:
A condition of very low gravity experienced in space. Astronauts are trained to withstand microgravity.
The Moon's gravity is 1/6th of Earth's gravity. Lack of significant atmosphere leads to extreme temperature
variations on the Moon's surface.
6. Space Suit:
Provides necessary protection for astronauts in space, including proper pressure, temperature regulation,
oxygen, water, and protection from space dust and sunlight. ISRO has prepared an indigenous space suit for
the Gaganyaan program.
7. Orbit:
The curved path of an object or spacecraft around a star, planet, or moon. Satellites orbit Earth when their
speed balances Earth's gravity.
8. Solar System:
Planets orbit the Sun due to gravitational attraction. The formation process involved particles coalescing into
planets, moons, and asteroids.
9. Satellite:
A body that revolves around another object. Types include natural (e.g., Moon) and manmade (e.g., Astrosat,
GSAT satellites).
10. Spacecraft:
Artificial objects designed to revolve around other planets or for interstellar missions. Examples include
Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan, and NASA's Voyager probes.
Ex: Voyager Interstellar Mission:
NASA's Voyager 1 and 2 were launched in 1977 to explore outer planets and are now in interstellar space,
sending data back to Earth. Both carry a golden record with sounds and images from Earth.
11. Rocket:
A vehicle used to provide thrust for an object, governed by Newton's Laws of Motion. It consists of fuel,
oxidizer, and an engine.
12. Launch Vehicle:
Rockets used to place satellites or spacecraft into space. India's operational launch vehicles include PSLV,
GSLV, and SSLV.
13. Launch Station:

A site for launching spacecraft. India's sites include the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Satish Dhawan Space
Centre, and Dr. Abdul Kalam Island. A new spaceport is planned in Kulasekarapattinam, Tamil Nadu.
14. Sounding Rockets:
Rockets used for atmospheric and space research. India’s first sounding rocket was launched in 1963.
Currently, the Rohini series is operational.
15. Telescope:
Optical instruments for observing distant objects. Types include ground-based (e.g., Indian Astronomical
Observatory) and space-based (e.g., Hubble Telescope, Astrosat).
16. Perigee & Apogee:
Perigee is the closest point in a satellite's orbit to Earth. Apogee is the farthest point.
17. Lagrange Points:
Stable positions near large orbiting bodies where a smaller object can remain balanced due to gravitational
forces. Examples include L1 and L2 points used by space telescopes.
18. Spectrometer:
An instrument used to measure properties of light. Examples include AstroSat, which studies celestial
sources in multiple wavelengths.
19. Van Allen Radiation Belts:
Zones of charged particles around Earth, trapped by its magnetic field. Discovered by James A. Van Allen in
1958, they are intense over the equator and absent over the poles.
20. Satellite Frequency Bands:
Frequencies used for various satellite applications, including radio communications, astronomy, weather
forecasting, and broadcasting.
Types of Orbits-
Type of Orbit Description Examples
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Orbits ranging from 200 to 2,000 kilometers RISAT series, Cartosat series,
above Earth’s surface, used for Earth Astrosat, now EOS series
observation and scientific missions. satellites
Geostationary Orbit Orbits at approximately 35,786 kilometers INSAT series, GSAT series now
(GEO) above the equator, where satellites appear CMS series satellites; IRNSS
stationary relative to the Earth. Series satellites now NVS series
satellites
Geo Synchronous Orbits at approximately 35,786 kilometers , IRNSS Series satellites now NVS
Orbit (GSyO) other than over equator series satellites
Sun-Synchronous Polar orbits around 600-800 kilometers Cartosat series, Resourcesat
Orbit (SSO) altitude, synchronized to always cross the series
equator at the same local solar time.
Highly Elliptical Orbit Orbits with a high eccentricity, bringing the None prominent
(HEO) satellite close to Earth at one end and far at
the other, used for communications and
observation.
Geosynchronous Transitional orbit used to transfer a satellite GSAT series (during transfer
Transfer Orbit (GTO) from LEO to GEO. phase)
Types of Launch Vehicles of India

Launch Vehicle Description First Payload Notable Missions
Name Flight Capacity
Satellite Launch India's first experimental satellite 1979 40 kg to LEO Rohini-1 (1980)
Vehicle (SLV) launch vehicle, used for launching
small payloads into low Earth
orbit.
Augmented Satellite Designed to augment payload 1987 150 kg to SROSS-1 (1987),
Launch Vehicle capacity compared to SLV, with LEO SROSS-C (1994)
(ASLV) the capability to launch heavier
payloads.
Polar Satellite Launch A highly reliable and versatile 1993 1,750 kg to Chandrayaan-1
Vehicle (PSLV) launch vehicle used for launching SSO, 1,425 (2008), Mangalyaan
satellites into polar orbits and kg to GTO (2013), Cartosat series
geosynchronous transfer orbits.
Geosynchronous Developed for launching heavier 2001 2,500 kg to GSAT series, INSAT-3D
Satellite Launch payloads into geosynchronous GTO (2013)
Vehicle (GSLV) transfer orbits, featuring a
cryogenic upper stage.
GSLV Mark III (LVM- The most powerful Indian launch 2014 4,000 kg to Gaganyaan (upcoming
3) vehicle, capable of launching GTO, 10,000 crewed mission),
heavier payloads into kg to LEO GSAT-19 (2017);
geosynchronous transfer orbits Chandrayan 3
and low Earth orbit.
Small Satellite Aimed at providing on-demand 2022 500 kg to SSLV-D1/EOS-02
Launch Vehicle launch services for small satellites LEO, 300 kg (2022)
(SSLV) with a quick turnaround time. to SSO
Types of Satellites-
A satellite is a body that revolves around another object, such as natural satellites like the Moon or artificial
satellites used for communication, weather monitoring, navigation, Earth observation, scientific research,
and military purposes.
Type of Satellite Description Indian Satellite Examples

Communication Facilitate telecommunication by relaying INSAT series, GSAT series, EDUSAT;
Satellites signals between points on Earth. CMS series satellites
Weather Satellites Monitor atmospheric conditions to provide INSAT-3D, INSAT-3DR, Megha-
weather forecasts and track natural Tropiques; EOS series satellites
disasters.
Navigation Provide global positioning system (GPS) IRNSS (NavIC) series, NVS series
Satellites services for accurate location and timing satellites
information.
Earth Observation Monitor and collect data on Earth's surface, Cartosat series, Resourcesat series,
Satellites environment, and climate. RISAT series; EOS Series satellites
Scientific Satellites Conduct scientific experiments and gather Astrosat, Chandrayaan-1,
data on space and celestial bodies. Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayan 3,
Mangalyaan (MOM)
Military Satellites Used for defense and intelligence purposes, GSAT-7 (Rukmini), GSAT-7A, RISAT-
including surveillance and reconnaissance. 2BR1
Indian Space Missions

Year Mission Name Mission Type Mission Objectives
1975 Aryabhata Satellite India’s first satellite. It was launched for scientific and
technological research.
1980 Rohini Satellite Satellite India’s first satellite launched by its launch vehicle, the
Series (RS-1) SLV-3.
1983 INSAT-1B Communication Part of the Indian National Satellite System for
Satellite telecommunications, broadcasting, and meteorology.
1987 SROSS Series Satellite Series of satellites for scientific research and
(SROSS-1) observation.
1993 IRS-1E Earth Observation Part of the Indian Remote Sensing programme for
resource monitoring and management.
1999 INSAT-2E Communication Advanced communication satellite for broadcasting
Satellite and telecommunications.
2001 GSAT-1 Communication Experimental satellite for testing new technologies in
Satellite communication.
2005 Cartosat-1 Earth Observation High-resolution mapping satellite for cartographic
applications.
2008 Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Exploration India’s first lunar probe, which discovered water
molecules on the Moon.
2013 Mars Orbiter Mars Exploration India’s first interplanetary mission, making India the
Mission first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit.
(Mangalyaan)
2014 IRNSS-1C Navigation Part of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
for providing accurate position information.
2015 Astrosat Space India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space
Observatory observatory for astronomical observations.
2016 GSAT-18 Communication Advanced communication satellite to support
Satellite telecommunication, broadcasting, and broadband
services.
2017 Cartosat-2 Series Earth Observation High-resolution earth observation satellite for
Satellite cartographic and military applications.
2018 GSAT-29 Communication High-throughput communication satellite to provide

Satellite broadband connectivity to rural and remote areas.
2019 Chandrayaan-2 Lunar Exploration India’s second lunar mission aimed at exploring the
Moon’s south pole region, was partially successful.
2020 GSAT-30 Communication Replacement satellite for INSAT-4A, providing
Satellite enhanced communication services.
2021 PSLV-C51/ Satellite Launch Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle mission carrying Brazil’s
Amazonia-1 Amazonia-1 satellite and 18 co-passenger payloads.
2022 GSAT-24 Communication A communication satellite launched for NewSpace
Satellite India Limited (NSIL) to provide DTH television services.
2023 LVM3-M3/ Satellite Launch Launch of 36 OneWeb broadband communication
OneWeb India-1 satellites aboard the LVM3 rocket.
2023 Aditya-L1 Solar Exploration India’s first solar mission to study the sun’s outer
atmosphere, known as the solar corona.
2023 Chandrayaan-3 Lunar Exploration To demonstrate the ability to safely land on the moon
and deploy a rover for exploration.
2024 X-ray Polarimeter Satellite Launch Launched to investigate the polarisation of cosmic X-
Satellite (XPoSat) rays and examine the 50 brightest known celestial
objects in the universe.
Moon Missions of India-

Category Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-2 Chandrayaan-3
Launched in 22nd October 2008 22nd July 2019 14th July 2023
Launched by PSLV-XL C11 GSLV Mk III GSLV Mk III
Components Orbiter, Moon Impact Probe Orbiter, Vikram Lander, Vikram Lander, Pragyan
(MIP) Pragyan Rover Rover
Equipment Scientific Payloads from India: Orbiter payloads: Lander payloads:
1. Terrain Mapping Camera 1. Terrain Mapping 1. Spectro-polarimetry
(TMC), Camera 2 (TMC 2), of Habitable Planet Earth
2. Hyper Spectral Imager (HySI), 3. 2. Chandrayaan 2 Large (SHAPE) payload,
Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument Area Soft X-ray 2. Laser-Induced
(LLRI), Spectrometer (CLASS), Breakdown
4. High Energy X-ray Spectrometer 3. Solar X-ray Monitor Spectroscope (LIBS),
(HEX), (XSM), 3. Alpha Particle X-ray
5. Moon Impact Probe (MIP) 4. Orbiter High Spectroscope (APXS)
Resolution Camera
Scientific Payloads from abroad: (OHRC),
1. Chandrayaan-I X-ray 5. Imaging IR
Spectrometer (CIXS), Spectrometer (IIRS),
2. Near Infrared Spectrometer 6. Dual Frequency
(SIR-2), Synthetic Aperture Radar
3. Sub keV Atom Reflecting (DFSAR),
Analyzer (SARA),
4. Miniature Synthetic Aperture 7. Chandrayaan-2

Radar (Mini SAR), Atmospheric
5. Moon Mineralogy Mapper Compositional Explorer 2
(M3), (CHACE 2),
6. Radiation Dose Monitor 8. Dual Frequency Radio
(RADOM) Science (DFRS)
experiment
Objectives 1. Orbit the Moon using an Indian- 1. Demonstrate soft- 1. Demonstrate safe and
made launch vehicle landing and rover soft landing on the lunar
2. Conduct scientific experiments operations surface
for three-dimensional atlas and 2. Orbital studies of lunar 2. Demonstrate rover
chemical/mineralogical mapping topography, mineralogy, operations on the lunar
3. Increase scientific knowledge and water ice surface
4. Test impact of Moon Impact 3. Expand scientific 3. Conduct in-situ
Probe (MIP) knowledge, engage scientific experiments
public, innovate, and
explore economic
possibilities
Achievements 1. Discovered water/hydroxyl 1. Presence of water 1. Pragyan rover covered
molecules in lunar soil molecules on the Moon over 100 meters on the
2. Indicated subsurface water-ice 2. Detection of minor lunar surface
deposits elements such as 2. Confirmed presence
3. Recorded direct evidence of chromium, manganese, of sulphur in the lunar
water and sodium surface
4. Detected new rock types 3. Observation of 3. Conducted
5. Global imaging of the moon microflares in the solar groundbreaking
corona measurements of the
4. Exploration of lunar plasma
permanently shadowed environment
regions and craters 4. Recorded seismic
activities and thermal
behavior of the lunar
surface
Future Missions-
Year Mission Name Mission Type Mission Details
2024 Gaganyaan 1 Human The first test flight of the Gaganyaan spacecraft, designed
Spaceflight to carry three astronauts and equipped with rendezvous
and docking capabilities.
2024 NISAR Earth A joint project with NASA to launch a dual-frequency
Observation synthetic aperture radar satellite for remote sensing. This
mission is notable for being the first dual-band radar
imaging satellite.
Mid- Gaganyaan 2 Human The second test flight before the inaugural crewed
2025 Spaceflight mission of Gaganyaan.
2025 Venus Orbiter Planetary An orbiter mission to study the atmosphere and surface
Mission Exploration of Venus.
(Shukrayaan)
2026 Mars Orbiter Planetary India’s second interplanetary mission to Mars, primarily
Mission 2 Exploration an orbiter mission aimed at further exploring the Martian
(Mangalyaan 2) surface and atmosphere.
2026 Lunar Polar Lunar A collaborative mission with JAXA (Japan Aerospace
Exploration Exploration Exploration Agency) to explore the Moon’s south pole
Mission region, focusing on water ice and other resources.
2026 Gaganyaan 3 Human The first crewed Gaganyaan mission aimed at making
Spaceflight India the fourth country to independently send humans
to space.
2028 Chandrayaan-4 Lunar A lunar sample-return mission, the fourth in the
Exploration Chandrayaan series, consisting of multiple modules for
different mission phases, including landing and returning
samples from the Moon.
2028– Bharatiya Human A planned Indian space station weighing approximately
2035 Antariksha Spaceflight 20 tonnes, orbiting around 400 kilometers above Earth,
Station where astronauts could stay for 15–20 days at a time.
To be AstroSat-2 Astronomy and A proposed space telescope, successor to Astrosat-1,
decided Astrophysics aimed at advancing astronomical and astrophysical
research. An ‘Announcement of Opportunity’ has been
issued for ideas and the development of instruments.
Gaganyan Program-
1. The Gaganyaan mission will send a crew of three astronauts into space for a three-day mission in a 400
km orbit, and then safely return them to Earth in the Indian Ocean.
2. The Gaganyaan programme includes two unmanned missions and one manned mission.
3. The mission is expected to launch between 2024 and 2025. It is first human space flight mission of India.
4. The mission, named after the Sanskrit word for craft or vehicle to the sky, has a projected cost of ₹90
billion. If successful, India will become the fourth country to send a human into space after the Soviet
Union, the US, and China.
5. The Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) leads ISRO's Gaganyaan programme, coordinating activities across
ISRO centers, Indian research labs, academia, and industries.
6. The mission focuses on R&D in life support systems, Human Factors Engineering, Bioastronautics, crew
training, and human rating & certification, essential for future human space flight activities like space
station building and interplanetary missions.
7. Objective is to demonstrate human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of three to a 400 km orbit
for a three-day mission, landing in Indian sea waters.
Strategy: Utilize in-house expertise, Indian industry experience, academic and research institutions, and
international cutting-edge technologies.
Prerequisites: Develop critical technologies including a human-rated launch vehicle, Life Support System,
crew emergency escape provision, and crew management aspects for training, recovery, and rehabilitation.
Precursor Missions:
1. Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT)
2. Pad Abort Test (PAT)
3. Test Vehicle (TV) flights
4. Safety and reliability to be proven in unmanned missions before the manned mission.
Human Rated LVM3 (HLVM3):
1. LVM3 rocket (GSLV Mk-III), a reliable heavy-lift launcher, is identified for the Gaganyaan mission.
2. HLVM3 includes a Crew Escape System (CES) with quick-acting solid motors to ensure crew safety in
emergencies.
Orbital Module (OM):
1. Comprises Crew Module (CM) and Service Module (SM).
2. CM: Habitable space with Earth-like environment, double-walled construction, life support system,
avionics, and deceleration systems.
3. SM: Provides necessary support to CM in orbit, contains thermal, propulsion, power, avionics
systems, and deployment mechanisms.
Recent Updates-
1. The four astronauts selected for the program are all Indian Air Force pilots: Prasanth Balakrishnan
Nair, Ajit Krishnan, Angad Pratap, and Shubhanshu Shukla. They trained in Russia in early 2020 and
finished their training at ISRO's astronaut training facility in Bengaluru.
2. ISRO successfully tested the cryogenic engine for the unmanned Gaganyaan (G1) mission on February
21, 2024. The CE20 cryogenic engine, now human-rated, will power the upper stage of the LVM3
vehicle.
NASA’s Major Missions-
Mission Details
Apollo Missions (1968) American astronauts made a total of 11 space flights and walked on the
moon. The first Apollo flight was in 1968, the first moon landing in 1969, and
the last moon landing in 1972.
Apollo-Soyuz: An Orbital The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the first spaceflight with two nations
Partnership Begins (1975) working together. The Americans sent an Apollo command module, and the
Russians launched a Soyuz spacecraft.
Artemis Lunar Program Aims to put astronauts on the lunar surface in 2024, including the first female
(May 2019) moonwalker. Named after the twin sister of Apollo, the program marks the
50th anniversary of Apollo 11.
Cassini-Huygens (1997 to A joint mission by NASA, ESA, and ASI to explore Saturn and its system. Cassini
2017) orbited Saturn, while Huygens landed on its moon, Titan, in 2005. The mission
ended in 2017.
Chandra X-Ray Part of NASA's "Great Observatories," it allows scientists to obtain X-ray
Observatory (1999) images of exotic environments. Named after Nobel Laureate Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar.
CubeSats Nanosatellites built to standard dimensions (Units or “U”) of 10 cm x 10 cm x
10 cm, weighing less than 1.33 kg per U.
Curiosity (2011, Still Part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, Curiosity assesses Mars'
Functional as on Sept habitability. It found evidence of ancient lakes and key ingredients necessary
2023) for life.
Double Asteroid A planetary defense test using Kinetic Impactor Technology to alter an
Redirection Test (DART) asteroid's path. Successfully collided with Dimorphos in 2022, changing its
Mission (2021) orbit.
Galileo (1989 to 2003) Orbited Jupiter for eight years, studying its major moons and discovering that
Europa likely has a subsurface ocean.
Hubble Space Telescope NASA's first space-based optical telescope, named after Edwin P. Hubble.
(1990) Major contributions include determining the universe's age, discovering
Pluto's moons, and mapping dark matter.
IceBridge Mission (2009) The largest airborne survey of Earth's polar ice, providing a 3D view of Arctic
and Antarctic ice sheets.
International Space A multi-nation construction project and the largest structure humans have
Station (1998) put into space. Major partners include NASA, Roscosmos, and ESA.
Parker Solar Probe (2018) The first mission to touch the Sun, using Venus' gravity to gradually bring its
orbit closer to the Sun. Studies the solar corona and solar wind.
The James Webb Space A joint venture between NASA, ESA, and CSA, it complements the Hubble
Telescope (2021) Space Telescope with improved sensitivity and longer wavelength coverage.
Perseverance Mars 2020 Investigates Jezero Crater for signs of past life. Equipped with MOXIE, it has
Rover (2020) generated oxygen on Mars. Carries the Ingenuity helicopter for the first
powered flight on another planet.
Orion spacecraft NASA's spacecraft for astronauts, part of the Artemis Mission. Will carry the
crew to space, provide emergency abort capability, and ensure safe re-entry.
OSIRIS-REx The first U.S. spacecraft to collect and return a sample from the near-Earth
asteroid Bennu. Part of NASA’s New Frontiers Program.
PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, A mission to extend and improve NASA's record of satellite observations of
Cloud, ocean Ecosystem) global ocean biology, aerosols, and clouds.
(2022)
ISRO Outreach Activities to Promote Space Technology

ISRO Outreach Activity Description
National Science Day and World Regular outreach programs for students, academicians, and
Space Week enthusiasts.
YUVIKA (Yuva VIgyani KAryakram) Young Scientist Program for school children to learn about space
technology and science.
UNNATI (UNispace Nanosatellite Nanosatellite assembly and training for developing countries,
Assembly & Training by ISRO) enhancing skills in nanosatellite development.
Space Theme Park (Sriharikota) Features Rocket Garden, Launch View Gallery, and Space Museum;
open to the public.
SPARK (The Space Tech Park) Digital space museum showcasing ISRO missions with interactive
content.
1.4 Defence Technology: Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO): Structure, Vision and
Mission, Technologies Developed by the DRDO, Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme
(IGMDP)
Keywords:
1. Defence Platforms
a) Army Tanks: Heavily armed and armoured combat vehicles on tracks. Ex: Arjun Battle Tank
(Indigenous), Soviet BMP-1, BMP-2.
b) Aircraft: Machines supported in flight by buoyancy or dynamic action of air.
c) Combat Aircraft: MiG-21, Mirage 2000, Rafale, LCA Tejas.
d) Helicopters: HAL Rudra, HAL Dhruv, Chinook.
e) UAVs/Drones: Unmanned aerial vehicles used for surveillance and launching missiles. Ex: Heron,
MK I/II.
f) Aircraft Carriers: Naval vessels for planes to land and take off from. Ex: INS Vikramaditya, INS
Vikrant (IAC-1).
g) Submarines: Naval vessels capable of underwater and surface propulsion. Ex: INS Sindhurakshak,
INS Khanderi, INS Arihant.
h) Frigates: Small fast ships in the navy for protection. Ex: INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, INS Sahyadri.
i) Corvettes: Small fast warships for anti-submarine operations. Ex: INS Kamorta, INS Pralaya.
j) Destroyers: Escort groups of ships, armed with firearms and guided missiles. Ex: INS Kolkata, INS
Chennai.
2. Missiles
Ballistic Missiles: Follow a predetermined trajectory. Ex: Agni, Prithvi.; Cruise Missiles: Guided throughout
flight. Ex: BrahMos.
3. Anti-Ballistic Missile System
Network of radars and missiles to neutralize incoming enemy missiles. Ex: Prithvi Ballistic Missile Defence
System, S-400.
4. Nuclear Triad
Capability to deliver nuclear weapons by aircraft, land-based ballistic missiles, and submarine-launched
missiles. Achieved by India with INS Arihant.
5. Torpedoes Self-propelled underwater missiles. Ex: Varunastra, Shena.
6. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
Detection system using radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. Applications
include weather forecasting, air traffic control, marine navigation, and more.
7. AEW&CS (Airborne Early Warning and Control System)
Airborne radar system to detect aircraft, ships, and vehicles at long ranges and command/control the
battlespace. Ex: DRDO NETRA, Phalcon AEW&CS.
8. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
Detection system using sound waves for underwater objects. Used in submarines for detecting objects and
missiles underwater.
9. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
Remote sensing method measuring distances by firing light beams. Applications include topographic
mapping, forest management, archaeological site detection, urban planning, coastal zone monitoring, and
more.
10. Stealth Technology

Ability to hide objects from enemy detection using design or stealth-coated material. Ex: Stealth
capabilities in BrahMos, AGM-158 JASSM, and developments in Tejas Mk2.
Indian Defence:
1. The Government of India is responsible for ensuring the defence of India and every part thereof. The
Supreme Command of the Armed Forces vests in the President. The responsibility for national
defence rests with the Cabinet.
2. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, which provides the policy framework and
wherewithal to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of
the country. The Raksha Mantri (Defence Minister) is the head of the Ministry of Defence.
3. Indian Defence System has been divided into three services - Army, Air Force and Navy.
Departments
1. The Department of Defence (DoD): The Department of Defence is headed by Defence Secretary and
is responsible for the Defence Budget, establishment matters, defence policy, matters relating to
Parliament, defence co-operation with foreign countries and co-ordination of all defence related
activities.
2. The Department of Military Affairs (DMA): The Department of Military Affairs (DMA) is headed by
Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) as Secretary and was created to facilitate optimal utilization of resources
and promote jointness among the three Services.
3. The Department of Defence Production (DDP): The Department of Defence Production is headed by
a secretary and deals with matters pertaining to defence production, indigenisation of imported
stores, equipment and spares, planning and control of departmental production units of the Defence
Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs)
4. The Department of Defence Research and Development (DDR&D): The Department of Defence
Research and Development is headed by a Secretary and Chairman DRDO and deals with research
and development of defence technologies, systems and equipment as required by the three services
of the Armed Forces.
5. The Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DESW): The Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare is
headed by a secretary and deals with all resettlement, welfare and pensionary matters of Ex-
Servicemen.
Chief of Defence Staff (CDS):

1. Created in 2019, the CDS is the highest-ranking officer in the Indian military and chief adviser to
the Defence Minister.
2. Late General Bipin Rawat was the first CDS, with General Anil Chauhan as the current CDS as of
October 2023.
3. The CDS heads the Department of Military Affairs and the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC).
Functions:
1. Commands tri-service Cyber and Space agencies.
2. Member of Defence Acquisition Council and Defence Planning Committee.
3. Military Adviser to the Nuclear Command Authority.
4. Promotes jointness in operations, logistics, and training among the services.
5. Principal Military Adviser to the Defence Minister on tri-service matters.

Defence Acquisition Council (DAC):
1. Highest decision-making body for defence policies and capital acquisitions.
2. Chaired by the Defence Minister.
3. Formed in 2001 following the Kargil War recommendations.
DRDO- Defence Research and Development Organization

1. DRDO is the R&D wing of Ministry of Defence, Govt of India.
2. "Balasya Mulam Vigyanam"—the source of strength is science-drives the nation in peace and war.
3. DRDO was formed in 1958 from the amalgamation of the then already functioning Technical
Development Establishment (TDEs) of the Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Development
& Production (DTDP) with the Defence Science Organisation (DSO).
4. DRDO Chairman - Dr Samir V Kamat
Vision of DRDO
Empowering the nation with state-of-the-art indigenous Defence technologies and systems.
Logo:
Motto:
"Strength's Origin is in Science"
Sanskrit: बलस्य मूलं विज्ञानम्
Mission of DRDO
1. Design, develop and lead to production state-of-the-art sensors, weapon systems, platforms and
allied equipment for our Defence Services.
2. Provide technological solutions to the Services to optimise combat effectiveness and to promote well-
being of the troops.
3. Develop infrastructure and committed quality manpower and build strong indigenous technology
base.
Cluster Laboratories/Establishments List under DRDO-

Sl. Location Area of Research
No. /Establishments/Units
1 Advanced Numerical Research & Analysis Group Hyderabad Computational System
(ANURAG)
2 Advanced Systems Laboratory (ASL) Hyderabad Missiles & Strategic Systems
3 Aerial Delivery Research & Development Agra Parachutes & Aerial
Establishment (ADRDE) Systems
4 Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) Bengaluru Aeronautics

5 Armaments Research & Development Pune Armaments
Establishment (ARDE)
6 Centre for Air Borne System (CABS) Bengaluru Air-Borne Systems
7 Centre for Artificial Intelligence & Robotics (CAIR) Bengaluru Artificial Intelligence &
Robotics
8 Centre for Fire, Explosives & Environment Safety Delhi Explosives
(CFEES)
9 Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences Hyderabad High Energy Weapons
(CHESS)
10 Combat Vehicles Research & Development Chennai Combat Vehicles
Establishment (CVRDE)
11 Defence Avionics Research Establishment (DARE) Bengaluru Avionics
12 Defence Bio-engineering & Electro-medical Bengaluru Bio-engineering
Laboratory (DEBEL)
13 Defence Electronics Applications Laboratory Dehradun Electronics &
(DEAL) Communication Systems
14 Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) Mysore Food Research
15 Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research (DIBER) Haldwani Bio-Energy
16 Defence Institute of High Altitude Research Leh High Altitude Agro-animal
(DIHAR) Research
17 Defence Institute of Physiology & Allied Sciences Delhi Physiology
(DIPAS)
18 Defence Institute of Psychological Research Delhi Psychological Research
(DIPR)
19 Defence Laboratory (DL) Jodhpur Camouflaging and Isotopes
20 Defence Electronics Research Laboratory (DLRL) Hyderabad Electronic Warfare
21 Defence Materials & Stores Research & Kanpur Textiles, Polymers &
Development Establishment (DMSRDE) Composites
22 Defence Metallurgical Research Hyderabad Metallurgy
Laboratory(DMRL)
23 Defence Research & Development Establishment Gwalior Chemical & Biological
(DRDE) Warfare
24 Defence Research & Development Laboratory Hyderabad Missile & Strategic Systems
(DRDL)
25 Defence Research Laboratory (DRL) Tezpur Health & Hygiene
26 Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) Delhi Terrain Research
27 Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) Bengaluru Gas Turbine
28 High Energy Materials Research Laboratory Pune High Energy Materials
(HEMRL)
29 Institute of Nuclear Medicines & Allied Sciences Delhi Nuclear Medicine
(INMAS)
30 Instruments Research & Development Dehradun Electronics & Optical

Establishment (IRDE) Systems
31 Integrated Test Range (ITR) Balasore Missile Testing
32 Joint Cypher Bureau (JCB) Delhi Cypher Systems
33 Laser Science & Technology Centre (LASTEC) Delhi Laser Technology
34 Electronics & Radar Development Establishment Bengaluru Radars
(LRDE)
35 Microwave Tube Research & Development Bengaluru Microwave Devices
Centre (MTRDC)
36 Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) Ambernath Naval Materials
37 Naval Physical & Oceanographic Laboratory Kochi Sonar Systems
(NPOL)
38 Naval Science & Technological Laboratory (NSTL) Visakhapatnam Underwater Weapons
39 Proof and Experimental Establishment (PXE) Balasore Armament Testing
40 Research Centre Imarat (RCI) Hyderabad Missile & Strategic Systems
41 Research & Development Establishment (Engrs) Pune Engineering Systems &
(R&DE[E]) Weapon Platforms
42 Scientific Analysis Group (SAG) Delhi Cryptology
43 Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE) Chandigarh Snow and Avalanche
44 Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL) Delhi Solid- State/ Semiconductor
Materials
45 Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) Chandigarh Ballistics
46 Vehicles Research & Development Establishment Ahmednagar Wheeled Vehicles
(VRDE)
Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP)

1. The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by renowned
scientist Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
2. Dr. Kalam, the then Director of Defence Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL), headed a
Missile Study Team to weigh the feasibility of the programme.
3. The team included members from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the
Army, Navy and Air Force, and Defence Production.
4. Keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by the defence forces, the team
recommended development of five missile systems.
The IGMDP finally got the approval from the Government of India on July 26, 1983.
The missiles developed under the programme were:

1. Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile Prithvi
2. Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile Agni
3. Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile Trishul
4. Medium-range surface-to-air missile Akash
5. Third generation anti-tank missile Nag
Structured as a phased campaign, IGMDP progressed through technology development, sub-system

testing, prototype fabrication, rigorous flight trials, production and eventual induction:
1. 1983-84: Developing infrastructure and training scientific talent.
2. 1984-89: Prithvi and Trishul missile advances.
3. 1989-92: Mastering Nag anti-tank and Akash SAM missiles.
4. 1992- 2008: Mature Agni ballistic missiles proving program success.
The Agni, which was initially conceived as a technology demonstrator project in the form of a re-entry
vehicle, was later upgraded to a ballistic missile with different ranges.
After achieving the goal of making India self-reliant in missile technology, DRDO on January 8, 2008, formally
announced successful completion of IGMDP.
The important list of missiles is: (IGMDP plus others)
Missile Features
Agni I 1. Single stage, solid fuel, Medium Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM).
2. Using solid propulsion booster and a liquid propulsion upper stage.
3. Range of 700-800 km.
Agni II 1. Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM).
2. Range more than 2000 km.
Agni III 1. Two stage IRBM
2. Support a wide range of warhead configurations.
3. Strike range of more than 2,500 Km
Agni IV 1. Two stage missiles powered by solid propellant.
2. Can fire from a road mobile launcher.
3. Range is more than 3,500 km.
4. Equipped with indigenously developed ring laser gyro and composite rocket motor.
Agni V 1. Three-stage solid fuelled, indigenous Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
2. Capable of carrying 1.5 tonnes of nuclear warheads.
3. Latest and most advanced variant in terms of navigation and guidance, warhead and
engine.
4. After induction in the military, India will join an exclusive club of countries like the US,
Russia, China, France, and Britain which have intercontinental ballistic missile
capability.
5. Range is more than 5,000 km.
Trishul 1. Short-range, quick reaction, all weather surface-to-air missile designed to counter a
low-level attack.
2. Has necessary electronic counter-measures against all known aircraft jammers.
3. Only Technology demonstration is successful.
Akash 1. Medium-range, surface-to-air missile with multi-target engagement capability.
2. Multiple warheads capable.
3. High-energy solid propellant and ram-rocket propulsion system.
Nag 1. Third generation ‘fire-and-forget’ anti-tank missile with a range of 4-8km.
2. Developed indigenously as an anti-armour weapon employing sensor fusion
technologies for flight guidance.
3. HELINA (Helicopter Launched NAG) is the air-to-surface version of the NAG integrated
into Dhruv Helicopters.
Prithvi 1. First indigenously built ballistic missile under IGMDP.
2. Surface-to-surface battle field missile.
3. Demonstrates higher lethal effects and high-level capability with field interchangeable
warheads. Range from 150 km to 300 km.
BrahMos 1. Supersonic cruise missile.
2. Being developed with Russia as a private joint-venture.
3. Multi-platform cruise can strike from various types of platforms.
4. Among the world fastest supersonic cruise missiles with speeds ranging between Mach
2.5 – 2.8.
5. A 'fire and forget' weapon i.e. requiring no further guidance from the control centre
once the target has been assigned.
Nirbhay 1. Subsonic missile, supplement to the BrahMos.
2. Capable of being launched from multiple platforms on land, sea and air.
3. A terrain hugging, stealth missile capable of delivering 24 different types of warheads
depending on mission requirements.
4. Can reach up to 1,000 km.
Sagarika 1. Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM)
2. Being integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant-class submarine.
3. Range - 700 km.
Shaurya 1. A variant of the K-15 Sagarika.
2. Submarine- nuclear-capable missile.
3. Aims to enhance India’s second-strike capability.
Dhanush 1. Sea-based, short-range, liquid propellant ballistic missile.
2. Naval version of Prithvi II.
3. Maximum range 350 km.
Astra 1. Beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile using a solid-propellant.
2. In terms of size and weight, one of the smallest weapons developed by the DRDO.
3. Active radar seeker to find targets.
4. Electronic counter-measure capabilities.
5. Designed to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds in the head-on
mode at a range of 80 km.
Prahaar 1. India’s latest surface-to-surface missile with a range of 150 km.
2. Primary objective is to bridge the gap between the unguided Pinaka multi-barrel rocket
launcher and the guided Prithvi missile variants.
3. Have high manoeuvrability, acceleration and accuracy.
Anti-Ballistic Missile System:

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM), weapon designed to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles.
Name of The Missile Type Range
Prithvi Air Defence Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 80km
Prithvi Defence Vehicle Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 30km
Advanced Air Defence Endo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 200km

Ashwin Ballistic Missile Ballistic Missile interceptor / anti-aircraft 150+ km
Interceptor or Advanced Air missile
Defence (AAD)
S-400 System Exo- atmospheric Anti- Ballistic Missile System 400km
S-400 Air Defence Missile System:

1. The S-400 Triumf is a mobile, surface-to-air missile system developed by Russia and entered service
in 2007.
2. India signed a $5.5 billion deal in 2018 to acquire five S-400 systems.
3. It features four different missiles for engaging targets at various ranges up to 400 km, and can
simultaneously engage 36 targets.
4. The system includes radars that can detect objects up to 1,000 km away and distribute targets to
appropriate missile systems.
5. Other countries like China and Turkey have also procured S-400 systems.
Anti-Satellite Missile (ASAT) – Mission Shakti:
1. Under Mission Shakti, DRDO tested ASAT missiles, making India the fourth country to achieve this
capability.
2. These missiles can attack moving satellites and were tested using a modified Prithvi missile.
3. The initiative enhances India's space defense capabilities, complementing its ability to intercept
incoming missiles.
India’s Space Defence Initiatives:
1. Defence Space Agency (2019): Manages space-warfare and satellite intelligence assets.
2. Defence Space Research Organization (2019): Develops civilian space technology for military use.
3. Mission Shakti (2019): ASAT missile test, positioning India among the few nations with this capability.
4. Integrated Space Warfare Exercise (2019): Tri-service exercise using satellites for intelligence and
communication.
Anti-Radiation Missiles (ARM) – RUDRAM:
1. India's first indigenous anti-radiation missile, RudraM-I, was test-fired in October 2020 for the Sukhoi
Su-30MKI.
2. RudraM-II, tested in 2023, can be fired from Su-30s and Mirage-2000s with a range of 300 km.
3. It disrupts enemy communication and tracking by targeting radar emissions. India previously
procured Kh-31 missiles for similar purposes.
Aircraft Carriers of India:

1. INS Vikrant- Procured from UK- Decommissioned (Means not in service)
2. INS Viraat- Procured from UK- Decommissioned (Means not in service)
3. INS Vikramaditya- Procured from erstwhile USSR- Currently in service
4. INS Vikrant (IAC-1)- First Indigenous Aircraft Carrier- Currently in service
5. INS Vishal- Under Construction
INS Vikrant: Indigenous Aircraft Carrier -1 (IAC-1)
1. It is India’s first indigenously designed and manufactured aircraft carrier.
2. The ship has been designed in-house by Indian Navy’s Warship Design Bureau and constructed by M/s
Cochin Shipyard Limited.
3. It will strengthen India as a ‘Blue Water Navy’ — a maritime force with global reach and capability to
operate over deep seas.
4. With this, India joins the countries -The US, Russia, France, the UK and China – who are capable of
designing and constructing aircraft carriers.
Indigenous Submarine Program of India:

P-75 and P-75I Program
1. The P-75I submarines are a planned class of diesel-electric attack submarines for the Indian Navy. They
are successors to the P-75 class submarines.
2. India aims to acquire six advanced submarines under this project, featuring advanced capabilities -
including Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP), , Special Operations Forces (SOF), Anti-Ship Warfare (AShW),
Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW), Land-Attack Capabilities and other
features.
3. All six submarines will be made in India as part of the "Make in India" initiative.
4. In 1997, MoD approved a plan for 24 submarines under Project 75.
5. Post-Kargil War, a 30-year submarine building plan was approved, including two production lines for six
submarines each under P-75 and P-75I. P-75 and P-75I involve the transfer of technology (ToT) from
different foreign manufacturers.
6. INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir- that were built under P75 Commissioned.
7. The 6th (final) one under P75, INS Vagsheer is under construction.
8. Under P75I, strategic partnership model is followed, i.e, joint production by public and private sector.
Joint Military Exercises-
Name Countries Start Year

SAMPRITI (Army) India and Bangladesh 2009
YUDH ABHYAS (Army) India and US 2002
HAND IN HAND (Army) India and China 2007
DHARMA GUARDIAN (Army) India and Japan 2018
KAZIND (Army) India and Kazakhstan 2016
MAITREE (Army) India and Thailand 2006
LAMITIYE (Army) India and Seychelles 2001
NOMADIC ELEPHANT (Army) India and Mongolia 2004
SURYA KIRAN (Army) India and Nepal 2011
MITRA SHAKTI (Army) India and Sri Lanka 2014
GARUDA SHAKTI (Army) India and Indonesia 2012
SHAKTI (Army) India and France 2011
EKUVERIN (Army) India and Maldives 2008
AL NAGAH (Army) India and Oman 2015
KHANJAR (Army) India and Kyrgyzstan 2011
AJEYA WARRIOR (Army) India and UK 2013
COPE-INDIA (Airforce) India and US 2004
AVIAINDRA (Airforce) India and Russia 2014
EX DESERT KNIGHT (Airforce) India and France 2021
EXERCISE INDRADHANUSH (Airforce) India and UK 2006

SHINYUU MAITRI (Airforce) India and Japan 2018
EASTERN BRIDGE (Airforce) India and Oman 2011
SIAM BHARAT (Airforce) India and Thailand 2016
DESERT EAGLE (Airforce) India and UAE 2008
VARUNA (Navy) India and France 2001
SIMBEX (Navy) India and Singapore 1994
CORPAT (Navy) India and Thailand 2005
INDRA (Navy) India and Russia 2003
AUSINDEX (Navy) India and Australia 2015
JIMEX (Navy) India and Japan 2012
Ind- Indo CORPAT (Navy) India and Indonesia 2002
SLINEX (Navy) India and Sri Lanka 2013
Ex Desert Flag (Multi-National) Multiple countries 2015
Malabar (Multi-National) India, Australia, US, Japan 1992
Tiger Triumph (Multi-National) India and US 2019
Pitch Black (Multi-National) Multiple countries 1981
MILAN (Multi-National) Multiple countries 1995
RIMPAC (Multi-National) Multiple countries 1971
MILEX (Multi-National) BIMSTEC countries 2018
PEACEFUL MISSION (Multi-National) SCO member states 2001
1.5 Information and Communication Technology (ICT): National Policy on

Information Technology – Digital India Mission: Initiatives and Impact – E-Governance Programmes and
Services – Cyber Security concerns – National Cyber Security Policy
National Policy on Information Technology 2012-
The National Policy on Information Technology 2012, approved by the Cabinet, aims to leverage Information
& Communication Technology (ICT) to address India’s economic and developmental challenges. Recognizing
ICT's transformative potential, the policy sets ambitious goals for the IT sector.
Key objectives include:
1. Increasing IT and ITES industry revenues from $100 billion to $300 billion and expanding exports from
$69 billion to $200 billion by 2020.
2. Gaining a significant global market share in emerging technologies and services.
3. Promoting innovation and R&D in cutting-edge technologies.
4. Encouraging ICT adoption in key sectors to improve competitiveness and productivity.
5. Providing fiscal benefits to SMEs and startups for IT adoption.
6. Creating a pool of 10 million additional skilled ICT workers.
7. Ensuring at least one e-literate individual per household.
8. Mandating electronic delivery of public services.
9. Enhancing transparency, accountability, and efficiency in government.
10. Leveraging ICT for social sector initiatives like education, health, and rural development.
11. Making India a global hub for language technologies.
12. Enabling access to ICT for differently-abled people.

13. Expanding the workforce and promoting life-long learning.
14. Strengthening regulatory and security frameworks for cyberspace.
15. Adopting open standards and promoting open source technologies.
Digital India Program-
Digital India programme (launched in 2015) is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and
knowledge economy. The programme, designed by the Department of Electronics and Information
Technology (DeitY).
It aims to provide electronic government services, public accountability, and a unified ID system.
Key vision areas include:
1. Infrastructure as Utility: High-speed internet in all Gram Panchayats, unique digital identities, mobile
phone and bank account access, common service centers, cloud storage, and secure cyberspace.
2. Governance and Services on Demand: Integrated government services, real-time access via online
and mobile platforms, cloud-based citizen entitlements, digital transformation for ease of business,
cashless transactions, and GIS-based decision support.
3. Digital Empowerment: Universal digital literacy, accessible digital resources, cloud-based
government documents, digital services in Indian languages, participative governance platforms, and
portability of entitlements.
Nine growth areas: (9 Pillars of Digital India)
broadband highways, universal mobile access, public internet access, e-governance, e-Kranti, information
for all, electronics manufacturing, IT for jobs, and early harvest programmes.
The approach involves leveraging ICT infrastructure, revamping e-governance initiatives, promoting public-
private partnerships, and adopting unique IDs for authentication and benefits delivery. The programme will
integrate existing schemes under a single vision.
In 2023, The Union Cabinet approved an expansion of the Digital India programme with an outlay of ₹14,903
crore.
Key initiatives include:
1. Re-skilling and up-skilling 6.25 lakh IT professionals under the FutureSkills Prime Programme.
2. Training 2.65 lakh persons in information security under the ISEA Programme.
3. Adding 540 additional services to the UMANG app, increasing the total to over 2,240 services.
4. Deploying 9 more supercomputers under the National Super Computer Mission, in addition to the
existing 18.
5. Expanding Bhashini, the AI-enabled multi-language translation tool, to all 22 Scheduled 8 languages.
6. Modernizing the National Knowledge Network, connecting 1,787 educational institutions.
7. Extending digital document verification via DigiLocker to MSMEs and other organizations.
8. Supporting 1,200 startups in Tier 2/3 cities.
9. Establishing 3 Centres of Excellence in AI focused on health, agriculture, and sustainable cities.
10. Providing cyber-awareness courses for 12 crore college students.
11. Developing new cyber security tools and integrating over 200 sites with the National Cyber Coordination
Centre.
Impact of Digital India Mission- (2015-23)
The initiative has significantly reduced the gap between the government and citizens, providing transparent
and corruption-free services.
Key Achievements:
1. Aadhaar: Over 135.5 crore residents enrolled, providing a unique, lifelong digital identity.
2. Common Services Centres (CSCs): 5.21 lakh CSCs offer over 400 digital services in rural areas.
3. DigiLocker: More than 13.7 crore users with 562 crore documents available from 2,311 issuers.
4. UMANG: Provides 1668 e-Services and over 20,197 bill payment services.
5. e-Sign: Over 31.08 crore e-Signs issued for online document signing.
6. MyGov: Over 2.76 crore registered users for participatory governance.
7. MeriPehchaan: A National Single Sign-on platform integrating 4419 services.
8. Digital Village: Covers 700 Gram Panchayats, offering digital health, education, financial services, and
more.
9. e-District MMP: 4,671 e-services launched in 709 districts.
10. Open Government Data Platform: Over 5.93 lakh datasets published, facilitating 94.8 lakh downloads.
11. e-Hospital/ORS: 753 hospitals onboarded, with 68 lakh appointments booked.
12. CoWIN: Managed over 220 crore COVID-19 vaccinations.
13. Jeevan Pramaan: Processed over 685.42 lakh digital life certificates for pensioners.
14. NCOG-GIS Applications: 659 applications operational for location-based analytics.
15. National Knowledge Network: 1752 links to institutions commissioned.
16. PMGDISHA: 6.63 crore registered candidates for digital literacy, with 4.22 crore certified.
17. UPI: Facilitated 730 crore transactions worth Rs 11.9 lakh crore.
18. FutureSkills Prime: Reskilling/upskilling IT professionals in emerging technologies.
19. Cyber Security: Ranked 10th in the Global Cybersecurity Index .
Electronics Manufacturing:
20. M-SIPS: Approved 315 applications with proposed investments of Rs. 85,632 crore.
21. EMC Scheme: Approved 19 Greenfield EMCs and 3 Common Facility Centres in 15 states.
Digital India- Health Sector-
1. Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM): Creates a national digital health ecosystem providing
universal health coverage. The Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) allows seamless access and
sharing of health records.
2. Aarogya Setu: Now a National Health App under ABDM, it facilitates health services, doctor
appointments via eSanjeevani, and Covid-19 vaccination management.
3. eSanjeevani: The world's largest telemedicine service, with two modes: eSanjeevaniAB-HWC
(provider-to-provider) and eSanjeevaniOPD (patient-to-provider).
4. CoWIN: A robust platform for managing COVID-19 vaccination, with over 220.67 crore vaccinations
administered and 110.93 crore registrations as of November 2023.
5. e-Hospital: A Hospital Management Information System connecting patients, hospitals, and doctors
on a digital platform, available to government hospitals via the cloud.
6. e-BloodBank: A complete blood bank management system providing real-time blood stock
availability and blood donation history.
7. Online Registration System (ORS): Links hospitals across the country for online appointment systems
integrated with the Ayushman Bharat Health Account.
8. SeHAT: A teleconsultation service for Ministry of Defense personnel and their families, offering video,
audio, and chat consultations from home.
9. e-RAKTKOSH: A centralized blood bank management system with Aadhaar linkage, offering features
like donor management, blood inventory tracking, and biomedical waste management.
Digital India- Education:
1. The Digital India initiative has significantly improved education access in rural areas through several
key efforts:
2. DIKSHA: A national digital infrastructure providing quality e-content and QR-coded Energized
Textbooks. As of July 25, 2023, DIKSHA has recorded over 524 crore learning sessions and 6,125 crore
learning minutes.
3. DTH Channels: Operational with 12 school education channels and 22 higher education channels.
Plans to expand to 200 PM e-Vidya DTH TV channels.
4. SWAYAM: A national MOOC platform offering 10,451 higher education courses with credit transfer
options, including 257 NCERT and 431 NIOS courses. Currently, 4.1 lakh students are registered for
NCERT courses and over 34 lakh for NIOS courses.
The government has also taken steps to provide free digital tools to marginalized communities, as outlined
in the National Education Policy 2020:
5. PM e-VIDYA: Launched on May 17, 2020, unifying digital, online, and on-air education efforts.
Available free of cost to students across all states.
6. DIKSHA: Provides quality e-content and QR-coded Energized Textbooks for all grades.
7. DTH Channels: Expanded from 12 to 200 channels for supplementary education in various Indian
languages.
8. Radio and Podcasts: Extensive use of radio, community radio, and CBSE Podcast Shiksha Vani for
educational content.
9. Special e-content: Developed for visually and hearing-impaired students using DAISY and sign
language, available on the NIOS website and YouTube.
10. Virtual and Skilling e-labs: 750 virtual labs for Science and Mathematics and 75 Skilling e-labs for
classes 6-12 to promote critical thinking and creativity.
11. ICT and Digital Initiatives: Financial assistance under the Samagra Shiksha scheme for establishing ICT
labs and smart classrooms in government and aided schools.
12. SATHEE Portal: Developed in collaboration with IIT Kanpur to assist students preparing for
competitive exams.
Farmers Welfare:
1. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM): Government of India has launched National Agriculture Market
(e-NAM) Scheme with the objective of creating online transparent competitive bidding system to
facilitate farmers with remunerative prices for their produce. More than 1.73 crore farmers & 2.26
lakh traders have been registered on e-NAM platform. Also, 1000 mandis of 18 States and 3 UTs have
been integrated with e-NAM platform.
2. M-KISAN – mKisan Portal (www.mkisan.gov.in) for sending advisories on various crop related matters
to the registered farmers through SMSs. In mkisan more than 5.13 crore farmers are registered for
receiving crop advisories through SMS. More than 2,462 crore mobile based advisories have been
sent to farmers to assist them in their farming activities.
3. One Stop Window-Farmers Portal (www.farmer.gov.in) for dissemination of information on various
agricultural related matter including, seeds variety, Storage Godown, Pests and plant diseases, Best
Agricultural Practices, Watershed, Mandi details etc.
4. Soil Health Card – It provides soil related information to facilitate farmers in farming activities. More
than 22 crore soil health cards have been printed and dispatched to farmers.
5. Mobile based advisory system for agriculture & Horticulture (M4AGRI) – It is mobile based advisory
system for agriculture and horticulture. It has been implemented in the North-East States namely
Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
e-Governance:
E-Governance means utilizing information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enhance governance
across government levels and sectors.
e-Governance in India has evolved from basic computerization of government departments to initiatives
focused on citizen-centricity, service orientation, and transparency.
It is Government Process Re-engineering using IT to simplify and improve government processes for better
service delivery.
National e- Governance Plan-
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) is a comprehensive plan integrating e-Governance initiatives across India
for efficient service delivery and accessibility.
NeGP Components includes 31 Mission Mode Projects (MMPs) and 8 components approved on May 18,
2006.
Vision of NeGP
The vision of NeGP is to make all public services accessible to citizens at their locality through common
service delivery outlets, ensuring efficiency, transparency, and reliability at affordable costs.
E-Governance Infrastructure:
1. State Wide Area Network (SWAN): Connecting state/UT headquarters to block levels with minimum
bandwidth requirements.
2. State Data Centre (SDC): Central repository for state data, disaster recovery, and service delivery.
3. State Service Delivery Gateway (SSDG): Electronic service delivery platform for states/UTs through
Common Service Centers (CSCs).
4. Common Service Centre (CSC): Offering web-enabled e-governance services in rural areas, facilitated
by a PPP model.
e-Kranti: National e-Governance Plan 2.0

Under the Digital India programme, e-Kranti focuses on electronic delivery of services through integrated
and interoperable systems. It was approved by the Union Cabinet on March 25, 2015, with the vision of
"Transforming e-Governance for Transforming Governance."
Objectives of e-Kranti
1. Redefine NeGP with transformational e-Governance initiatives.
2. Enhance citizen-centric services.
3. Optimize the use of core Information & Communication Technology (ICT).
4. Promote rapid replication and integration of e-Governance applications.

5. Leverage emerging technologies.
6. Implement agile models for project execution.
Key Principles of e-Kranti
1. Transformation, not Translation: Projects must substantially transform service delivery and enhance
productivity.
2. Integrated Services: Use common middleware and integrate back-end processes for seamless service
delivery.
3. Government Process Reengineering (GPR): Mandate GPR for all new projects to ensure efficiency.
4. ICT Infrastructure on Demand: Provide government departments with connectivity, cloud, and
mobile platforms as needed.
5. Cloud by Default: Utilize cloud technologies for flexibility, agility, and cost-effectiveness.
6. Mobile First: Design applications for mobile access.
7. Fast-Tracking Approvals: Establish mechanisms for quick approval of projects.
8. Mandating Standards: Use e-Governance standards and protocols as mandated by DeitY.
9. Language Localization: Ensure information and services are available in Indian languages.
10. National GIS: Leverage GIS for decision-making in e-Governance projects.
11. Security and Electronic Data Preservation: Adhere to security measures, including those outlined in
the National Cyber Security Policy 2013.
Thrust Areas of e-Kranti in Digital India
1. Technology for Education: Connect schools to broadband, provide free WiFi, promote digital literacy,
and develop MOOCs for e-Education.
2. Technology for Health: Implement e-Healthcare initiatives like online medical consultations, records,
and medicine supply.
3. Technology for Farmers: Provide real-time price information, online ordering, and mobile banking
services.
4. Technology for Security: Offer mobile-based emergency and disaster-related services.
5. Technology for Financial Inclusion: Strengthen financial inclusion using mobile banking, Micro-ATM
programs, and CSCs/Post Offices.
6. Technology for Justice: Develop interoperable systems for e-Courts, e-Police, e-Jails, and e-
Prosecution.
7. Technology for Planning: Implement the National GIS Mission Mode Project for GIS-based decision-
making.
8. Technology for Cyber Security: Establish the National Cyber Security Co-ordination Centre to ensure
secure cyberspace.
Cyber Security
1. Cyberspace is a global domain of interconnected information technology infrastructures, including
the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors.
2. According to the Information Technology Act, 2000, cybersecurity means protecting information,
devices, equipment, computers, computer resources, and communication devices from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction.
3. Cyber threats are malicious acts that seek to damage data, steal data, or disrupt digital life in general.
They can target individuals, organizations, or governments and can originate from various sources
such as cybercriminals, hacktivists, state-sponsored actors, and insider threats.
4. Cybercrimes are criminal activities that take place in cyberspace, such as hacking, cyber terrorism,
intellectual property infringement, and online child exploitation.
Types of Cyber Threats-
Type of Description Example
Threat
Malware Malicious software designed to harm In 2016, the ATM malware attack known as "ATM
or exploit any programmable device, Jackpotting" affected several banks in India,
service, or network. Examples including SBI, HDFC Bank, and ICICI Bank.
include viruses, worms, trojans,
ransomware, and spyware.
Phishing Fraudulent attempts to obtain In 2018, a large-scale phishing attack targeted
sensitive information by disguising as Indian users with emails from the Employees’
a trustworthy entity in electronic Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO).
communications.
Man-in-the- Occurs when an attacker secretly In 2019, cybercriminals executed MitM attacks on
Middle intercepts and relays messages public Wi-Fi networks in Delhi, intercepting data
(MitM) between two parties who believe and stealing sensitive information.
Attacks they are directly communicating with
each other.
Denial-of- Attacks intended to shut down a In 2020, a DDoS attack targeted the Indian
Service (DoS) machine or network by government's "Digital India" initiative, disrupting
and overwhelming it with a flood of online services provided by government portals.
Distributed internet traffic.
Denial-of-
Service
(DDoS)
Attacks
SQL Injection A code injection technique that In 2017, an SQL injection attack compromised the
involves inserting malicious SQL code website of IIT Madras, exposing personal data of
into a query to execute arbitrary students and faculty members.
commands.
Zero-Day Attacks that occur on the same day a In 2018, a zero-day exploit in the Aadhaar system
Exploits weakness is discovered in software, allowed unauthorized access to personal data of
before a fix is released by the over a billion Indian citizens.
software provider.
Advanced Prolonged and targeted cyberattacks In 2020, the APT group "RedEcho" targeted India's
Persistent where an intruder gains access to a power sector, including power plants and
Threats network and remains undetected for transmission substations.
(APTs) an extended period.
Ransomware A type of malware that encrypts the In 2019, the WannaCry ransomware attack hit
victim's files and demands a ransom Indian businesses, including parts of the
for data restoration. Maharashtra police department. In 2022, AIIMS
Delhi suffered a ransomware attack compromising
servers and risking millions of patients' data. In

2020, 82% of Indian companies experienced
ransomware attacks.
Insider Malicious threats originating from In 2017, an insider at Zomato stole and sold
Threats within the organization, such as personal data of 17 million users on the dark web.
employees or contractors with inside
information.
Password Methods used to obtain passwords, In 2021, a brute-force attack on Cleartrip's
Attacks including brute-force attacks, customer database exposed user passwords,
dictionary attacks, and keylogging. booking details, and other personal information.
Data Breach Unauthorized access to sensitive In October 2023, Resecurity reported that
personal data. sensitive personal data of approximately 815
million Indians was available on the dark web. In
2021, Juspay suffered a data breach impacting 35
million customers. In 2022, Air India experienced
a major cyberattack compromising records of 4.5
million customers, including passport and credit
card information.
How Vulnerable is India to Cyber Attacks?

1. India has over 759 million internet users (52% of the population) as of 2022 and is the second largest
online market globally, after China. By 2025, the number of internet users is expected to grow to 900
million.
2. India has the 3rd highest number of internet users, with rapid digitalization across all sectors.
3. Internet usage grew six-fold between 2012-2017, with a compound annual growth rate of 44%.
4. Digital initiatives like Make in India and Digital India are enhancing connectivity and digital access.
5. However, India’s cyber security infrastructure and policies are outdated or inadequate, making it
easier for hackers to exploit system vulnerabilities. This results in sophisticated and persistent threats
from state-sponsored and non-state actors targeting India’s strategic, economic, and national
interests.
Challenges Posed by Cyber Attacks on India:

1. Critical Infrastructure Vulnerability: In October 2019, there was an attempted cyber-attack on the
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant.
2. Financial Sector Threats: In March 2020, a malware attack on City Union Bank’s SWIFT system led to
unauthorized transactions worth USD 2 million.
3. Data Breaches and Privacy Concerns: In May 2021, personal data and test results of 190,000
candidates for the 2020 Common Admission Test (CAT) were leaked and sold on a cybercrime forum.
4. Cyber Espionage: In 2020, Operation SideCopy, a cyber espionage campaign by a Pakistani threat
actor, targeted Indian military and diplomatic personnel with malware and phishing emails.
5. Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs): In February 2021, RedEcho, a China-linked APT group, targeted
10 entities in India’s power sector, with malware that could potentially cause power outages.
6. Supply Chain Vulnerabilities: In December 2020, a global cyberattack on SolarWinds affected several
Indian organizations, including the National Informatics Centre (NIC), the Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology (MeitY), and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL).
Cyber Warfare:
Cyber warfare involves cyberattacks or a series of attacks that target a nation, aiming to destroy civilian and
governmental infrastructure and disrupt vital processes, potentially causing harm and fatalities. Nation-
states primarily engage in cyber warfare, but terrorist groups or non-state actors may also carry out these
attacks.
Types of Cyber Warfare Attacks:
1. Espionage: Monitoring other countries to steal secrets using botnets or spear phishing attacks to
compromise sensitive computer systems and exfiltrate information.
2. Sabotage: Stealing, destroying, or leveraging insider threats to compromise sensitive information.
For instance, hostile governments or terrorists may exploit dissatisfied employees.
3. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks: Preventing legitimate users from accessing a website by flooding it
with fake requests, disrupting critical operations and systems.
4. Electrical Power Grid: Disabling critical systems and disrupting infrastructure by attacking the power
grid, potentially causing bodily harm and communication outages.
5. Propaganda Attacks: Controlling the minds of people in the target country by exposing embarrassing
truths or spreading lies to erode trust.
6. Economic Disruption: Targeting computer networks of economic establishments like stock markets
and banks to steal money or block access to funds.
7. Surprise Attacks: Massive unexpected attacks aimed at weakening defenses, preparing the ground
for physical attacks in hybrid warfare.
Initiatives Regarding Cyber Security:

1. Information Technology Act, 2000: The primary law dealing with cybercrime and digital commerce,
amended in 2008.
2. National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: Provides vision and strategic direction to protect national
cyberspace.
3. CERT-In: The national nodal agency for responding to computer security incidents, operational since
2004.
4. Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Apex coordination center to deal with cybercrimes.
5. Cyber Swachhta Kendra: Launched in 2017, it helps users clean their systems of viruses, bots,
malware, and Trojans.
6. Cyber Surakshit Bharat: Initiative by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology to spread
awareness about cybercrime and build safety measures for government IT staff.
7. Cyber Warrior Police Force (CWPF): Proposed in 2018 to be raised on the lines of the Central Armed
Police Force (CAPF).
8. Cyber-Crime Prevention against Women & Children Scheme: Aims to prevent and reduce cybercrimes
against women and children.
9. National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Protects critical information
infrastructure in sectors like power, banking, telecom, transport, government, and strategic
enterprises.
10. Defence Cyber Agency (DCyA): Handles cyber security threats for the Indian Armed Forces and
conducts cyber operations.
CERT-In: (Computer Emergency Response Team - India)

The national nodal agency for handling cybersecurity threats, operating under the Ministry of Electronics
and Information Technology since January 2004.
Functions:
1. Collect, analyze, and disseminate information on cyber incidents.
2. Forecast and alert on cybersecurity incidents.
3. Coordinate cyber incident response activities.
4. Issue guidelines and advisories on information security practices and incident reporting.
National Cyber Security Policy, 2013-

The National Cyber Security Policy, formulated by the Department of Electronics and Information Technology
(DeitY), aims to protect public and private infrastructure from cyber-attacks and safeguard various types of
information, including personal, financial, banking, and sovereign data.
Vision:
To build secure and resilient cyberspace for citizens, businesses, and the government.
Mission:
1. To protect information and information infrastructure in cyberspace.
2. To build capabilities to prevent and respond to cyber threats.
3. To reduce vulnerabilities and minimize damage from cyber incidents through institutional structures,
people, processes, technology, and cooperation.
Objectives:
1. Encouraging IT adoption across all economic sectors by creating a secure cyber ecosystem.
2. Developing a framework for designing security policies and promoting compliance with global
security standards.
3. Strengthening regulations to ensure a secure cyberspace ecosystem.
4. Enhancing national and sectoral mechanisms to obtain strategic information on threats and manage
crises effectively.
5. Operating the National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) to protect and
enhance the resilience of critical infrastructure.
6. Developing suitable indigenous technologies to address security needs.
7. Improving the integrity of ICT products/services through testing and validation infrastructure.
8. Creating a workforce of 500,000 cybersecurity professionals within the next five years.
9. Providing businesses with fiscal incentives for adopting standard security practices.
10. Safeguarding citizens' data privacy and reducing economic losses due to cybercrime.
11. Enabling effective prevention, investigation, and prosecution of cybercrime through legislative
intervention.
12. Developing a culture of cybersecurity and privacy.
13. Fostering effective public-private partnerships and collaborative engagements.
14. Promoting global cooperation to enhance the security of cyberspace.
1.6 Nuclear Technology: Indian Nuclear Reactors and Nuclear Power Plants – Applications of Radioisotopes
–India’s Nuclear Programme.
Keywords-
Nuclear Fission- It is the process by which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei. It
releases large amounts of energy. This is the process currently employed in nuclear reactors to generate
power and also used in atomic bombs.
Example:
The induced fission of 235U isotope releases an average of 200 MeV per atom, or 80 million kilojoules per
gram of 235U.
Nuclear Fusion- Nuclear fusion is the process where two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus.
Fusion requires high temperature and high pressure to occur and releases enormous amount of energy. It is
the process that powers the Sun and stars and is used in hydrogen bomb, which is more destructive than
atomic bomb.
Fusion takes place when two low-mass isotopes, typically isotopes of hydrogen, unite under conditions of
extreme pressure and temperature.
Atoms of Tritium and Deuterium (isotopes of hydrogen, 1H3 and 1H2, respectively) unite to produce a neutron
and a helium isotope. Along with this, an enormous amount of energy is released, which is several times the
amount produced from fission.
Fissile material- Fissile materials are a subset of fissionable materials. These are isotopes that are capable of
undergoing nuclear fission only by a thermal neutron. 238U is not fissile isotope, because 238U cannot be
fissioned by thermal neutron. 238U is not capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction, because
neutrons produced by fission of 238U have lower energies than original neutron (usually below the threshold
energy of 1 MeV).
Examples of fissile materials: 235U, 233U, and 239Pu
Fertile material- They consist of isotopes that are not fissionable by thermal neutrons, but can be converted
into fissile isotopes (after neutron absorption and subsequent nuclear decay).
Examples of fertile materials: 238U and 232Th.
Chain reaction- These are series of nuclear fissions, each initiated by a neutron produced in a preceding
fission. 2.5 neutrons on the average are released by the fission of each uranium-235 nucleus that absorbs a
low-energy neutron.
Criticality- Criticality means that a reactor is controlling a sustained fission chain reaction, where
each fission event releases a sufficient number of neutrons to maintain an ongoing series of reactions. This
is the normal state of nuclear power generation.
Nuclear Fission Vs Fusion

Feature Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Definition Splitting of a heavy nucleus. Combining of light nuclei.
Common Elements Uranium-235, Plutonium-239. Deuterium, Tritium.
Energy Output High energy output. Higher energy output than fission.
Byproducts Radioactive waste. Helium, less hazardous waste.
Chain Reaction Can sustain a chain reaction. Difficult to sustain a reaction.
Practical Use Nuclear power plants, atomic bombs. Experimental reactors, hydrogen
bombs.
Safety Concerns Risk of meltdown, long-term radioactive High temperature containment, less
waste. waste.
Technological Established and widely used. Experimental, future potential.
Status
Fission Nuclear reactors

1. Currently nuclear reactors generate energy through fission. During fission, a small amount of mass is
converted into energy, which can be used to power a generator to create electricity.
2. To harness this energy, a controlled “chain reaction” is required for fission to take place.
3. In a chain reaction, when a uranium nucleus splits, it produces two or more neutrons which can then
be used to split more uranium nuclei, resulting in series of fission reactions.
Components of a nuclear reactor
Fuel: Reactor core, the center of the reactor contains the fuel. Uranium is most commonly used as fuel.
Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into
fuel assemblies in the reactor core. Plutonium and thorium can also be used as fuels.
Moderator: Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission to increase their
interaction with uranium nuclei to cause more fission. Usually water, heavy water or graphite is used as a
moderator.
Coolant: A fluid circulating through the core to transfer the heat from it to run the turbines. In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant.
Control rods: These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium or boron, and are inserted
or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to stop it.
Containment: The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is designed to
protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any
serious malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick or more concrete and steel structure.
List of common components used in selected Nuclear Reactors

Reactor Fuel Coolant Moderator
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Enriched Uranium Water Water
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Enriched Uranium Water Water
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Natural Uranium Heavy Water Heavy Water
(PHWR)
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) Plutonium Liquid Sodium None
or Uranium
Nuclear Fusion:
1. Nuclear fusion is the process that powers the Sun and other stars, where hydrogen atoms fuse to
form helium, releasing a tremendous amount of energy.
2. This process occurs under extremely high temperatures and pressures, which convert hydrogen gas
into plasma. In plasma, electrons are separated from nuclei (ions).
3. Normally, the electrostatic repulsive forces between the positively charged nuclei prevent them from
fusing.
4. However, at very high temperatures, ions move fast enough to overcome these repulsive forces and
come close enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect, allowing the nuclei to fuse and release
energy.
Note- Tokomaks are experimental fusion nuclear reactors
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER):

1. An experimental fusion reactor in Cadarache, France, proving fusion's feasibility as a future energy
source.
2. ITER partners: EU, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, USA.
3. India joined in 2005; "Institute for Plasma Research" in Gujarat is key.
4. India's contributions: Outer vacuum shell, cryogenic systems, cooling systems, etc.
5. Construction to be completed by 2025, with initial plasma experiments starting then.
India’s Nuclear Program-
1. The Indian Atomic Energy Programme was initiated around the time of independence under the
leadership of Homi J. Bhabha.
2. The first significant achievement was the construction of the Apsara reactor, which went critical on
August 4, 1956, using enriched uranium and water as a moderator.
3. Following Apsara, the CIRUS reactor was built in 1960, using natural uranium and heavy water,
facilitating extensive research in nuclear science.
4. The indigenous design and construction of the plutonium plant at Trombay marked a milestone in
developing fuel reprocessing technology in India.
5. Subsequent research reactors include ZERLINA, PURNIMA (I, II, III), DHRUVA, and KAMINI, with
KAMINI being the first to use U-233 as fuel.
6. Research reactors serve to advance nuclear science and produce radioactive isotopes for various
applications in industry, medicine, and agriculture.
7. The main objectives of the programme are to provide safe, reliable electric power for India’s progress
and achieve self-reliance in nuclear technology.
8. Exploration since the early 1950s revealed limited uranium but abundant thorium reserves in India.
9. India adopted a three-stage nuclear power strategy:
a. Using natural uranium as fuel with heavy water as a moderator.
b. Employing fast breeder reactors with Plutonium-239.
c. Utilizing fast breeder reactors to produce fissile U-233 from Thorium-232.
Fig: Three Stage Nuclear Program of India

10. India is currently in the second stage and has made progress on the third stage focusing on thorium
utilization.
11. Mastery over technologies includes mineral exploration, mining, fuel fabrication, heavy water
production, reactor design, construction, operation, and fuel reprocessing.
12. The first stage's accomplishment is marked by Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) at various
sites.
13. India is self-sufficient in heavy water production.

14. The programme emphasizes elaborate safety measures in reactor design and operation, adhering to
stringent radiological protection standards.
Indian Nuclear Energy Organisational Structure-

Organization Overview Functions Key Projects/Components

Department of Established in 1954, Overseeing nuclear energy Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Atomic Energy responsible for the production and usage. (BARC). Indira Gandhi Centre for
(DAE) development and Promoting research in nuclear Atomic Research (IGCAR). Raja
control of nuclear science, engineering, and Ramanna Centre for Advanced
energy in India. related areas. Supervising Technology (RRCAT). Nuclear
public sector undertakings Fuel Complex (NFC)
Nuclear Power Incorporated in Design, construction, Operates 24 nuclear reactors
Corporation of 1987 as a public commissioning, and with a combined capacity of
India Limited sector enterprise operation of nuclear power 8180 MW. Several reactors
(NPCIL) under the DAE. reactors. Ensuring safe and under construction to increase
efficient generation of nuclear nuclear capacity
power. Operates nuclear
power plants
Atomic Energy Established in 1948, Advises the Government on Leading scientists and
Commission the apex body nuclear policy issues. Ensures technocrats in nuclear science
(AEC) responsible for the implementation of and engineering
atomic energy government policies related
policy in India. to nuclear energy.
Coordinates between various
departments
Atomic Energy Established in 1983 Setting safety standards for Chaired by a distinguished
Regulatory to ensure the safe nuclear facilities. Issuing scientist. Safety assessments.
Board (AERB) use of ionizing licenses. Conducting safety Regulatory frameworks.
radiation and reviews. Inspecting facilities. Inspections. Incident
nuclear energy in Radiation protection. investigations. Collaboration
India. Based in Emergency preparedness. with IAEA
Mumbai. Research and development in
nuclear safety. Public
awareness
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) presently operates 24 reactors with a total capacity of
8180 MW and has nine units (including KAPP-4) with a capacity of 7500 MW under construction.
In addition, 10 more reactors with a total capacity of 7000 MW are in pre-project activities.
These are expected to be completed progressively by 2031-32. Furthermore, ‘In-Principle’ approval has been
given for five new sites for future nuclear power plants.
Nuclear Reactors in India:

S.No. Plant Unit Type Capacity Date of Commercial
(MWe) Operation
01 Tarapur Atomic Power Station 1 BWR 160 October 28, 1969
(TAPS), Maharashtra
02 Tarapur Atomic Power Station 2 BWR 160 October 28, 1969
(TAPS), Maharashtra
03 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 1 PHWR 0 December 16, 1973
(RAPS), Rajasthan
04 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 2 PHWR 200 April 1, 1981
(RAPS), Rajasthan
05 Madras Atomic Power Station 1 PHWR 220 January 27, 1984
(MAPS), Tamilnadu
06 Madras Atomic Power Station 2 PHWR 220 March 21, 1986
(MAPS), Tamilnadu
07 Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS), 1 PHWR 220 January 1, 1991
Uttarpradesh
08 Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS), 2 PHWR 220 July 1, 1992
Uttarpradesh
09 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 1 PHWR 220 May 6, 1993
(KAPS), Gujarat
10 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 2 PHWR 220 September 1, 1995
(KAPS), Gujarat
11 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 3 PHWR 220 June 1, 2000
(RAPS), Rajasthan
12 Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), 2 PHWR 220 March 16, 2000
Karnataka
13 Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), 1 PHWR 220 November 16, 2000
Karnataka
14 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 4 PHWR 220 December 23, 2000
(RAPS), Rajasthan
15 Tarapur Atomic Power Station 4 PHWR 540 September 12, 2005
(TAPS), Maharashtra
16 Tarapur Atomic Power Station 3 PHWR 540 August 18, 2006
(TAPS), Maharashtra
17 Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), 3 PHWR 220 May 6, 2007
Karnataka
18 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 5 PHWR 220 February 4, 2010
(RAPS), Rajasthan
19 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 6 PHWR 220 March 31, 2010
(RAPS), Rajasthan
20 Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), 4 PHWR 220 January 20, 2011
Karnataka
21 Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station 1 VVER-1000 1000 December 31, 2014

(KKNPS), Tamilnadu (PWR)
22 Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station 2 VVER-1000 1000 March 31, 2017
(KKNPS), Tamilnadu (PWR)
23 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 3 PHWR 700 June 30, 2023
(KAPS), Gujarat
24 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 4 PHWR 700 March 31, 2024
(KAPS), Gujarat
Applications of Radioisotopes-
A radioisotope, also known as a radioactive isotope, is an isotope of an element that exhibits radioactivity.
This means that the nucleus of the radioisotope is unstable and spontaneously emits energy in the form of
radiation as it decays to a more stable form.
This process can involve the emission of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays, and it transforms the
radioisotope into a different element or a different isotope of the same element.
1. Nuclear energy and radioisotopes are intrinsically linked through the processes involved in nuclear
reactions and the applications of the byproducts of these reactions.
2. Radioisotopes are produced in nuclear reactors through fission and neutron activation of stable
isotopes, and in cyclotrons and particle accelerators by inducing radioactivity in target materials
through particle collisions.
Key Points about Radioisotopes:
1. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons. For example, carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.
2. Radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of particles or electromagnetic waves from the nucleus of
an unstable atom. This property makes radioisotopes useful in various applications.
3. Decay: The process by which a radioactive isotope loses energy by emitting radiation. This process
continues until a stable isotope is formed.
Examples of Common Radioisotopes:
1. Carbon-14 (C-14): Used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of archaeological and geological
samples.
2. Iodine-131 (I-131): Used in medical diagnostics and treatment, particularly for thyroid conditions.
3. Technetium-99m (Tc-99m): Widely used in medical imaging for its ideal half-life and gamma radiation
properties.
4. Cobalt-60 (Co-60): Used in radiation therapy for cancer treatment and in industrial radiography to
inspect metal parts and welds.
Applications of Radioisotopes from Nuclear Energy
Medicine:
1. Diagnostic Imaging: Radioisotopes like Technetium-99m, produced in reactors, are crucial for medical
imaging techniques such as SPECT scans. Fluorine-18, produced in cyclotrons, is used in PET scans.
2. Therapy: Radioisotopes such as Iodine-131, used in treating thyroid cancer, and Strontium-89, used
for pain relief in bone cancer patients, are byproducts of nuclear fission.
Industry:
1. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Radioisotopes like Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, produced in reactors,
are used in radiography to inspect welds and structural components for integrity without causing
damage.
2. Thickness Gauging and Flow Tracing: Krypton-85 is used to measure the thickness of materials, while
various isotopes are used to trace fluid flows in pipelines.
Agriculture:
1. Soil and Plant Studies: Phosphorus-32, produced through neutron activation, helps in studying
nutrient uptake in plants.
2. Pest Control: Gamma radiation from isotopes like Cobalt-60 is used to sterilize insects in pest control
programs, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.
Environmental Applications:
1. Pollution Control: Radioisotopes help trace the movement and dispersion of pollutants in the
environment.
2. Carbon Dating: Carbon-14, a naturally occurring radioisotope, is used in determining the age of
archaeological and geological samples.
Energy Production:
1. Nuclear Power Plants: The primary link between nuclear energy and radioisotopes is the production
of energy through the controlled fission of isotopes like Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239. The heat
generated from fission is used to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.
2. Space Exploration: Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), using isotopes like Plutonium-
238, provide reliable power sources for spacecraft.
Research:
1. Biological and Chemical Research: Radioisotopes are used as tracers to study complex biological and
chemical processes, helping scientists understand metabolic pathways, chemical reactions, and
environmental changes.
2. Material Analysis: Techniques such as neutron activation analysis use radioisotopes to determine the
composition of materials, aiding in fields like archaeology, geology, and forensic science.
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is the regulatory body in India oversee the safe use of nuclear
technology and radioisotopes.
India's Nuclear Doctrine
1. A national nuclear doctrine represents, the collective set of beliefs or principles held by the nation
with regard to the utility of its nuclear weapons.
2. Post 1998 nuclear test, India came up with a comprehensive nuclear doctrine to clear doubts and
misunderstandings prevailing around world regarding India's Nuclear weapon policy.
3. The Cabinet Committee on Security enunciated the details in 2003.
4. By charting out a clear and principled nuclear policy, India has not only clarified its stand (both
nationally and internationally) but also has earned valuable global support and credibility by diligently
following the restraints.
Main Features
1. Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent.
2. A "No First Use" posture; nuclear weapons to be used only "in retaliation against a nuclear attack on
Indian territory or on Indian forces anywhere".
3. Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be "massive" and designed to inflict "unacceptable damage".
4. Nuclear retaliatory attacks to be authorized only by civilian political leadership through the Nuclear
Command Authority.
5. Non use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states.
6. Continuance of strict controls on export of nuclear and missile related materials and technologies,
participation in FMCT negotiations, continued moratorium on testing.
7. India to retain option of retaliating with nuclear weapons in the event of a major attack against it
with biological or chemical weapons.
8. Continued commitment to goal of nuclear weapon free world, through global, verifiable and non-
discriminatory disarmament.
Note- 1.2 Emerging Technology Frontiers have to be covered under Current Issues
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (ANN)
2. Quantum Computing
3. Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technology
4. 5G Technology
5. Internet of Things (IoT)
6. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)
7. Biotechnology and Genomics
8. Renewable Energy and Storage
9. Robotics and Automation
10. Nanotechnology
11. Super Computing, Edge Computing
12. Autonomous Systems and Drones
13. Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology
14. Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)
15. Space Exploration Technologies
16. Human-Machine Interfaces (HMI)
17. Smart Textiles and Wearables
18. Precision Agriculture Technologies, etc
The below table gives a glimpse of the above topics.
S.No Technology Meaning Working Applications

1 Artificial AI: Simulation of human AI: Uses algorithms to Natural language
Intelligence (AI), intelligence in machines. perform tasks. ML: Uses processing, image
Machine ML: Algorithms that allow statistical techniques to recognition,
Learning (ML) computers to learn from enable systems to autonomous vehicles,
and Deep data. Deep Learning improve with experience. recommendation
Learning (ANN) (ANN): Subset of ML with ANN: Uses multi-layered systems, predictive
neural networks. neural networks for analytics.
pattern recognition.
2 Quantum Utilizes quantum bits Exploits principles of Cryptography, drug

Computing (qubits) to perform quantum mechanics such discovery,
computations far more as superposition and optimization
efficiently than classical entanglement to perform problems, complex
computers. parallel computations. simulations.
3 Blockchain and A decentralized digital Uses cryptographic Cryptocurrencies,
Distributed ledger that records techniques to ensure supply chain
Ledger transactions across many transactions are secure, management, secure
Technology computers securely. transparent, and voting systems, smart
immutable. contracts.
4 5G Technology The fifth generation of Utilizes higher frequency Enhanced mobile
mobile network bands and advanced broadband, Internet of
technology, providing antenna technologies to Things (IoT),
faster speeds and more deliver enhanced mobile autonomous vehicles,
reliable connections. broadband, ultra-reliable smart cities, remote
low-latency surgery.
communication, and
massive machine-type
communication.
5 Internet of A network of Devices equipped with Smart homes,
Things (IoT) interconnected devices sensors and software industrial automation,
that communicate and collect and exchange data health monitoring,
exchange data. via the internet. environmental
monitoring.
6 Augmented AR: Overlays digital AR: Uses cameras and Gaming, training
Reality (AR) and information on the real sensors to overlay simulations,
Virtual Reality world. VR: Creates a information. VR: Uses education, remote
(VR) completely immersive headsets and motion assistance, virtual
digital environment. tracking to immerse users tourism.
in a virtual environment.
7 Biotechnology Biotechnology: Use of Biotechnology: Medical research,
and Genomics living organisms or Manipulates biological genetic engineering,
systems to develop systems for product agriculture,
products. Genomics: development. Genomics: pharmaceuticals,
Study of genomes. Analyzes DNA sequences personalized medicine.
to understand genetic
information.
8 Renewable Energy from natural Utilizes solar, wind, Solar panels, wind
Energy and sources that are hydro, and other turbines, hydroelectric
Storage constantly replenished, renewable sources to power, energy storage
and technologies for generate energy, and systems (batteries).
storing this energy. advanced batteries and
other technologies to
store it.
9 Robotics and Design and use of robots Robots: Use sensors, Manufacturing,
Automation for performing tasks, and actuators, and AI to healthcare,
systems that operate perform tasks. agriculture, service
without human Automation: Uses control industry, autonomous
intervention. systems and information vehicles.
technologies to reduce
human intervention.
10 Nanotechnology Manipulation of matter Utilizes techniques to Medicine, electronics,
on an atomic or molecular manipulate and control energy, environmental
scale. materials at the protection, materials
nanoscale (1-100 science.
nanometers).
11 Super Super Computing: High- Super Computing: Uses Scientific research,
Computing, Edge performance computing powerful processors and weather forecasting,
Computing for complex tasks. Edge parallel processing. Edge real-time data
Computing: Processing Computing: Processes processing, IoT
data near the source of data locally on devices or devices.
data generation. near data sources rather
than in a centralized data
center.
12 Autonomous Systems that can perform Autonomous Systems: Delivery services,
Systems and tasks without human Use AI and sensors to surveillance,
Drones intervention, and operate independently. agriculture, disaster
unmanned aerial Drones: Use GPS, sensors, response, autonomous
vehicles. (UAVs) and cameras to navigate vehicles.
and perform tasks.
13 Biotechnology Biotechnology: Use of Biotechnology: Biofuels,
and Synthetic biological systems for Manipulates biological pharmaceuticals,
Biology practical applications. processes for product agriculture,
Synthetic Biology: Design development. Synthetic environmental
and construction of new Biology: Designs and remediation.
biological parts. constructs new biological
entities.
14 Additive Process of creating Uses digital models to Prototyping,
Manufacturing objects by adding build objects layer by manufacturing,
(3D Printing) material layer by layer. layer using materials such medical implants,
as plastics, metals, and aerospace
ceramics. components, custom
products.
15 Space Technologies for Includes spacecraft, Space missions,

Exploration exploring outer space. rovers, satellites, and satellite
Technologies space telescopes communications,
designed for exploring space tourism,
and studying space. planetary exploration.
16 Human-Machine Interfaces that enable Uses devices such as Consumer electronics,
Interfaces (HMI) interaction between touchscreens, voice medical devices,
humans and machines. recognition, and brain- virtual reality, robotics.
computer interfaces to
facilitate interaction
between users and
machines.
17 Smart Textiles Textiles and devices Incorporate sensors, Health monitoring,
and Wearables integrated with electronic actuators, and fitness tracking,
components. communication devices fashion, military
into textiles and applications.
wearables to monitor and
interact with the
environment or user.
18 Precision Technologies for Uses sensors, GPS, and Crop monitoring, soil
Agriculture optimizing agricultural data analytics to monitor analysis, automated
Technologies practices. and optimize farming irrigation, pest control.
practices, improving crop
yield and reducing
environmental impact.
Unit 2: Energy Management

1. Policy and Projections: Installed Energy Capacities and Demand in India
2. National Energy Policy - National Policy on Biofuels - Bharat Stage Norms
3. Non-Renewable and Renewable Energy: Sources and Installed Capacities in India
4. New Initiatives and Recent Programmes, Schemes
5. Achievements in India’s Renewable Energy Sector.
2.1. Policy and Projections: Installed Energy Capacities and Demand in India
Energy Basket Composition in India:

The term "energy basket" is also referred as "energy mix". It refers to the variety of energy sources that a
country or region utilizes to meet its energy needs.
It includes both renewable and non-renewable energy sources and highlights the distribution and proportion
of different types of energy within the total energy supply.
Understanding the energy basket is important because it enables informed decision-making for energy
policy, enhances energy security, promotes environmental sustainability, supports economic stability, and
drives technological and infrastructure development.
Examples of energy basket strategies include increasing the share of renewable energy, balancing fossil fuels
and renewables, and implementing energy efficiency measures to ensure a reliable, affordable, and
sustainable energy supply.
Components of the Energy Basket-
Non-Renewable Energy Sources:
1. Coal: Often used for electricity generation and industrial processes.
2. Oil: Used mainly for transportation fuels and some industrial applications.
3. Natural Gas: Utilized for electricity generation, heating, and as an industrial feedstock.
4. Nuclear: Provides electricity with low greenhouse gas emissions but has challenges related to waste
management and safety.
Renewable Energy Sources:
1. Solar: Converts sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal systems.
2. Wind: Generates electricity through wind turbines.
3. Hydropower: Produces electricity from the flow of water, typically using dams or run-of-the-river
systems.
4. Biomass: Organic materials like wood, agricultural residues, and waste used for energy production
through combustion or conversion to biofuels.
5. Geothermal: Utilizes heat from the Earth's interior for electricity generation and direct heating
applications.
6. Waste to Energy- Converting waste materials into usable energy forms like electricity, heat, or fuel.
7. Hydrogen Fuel- using hydrogen as a clean energy source for applications like power generation and
transportation.
India’s Electricity Generation Status (As on April 2024)

Power Capacity (GW)
Coal 210.97
Gas 25.04
Lignite 6.62
Diesel 0.59
Renewable Energy 144.74
Large Hydropower 46.93
Nuclear 8.18
Total 441.97
Renewable Energy
Power Energy (MW)
Wind Power 46161.79
Solar Power* 82637.86
Small Hydro Power 5005.25
Biomass (Bagasse) Cogeneration 9433.56
Biomass(non-bagasse) Cogeneration 921.79
Waste to Power 249.74

Waste to Energy (off-grid) 341.56
Total 1,44,751.55
India- Energy Situation-
1. India is the third largest energy consumer globally (After China and USA), with a mix of resources
including coal, petroleum, renewables, and traditional biomass.
2. Rural energy demand is rising steadily, mainly for domestic cooking, lighting, agriculture, transport,
and industry.
3. 99.92% of Indian villages are fully electrified, but challenges remain in access, affordability, and
energy security.
4. Per capita electricity consumption is 1014.83 kWh, with thermal power constituting 56% of installed
capacity.
5. Hydropower contributes about 10.8%, and there are 21 nuclear power reactors with a total capacity
of 8,180 MW.
6. Peak power deficit was 1.4% in 2023-24, and there are 32 crore active LPG domestic connections.
7. The majority of households in both rural and urban areas have electricity for domestic use, with a
higher LPG usage in urban households.
8. States with Largest Renewable Energy Capacities- Gujarat (27 GW), Rajasthan (27 GW), Tamil Nadu
(22 GW), Karnataka (21 GW), Maharashtra (17 GW).
Energy Demand in India:

1. Energy demand refers to the total amount of energy consumed by various sectors within an
economy. It encompasses all forms of energy used for residential, commercial, industrial, and
transportation purposes. Energy demand can be influenced by several factors, including population
growth, economic activity, technological advancements, lifestyle changes, and efficiency measures.
2. India's electricity generation is projected to reach 1.89 trillion kilowatt hours (kWh) in 2024, with an
annual growth rate of 8.09% between 2024 and 2028. The India Power Market is expected to reach
492.86 gigawatts (GW) in 2024 and 752.90 GW by 2029, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
of 8.80%.
3. Peak energy demand is the highest level of energy use during a specific time period, driven by factors
like extreme weather, industrial activity, or high usage times such as evenings.
4. Peak power demand in India is estimated to rise by 7% year-on-year to 260 GW this summer,
according to a senior official. The peak power demand during the summer of 2023 touched 243 GW
against a projection of 229 GW.
2.2 National Energy Policy - National Policy on Biofuels - Bharat Stage Norms
1. National Electricity Plan 2022-23
The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has notified the National Electricity Plan (NEP) for 2022-32. CEA
prepares and notifies the National Electricity Plan every five years as per the Electricity Act, 2003.
1. Non-fossil-based capacity is expected to increase to 57.4% by 2026-27 and 68.4% by 2031-32, up
from 42.5% in April 2023.
2. An estimated Rs. 33.60 lakh crore is needed for power generation capacity addition from 2022-2032.
3. Projected peak electricity demand and energy requirement for 2026-27 are 277.2 GW and 1907.8
BU, respectively; for 2031-32, 366.4 GW and 2473.8 BU.
4. By 2026-27, installed capacity is projected to be 609,591 MW (273,038 MW conventional and
336,553 MW renewable).
5. By 2031-32, installed capacity is projected to be 900,422 MW (304,147 MW conventional and
596,275 MW renewable).
6. The average Plant Load Factor (PLF) for coal-based capacity is projected to be 58.4% in 2026-27 and
58.7% in 2031-32.
7. Energy storage capacity required by 2026-27: 16.13 GW/82.37 GWh; by 2031-32: 73.93 GW/411.4
GWh.
8. Domestic coal requirement: 866.4 million tonnes for 2026-27 and 1025.8 million tonnes for 2031-32,
with 28.9 million tonnes of coal imports.
9. Fund requirement: Rs. 14.54 lakh crore for 2022-2027 and Rs. 19.06 lakh crore for 2027-2032.
10. Average emission factor is expected to reduce to 0.548 kg CO2/kWh by 2026-27 and to 0.430 kg
CO2/kWh by 2031-32.
2. National Policy on Biofuels 2018-
The National Policy on Biofuels was formulated in 2009 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to
promote biofuels in India.
The global attention on biofuels and its alignment with government initiatives like Make in India, Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan, Skill Development, and doubling Farmers Income makes it strategically important.
However, domestic feedstock availability remains a challenge, impacting India's biofuels program.
The National Policy on Biofuels, 2018, is aimed at promoting biofuels in India and has several salient features
and expected benefits:
Salient Features:
1. Categorization of biofuels into "Basic Biofuels" (First Generation bioethanol & biodiesel) and "Advanced
Biofuels" (Second Generation ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste to drop-in fuels, Third Generation biofuels,
bio-CNG, etc.).
2. Expansion of raw material for ethanol production to include Sugarcane Juice, Sugar Beet, Sweet
Sorghum, Starch-containing materials like Corn and Cassava, Damaged food grains, and Rotten Potatoes
unfit for human consumption.
3. Use of surplus food grains for ethanol production with the approval of the National Biofuel Coordination
Committee.
4. Viability gap funding scheme for Second Generation ethanol Bio refineries, tax incentives, and higher
purchase price compared to First Generation biofuels.
5. Encouragement for biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil, and short gestation
crops.
6. Roles and responsibilities of concerned Ministries/Departments captured in the Policy document for
synergized efforts.
Expected Benefits:
1. Reduce Import Dependency: Significant savings in foreign exchange due to ethanol blending with petrol.
2. Cleaner Environment: Reduced CO2 emissions and greenhouse gas emissions through biofuel adoption
and waste conversion.
3. Health benefits: Prevention of health hazards by reusing Cooking Oil for biodiesel production.
4. Municipal Solid Waste Management: Conversion of waste/plastic, MSW to drop-in fuels.
5. Infrastructural Investment in Rural Areas: Bio-refineries investment in rural areas.
6. Employment Generation: Job creation in bio-refineries and supply chain management.
7. Additional Income to Farmers: Utilization of agricultural residues/waste for ethanol production, price
stabilization for surplus grains.
Due to advancements in the field of Biofuels, various decisions taken in the National Biofuel Coordination
Committee (NBCC) meetings to increase biofuel production, recommendation of the Standing Committee
and the decision to advance to introduce Ethanol Blended Petrol with up to twenty per cent ethanol
throughout the country from 01.04.2023, amendments are done to the National Policy on Biofuels.
The following are the main amendments approved to the National Policy on Biofuels:
1. to allow more feedstocks for production of biofuels,
2. to advance the ethanol blending target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol to ESY 2025-26 from
2030,
3. to promote the production of biofuels in the country, under the Make in India program, by units
located in Special Economic Zones (SEZ)/ Export Oriented Units (EoUs),
4. to add new members to the NBCC.
5. to grant permission for export of biofuels in specific cases, and
6. to delete/amend certain phrases in the Policy in line with decisions taken during the meetings of
National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
3. Bharat Stage Emission Standards:

1. Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Standards are government-mandated emission standards for motor
vehicles in India, based on European Emission Standards (Euro norms).
2. They were first introduced in 2000 as 'India 2000', equivalent to Euro-1, and have evolved through
subsequent iterations (BS-II, BS-III, BS-IV, and currently BS-VI).
Key Points:
1. BS-VI, the latest standard, is the most stringent and aims to significantly reduce air pollution by
lowering particulate matter (PM) concentration and sulfur content in fuels.
2. The transition from BS-IV to BS-VI involves major technological upgrades in vehicles, such as Diesel
Particulate Filters (DPF), Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems, and Lean NOx traps.
3. Euro norms (Euro 5 and Euro 6) are also mentioned for comparison, highlighting their impact on
emissions reduction and technological requirements for vehicles.
Implementation Timeline:
4. The timeline for implementing BS norms in India is outlined, starting from India 2000 to the current
BS-VI standards.
5. The shift from BS-IV to BS-VI involved skipping BS-V due to the time it took to transition from BS-III
to BS-IV.
Impact and Challenges:
6. The shift to BS-VI is expected to reduce emissions significantly, leading to improved air quality.
7. However, there are challenges such as increased production costs for vehicles, potential engine
issues with older vehicles using BS-VI fuel, and the need for a scrap policy for old vehicles.
Comparison Between BS-IV and BS-VI:
Aspect BS-IV (2010) BS-VI (2020)
Particulate Matter Up to 120 micrograms per 20 to 40 micrograms per cubic meter
(PM) cubic meter
Sulfur Content in 50 parts per million (ppm) 10 parts per million (ppm)
Fuel
Nitrogen Oxides Higher emissions compared Reduced by 70% in diesel, 25% in petrol
(NOx) to BS-VI
Hydrocarbons Higher emissions due to Reduced due to improved combustion
Emissions incomplete combustion
Real Driving Not applicable Introduced for more accurate testing
Emissions (RDE)
Technology Catalytic converters, EGR Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), Selective Catalytic
Requirements systems Reduction (SCR), Lean NOx Trap (LNT)
2.3 Non-Renewable and Renewable Energy: Sources and Installed Capacities in India-
Aspect Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy

Meaning Energy derived from naturally replenishing Energy derived from finite resources that
sources that are continuously available will eventually be depleted with
over the long term, such as sunlight, wind, continued use, such as fossil fuels (coal,
water, biomass, and geothermal heat. oil, natural gas), and nuclear fuels
(uranium).
Source Sunlight, wind, water, biomass, geothermal Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear
heat fuels (uranium)
Availability Generally abundant and sustainable over Limited and depletable over time; finite
the long term reserves
Environmental Low greenhouse gas emissions, minimal High greenhouse gas emissions, air and
Impact pollution water pollution
Sustainability Sustainable; naturally replenished, minimal Not sustainable; finite reserves,
impact on ecosystems contribute to resource depletion
Technological Evolving rapidly with ongoing Well-established technologies with
Maturity advancements mature infrastructure
Energy Enhances energy security, reduces Vulnerable to supply disruptions, price
Security dependence on fossil fuels fluctuations
Cost Varied costs, decreasing with technological Costs impacted by extraction, processing,
advancements and environmental regulations
Government Increasing support for development and Historically favored but transitioning
Policies and adoption towards renewables
Incentives
Examples Solar energy (photovoltaic, concentrated Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, oil
solar power), wind energy, hydropower, sands, oil shale
biomass energy, geothermal energy
Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Thermal Energy:
Category Details
Meaning Electricity generation through heat from burning fossil fuels (Coal, Diesel, etc)
How It Works Heat converts water into steam, which drives a turbine linked to a generator to produce
electricity.
Advantages Wide availability, high energy density, established technology, affordability, and
reliability.
Disadvantages Environmental impact, limited fuel supplies, safety concerns, high capital costs, inefficient
energy conversion, ecosystem disruption, and reliance on fossil fuels.
Clean Coal Technologies- To overcome the environmental challenges of use of coal.

Technology Description
Carbon Capture and Capturing CO2 emissions from fossil fuels, transporting and storing it
Storage (CCS) underground in geological formations.
Flue Gas Removing sulfur dioxide (SO2) from exhaust flue gases of fossil fuel power
Desulfurization (FGD) plants.
Integrated Gasification Converting coal into synthetic gas (syngas) and removing impurities before
Combined Cycle (IGCC) burning it to produce electricity.
Advanced Pulverized Burning finely powdered coal at high temperatures to improve combustion
Coal Combustion efficiency and reduce emissions.
Coal Washing Removing impurities from coal before burning to improve energy efficiency and
reduce ash content.
Fluidized Bed Burning coal in a bed of heated particles suspended in a rising column of air for
Combustion (FBC) efficient heat transfer and lower emissions.
Low-NOx Burners Burners designed to reduce the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) during
combustion.
2. Crude Oil
Category Description
Meaning Crude oil is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon
deposits and other organic materials. It is extracted from the Earth and refined into
products like Petrol, diesel, and various petrochemicals.
How it Works Crude oil extraction involves drilling wells into underground reservoirs. Once extracted, the
oil is transported to refineries where it undergoes distillation and other processes to
separate it into various components and convert it into usable products such as fuels and
lubricants.
Advantages High energy density: Crude oil provides a large amount of energy per unit volume.
Versatility: Can be refined into various products. Economic benefits: Significant contributor
to national economies and job creation.
Established infrastructure: Extensive global network for extraction, refining, and
distribution.
Disadvantages Environmental impact: Oil spills and emissions contribute to pollution and climate change.
Non-renewable: Finite resource with eventual depletion.
Political instability: Geopolitical tensions can disrupt supply and cause price volatility.
Health risks: Exposure to crude oil and its byproducts can be harmful.
3. Natural Gas
Meaning Natural gas is a fossil fuel composed primarily of methane.
It is found in underground rock formations and is used as an energy source for heating,
electricity generation, and as an industrial feedstock.
How it Works Natural gas is extracted through drilling wells into underground reservoirs.
Once extracted, it is processed to remove impurities and transported via pipelines or
liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers.
It can be burned to generate electricity or used directly for heating and industrial purposes.
Advantages Cleanest fossil fuel: Produces less carbon dioxide and pollutants compared to coal and oil.
Abundant supply: Large reserves available globally.
Versatile: Used in electricity generation, heating, and as an industrial feedstock.
Economic benefits: Job creation and revenue generation.
Disadvantages Greenhouse gas emissions: Still contributes to climate change, though less than coal and
oil.
Methane leaks: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and leaks during extraction and
transportation can offset benefits.
Environmental impact: Extraction can lead to habitat disruption and water contamination.
Infrastructure dependency: Requires extensive pipeline and storage infrastructure.
LPG, LNG and CNG -

Category LPG (Liquefied Petroleum LNG (Liquefied Natural CNG (Compressed Natural
Gas) Gas) Gas)
Composition Mainly propane and Mostly methane Mostly methane
butane
State Liquid under moderate Liquid at very low Gas under high pressure
pressure temperatures (-162°C or -
260°F)
Crude oil refining and Natural gas purification and Natural gas purification and
Produced From natural gas processing liquefaction compression
Storage Stored in pressurized Stored in insulated Stored in high-pressure
tanks or cylinders cryogenic tanks cylinders or tanks
Energy Density Higher energy density High energy density, but Lower energy density
than LNG and CNG lower than LPG compared to LPG and LNG
Transport Easier to transport in Transported in liquid form Transported in high-pressure
cylinders and tanks by ships and trucks, requires containers, easier than LNG
regasification terminals but less so than LPG
Uses Cooking, heating, fuel for Transportation fuel, storage Transportation fuel, used in
vehicles, industrial and transport of natural gas vehicles and for cooking,
applications over long distances heating, and industrial use
Advantages High energy content, High energy content, Clean-burning, widely
easily transportable, efficient transport over long available, cheaper than
versatile usage distances, lower emissions gasoline and diesel
Disadvantages Heavier than air, risk of Requires expensive Lower energy density,
leaks and explosions, cryogenic storage, requires high-pressure
produces CO2 when regasification needed storage, infrastructure not as
burned before use widespread
Environmental Produces CO2 and other Lower emissions than coal Cleaner than LPG and LNG,
Impact pollutants when burned and oil, produces CO2 when produces fewer pollutants
regasified and burned
4. Shale Energy
Meaning Shale energy refers to the extraction of oil and natural gas from shale formations, which are
fine-grained sedimentary rocks. These resources are accessed through hydraulic fracturing
(fracking) and horizontal drilling techniques.
How it Works Shale energy extraction involves drilling a vertical well to the shale layer, then drilling
horizontally. High-pressure fluid (water, sand, and chemicals) is injected to fracture the
rock, allowing oil or gas to flow into the well. The mixture helps keep the fractures open for
resource extraction.
A- Conventional Drilling; B- Fracking for Shale Energy

Advantages Abundant reserves: Shale formations contain large amounts of oil and gas.
Energy security: Reduces dependence on imported energy.
Economic benefits: Job creation and revenue generation.
Technological advancements: Innovations in drilling and extraction methods.
Disadvantages Environmental impact: Potential groundwater contamination and air pollution.
High water usage: Large volumes of water required for fracking.
Induced seismicity: Fracking can cause minor earthquakes.
Land use: Significant land disturbance and infrastructure development.
Nuclear Energy Technologies:

Category Details
Meaning Nuclear energy is produced through a reaction within the nucleus of an atom, primarily
by the process of nuclear fission where heavy atoms split into lighter atoms, releasing
significant energy. It can also be produced through nuclear fusion reaction, where the
Hydrogen molecules are combined to produce the Helium and the energy.
How it Works Uranium fuel rods in a reactor are bombarded by neutrons, causing them to split and
release heat. This heat boils water, creating steam that drives a turbine connected to a
generator, thus producing electricity.
Advantages - High energy density: Small amount of fuel required.

- Low greenhouse gas emissions.
- Continuous power generation, independent of weather.
- Widely available fuel, such as uranium, which can be stored long-term.
- Cost-competitive over time.
- Reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
Disadvantages - Safety concerns: High-profile accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima.
- Challenges in disposing of highly radioactive nuclear waste.
- High initial costs for building and decommissioning plants.
– Proliferation risks related to nuclear weapons.
- Limited public support due to safety concerns.
- Requires regular maintenance and costly upgrades.
Types of Nuclear Energy

Category Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission
Definition Combining light nuclei into a heavier Splitting a heavy nucleus into lighter
one ones
Energy Source Hydrogen isotopes (e.g., deuterium) Uranium-235, Plutonium-239
Energy Output Very high energy output High energy output
Byproducts Helium, small number of neutrons Radioactive waste
Fuel Availability Abundant (e.g., from water) Limited (e.g., mined uranium)
Safety Lower risk, no chain reaction Higher risk, potential for accidents
Waste Less long-lived radioactive waste Significant long-lived radioactive waste
Technological Status Experimental, not yet viable Established, widely used
Environmental Low emissions, minimal waste Low emissions, high waste
Impact
Example The sun and stars Nuclear power plants
India- Nuclear Fusion-

1. Fusion power is crucial for India's long-term energy security, with the goal to build domestic
demonstrators by mid-century and two 1000MWe fusion reactors by 2050.
2. The Institute of Plasma Research (IPR) in Gandhinagar is the main organization leading these efforts.
3. Key tokamaks (experimental fusion reactors) include Aditya, which completed 30 years of operation
in 2020 and was upgraded to Aditya-U in 2017, and SST-1, which has superconducting coils and was
upgraded in 2019.
4. Significant achievements include Aditya providing key insights into plasma behavior and disruption
control, Aditya-U demonstrating disruption control techniques relevant to ITER, and SST-1 achieving
long-duration plasma discharges and developing domestic components.
5. International collaboration involves India being a major partner in ITER, supplying critical
components like the cryostat, and contributing technologies such as cryolines, shielding, cooling
systems, and diagnostics.
6. Future plans include the construction of SST-2 by 2027, aimed at achieving a fusion power output of
100-300MW, and a DEMO reactor planned around 2037 with the goal of attracting foreign partners.
7. The ultimate aim is to leverage fusion for India's net-zero carbon economy by 2070.
Renewable Energy Technologies:

1. Solar Energy
Category Details
Definition Solar energy is energy derived from the sun's radiation.
How it Works
Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using PV cells by
exciting electrons and creating an electric field. Solar thermal systems concentrate
sunlight using collectors to heat a fluid, producing steam or hot water for electricity or
heating. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a
receiver, heating a fluid to generate steam that drives a turbine for electricity production.
Advantages - Renewable: Can be generated indefinitely without running out of fuel.
- Clean: Does not produce harmful emissions or pollutants.
- Cost-Effective: Increasingly competitive with traditional energy sources.
- Reliable: Can be installed in remote areas without extensive infrastructure.
- Reduces Energy Bills: Generates energy onsite, lowering reliance on traditional sources.
Disadvantages - Weather Dependent: Efficiency decreases on cloudy days.
- High Initial Cost: Initial installation of solar panels can be expensive.
- Space Requirements: Requires significant space for installation.
- Maintenance: Needs periodic cleaning and maintenance.
- Limited in Some Regions: Less effective in areas with limited sunlight.
- Intermittent: Only generates power during daylight hours.
Constraints - High Initial Cost: Prohibitive upfront investment for some. - Limited Efficiency on Cloudy
Days: Reduced power output. - Limited Energy Storage: Current technology is costly and
has limited capacity. - Limited Availability in Some Regions: Less effective in less sunny
regions. - Space Requirements: Large area needed for installation. - Public Acceptance:
Concerns about the visual impact. - Technical and Regulatory Challenges: Includes
interconnection, zoning, and permitting issues.
Way Forward - Expand Solar Parks and Rooftop Solar: Promote development and accessibility. - Improve
Energy Storage: Invest in advanced storage solutions. - Expand Grid Connectivity: Enhance
infrastructure to support remote installations. - Encourage Private Investment: Foster a
favorable investment climate. - Increase International Cooperation: Engage in
partnerships for technology transfer. - Promote Solar Manufacturing: Develop domestic
industry. - Increase Awareness and Education: Inform public and train workers in the
sector.
Solar Pumped Storage

Meaning Solar pumped storage combines solar power with pumped hydroelectric storage to store
energy. Excess solar energy is used to pump water to a higher elevation reservoir. When
needed, the stored water is released to drive turbines and generate electricity, providing a
reliable power supply.
How it Works During periods of excess solar energy production, water is pumped from a lower reservoir
to a higher reservoir using electric pumps powered by solar energy. When electricity
demand is high or solar energy is unavailable, the stored water is released back to the lower
reservoir through turbines, generating electricity.
Advantages Energy storage: Provides a solution for storing excess solar energy for use during non-sunny
periods.
Reliability: Ensures a stable and continuous power supply.
Flexibility: Can respond quickly to changes in electricity demand.
Renewable: Utilizes renewable solar energy and reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
Disadvantages High initial costs: Significant investment required for infrastructure development.
Location-specific: Requires suitable geographical sites with elevation differences and water
availability.
Environmental impact: Potential effects on local ecosystems and water resources.
Efficiency losses: Energy losses occur during the conversion and storage processes.
2. Wind Energy:
Category Details
Definition Wind energy is a renewable energy source that harnesses the power of wind to generate
electricity.
How it Works - Wind Turbine: Tall tower with blades attached to a rotor, usually made of fiberglass or
carbon fiber composites. - Wind Movement: Wind causes the blades to spin, driving a
rotor connected to a shaft. - Generator: The rotating shaft connects to a generator,
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. - Transmission: Generated electricity
is transmitted to the grid and distributed to homes and businesses.
Advantages - Renewable and never runs out. - Produces no greenhouse gas emissions or pollutants. -
Cost of wind energy has decreased, becoming competitive with fossil fuels. - Generates
energy domestically, enhancing energy security. - Creates job opportunities in
manufacturing and installation.
Disadvantages - Intermittent and unpredictable wind patterns affect energy generation. - Requires
significant land, potentially impacting wildlife and scenic views. - Noise pollution from
turbines can disturb nearby residents. - High initial capital cost for infrastructure setup. -
Technical challenges in maintenance and longevity, especially in remote areas.
3. Hydel Energy
Category Details
Meaning Hydel energy is renewable energy generated by harnessing the power of flowing water.
How it Works - Dam: A dam is built on a river to create a reservoir. - Turbines: Water released from the
reservoir spins turbines. - Generator: The turbines are connected to a generator that
converts mechanical energy into electricity. - Transmission: Electricity is then transmitted
to the power grid and distributed to consumers.
Advantages - Renewable and environmentally friendly. - Reliable source of energy, not affected by
weather conditions. - Low operational costs after initial construction. - Capable of large-
scale energy production. - High energy density allows significant energy generation from
a small volume of water.
Disadvantages - High initial construction costs. - Environmental and ecological disruptions, including
impacts on local wildlife and ecosystems. - Potential displacement of local communities. -
Regular maintenance required to ensure efficiency. - Geographical limitations restrict
availability to areas with suitable water resources.
4. Biomass Energy:
Category Details
Meaning Biomass Energy is generated from organic matter, including plant material, agricultural
waste, and wood.
How it Works - Direct Combustion: Burns organic matter to produce heat or steam for electricity
generation. - Conversion to Fuel: Organic matter is converted into fuels like ethanol or
bio-diesel. - Anaerobic Digestion: Decomposes organic matter in the absence of oxygen
to produce gas, which is then burned for energy. - Renewable Source: Biomass is
considered renewable as it is replenished by new plant growth and can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels.
Advantages - Renewable and sustainable source of energy. - Reduces greenhouse gas emissions. -
Diversifies energy sources, reducing dependency on fossil fuels. - Creates jobs, especially
in rural areas. - Cost-effective in the long run. - Feedstocks are readily available. - Efficient
conversion to energy.
Disadvantages - Limited availability of feedstocks in some regions. - Can be costlier than fossil fuels due
to processing and transportation. - Conversion processes can be inefficient. - Competes
with food production for land. - Potential air pollution from burning biomass. - Requires
large land areas for cultivation of feedstocks.
5. Waste to Energy
Meaning Waste-to-energy (WtE) refers to the process of generating energy in the form of electricity
or heat from the primary treatment of waste. It involves the conversion of non-recyclable
waste materials into usable forms of energy, typically through combustion, gasification,
pyrolysis, or anaerobic digestion.
How it Works Waste-to-energy plants use different technologies to convert waste into energy. In
combustion, waste is burned to produce steam, which drives a turbine to generate
electricity. Gasification and pyrolysis convert waste into synthetic gas (syngas), which can
be used to produce electricity or fuels. Anaerobic digestion breaks down organic waste to
produce biogas, which can be used for heating or electricity generation.
Advantages Reduces landfill waste: Diverts waste from landfills, reducing their environmental impact.
Energy generation: Produces renewable energy from waste materials. Reduces greenhouse
gases: Decreases methane emissions from landfills. Resource recovery: Recovers valuable
materials like metals from waste.
Disadvantages High capital costs: Significant investment required for WtE plant construction. Air pollution:
Potential emissions of pollutants if not properly managed. Public opposition: Concerns over
health and environmental impacts. Limited waste types: Not all types of waste are suitable
for energy conversion.
6. Geo Thermal Energy

Meaning Geothermal energy refers to the heat derived from the Earth's internal sources, primarily
from the Earth's core, mantle, and crust. This heat can be harnessed for electricity
generation, direct heating, and various industrial applications.
How it Works Geothermal energy extraction involves drilling wells into geothermal reservoirs to access
hot water and steam. The steam or hot water is then used to drive turbines connected to
electricity generators or to provide direct heating. There are three main types of geothermal
power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.
Advantages Renewable: Geothermal energy is a sustainable resource with a continuous supply. Low
emissions: Produces minimal greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels. Reliable: Provides
a consistent power output, unaffected by weather conditions. Small footprint: Requires less
land compared to other energy sources.
Disadvantages High initial costs: Expensive drilling and exploration processes. Location-specific: Limited to
regions with suitable geothermal reservoirs. Potential environmental impact: Risk of
induced seismicity and subsidence. Resource depletion: Localized depletion of geothermal
reservoirs if not managed properly.
7. Ocean Energy
Meaning Ocean energy refers to the harnessing of energy from oceanic sources, including tidal
power, wave power, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), and salinity gradients. These
methods capture the kinetic, thermal, or chemical energy from the ocean and convert it
into electricity or other usable forms of power.
How it Works Ocean energy can be harnessed through various technologies: Tidal energy utilizes the rise
and fall of tides to drive turbines. Wave energy captures the movement of surface waves to
generate power. OTEC exploits temperature differences between surface water and deep
water. Salinity gradient energy leverages the energy released when freshwater and
seawater mix.
Advantages Renewable: Continuous and abundant source of energy. Low emissions: Generates
electricity with minimal greenhouse gas emissions. Predictable: Tidal and wave patterns can
be accurately forecasted. Diverse applications: Suitable for electricity generation,
desalination, and hydrogen production.
Disadvantages High initial costs: Expensive infrastructure and technology development. Environmental
impact: Potential effects on marine ecosystems and coastal areas. Technological challenges:
Issues with efficiency, durability, and maintenance in harsh ocean environments. Location-
specific: Optimal sites are limited to certain coastal areas.
8. Hydrogen Fuel Energy

Meaning Hydrogen fuel energy refers to using hydrogen as a clean energy source for applications
like power generation and transportation.
How it Works Hydrogen is produced through processes like electrolysis (splitting water into hydrogen
and oxygen) or natural gas reforming. It is then used in fuel cells, where it combines
with oxygen to generate electricity, producing water as the only byproduct.
Advantages Produces zero emissions aside from water vapor, has a high energy density, can be
produced from renewable sources, and enhances energy security by diversifying energy
supply.
Disadvantages High production and infrastructure costs, challenges in storage and transportation due
to hydrogen's low density, and energy losses during production and conversion
processes.
Types of Hydrogen –
Energy Storage Technologies:

Category Details
Meaning Energy storage technologies store excess electrical energy for later use, facilitating
effective utilization of renewable energy sources like wind and solar during periods when
production is low.
Common - Batteries: Store energy chemically in various forms, including lead-acid, lithium-ion,
Technologies and flow batteries.
- Pumped Hydro Storage: Uses electricity to pump water to a higher elevation and
generates power from water flowing downhill.
- Compressed Air Energy Storage: Stores energy as compressed air, which drives turbines
to generate power when released.
- Thermal Energy Storage: Stores heat in materials like molten salt for later use in power
generation. .
Advantages - Enhances grid reliability by balancing supply and demand.

- Increases energy efficiency by reducing wastage.
- Facilitates higher integration of intermittent renewable energy sources.
- Promotes energy independence and reduces reliance on grid power.
- Enhances energy security by providing a backup during energy shortages.
Disadvantages - High initial costs for setup, especially for large-scale systems.
- Limited storage capacity, which may require multiple systems to meet needs.
- Complex installation and maintenance requiring specialized skills.
- Degradation issues, particularly with batteries, reducing efficiency over time.
- Safety risks, including potential fires from battery systems.
- Environmental concerns from disposal and use of materials like toxic chemicals in
batteries.
- Potential incompatibility with existing infrastructure, complicating integration.
Energy Efficiency Technologies:
Category Details
Meaning Energy efficiency technologies include a range of solutions aimed at reducing energy
consumption for the same tasks. Examples include insulation, efficient lighting, smart
thermostats, energy-efficient appliances, heat recovery systems, and management
systems like BMS and EMS.
Implementation These technologies are implemented in residential and commercial buildings to
reduce energy consumption and enhance sustainability.
Advantages - Reduced Energy Costs: Lower operational costs by using less energy.
- Improved Energy Management: Enhanced control over energy use and decision-
making.
- Increased Energy Independence: Reduced reliance on traditional energy sources.
- Enhanced Sustainability: Lower carbon footprint and environmental impact.
- Reliability and Durability: Improved system longevity and reduced failures.
- Comfort and Productivity: Better indoor environment quality.
- Competitiveness: Lower energy costs and better sustainability enhance business
competitiveness.
Disadvantages - High Initial Cost: Significant investment required, especially for retrofitting.
- Complexity: Requires specialized expertise for installation and maintenance.
- Resistance to Change: Some businesses may hesitate to replace familiar systems.
- Public Awareness: Lack of understanding about the benefits can hinder adoption.
- Technological Limitations: Some technologies may underperform compared to
traditional methods.
- Infrastructure Issues: Inadequate support infrastructure in some areas.
- System Interference: May require modifications to existing setups.
Government - Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC): Mandates energy efficiency standards
Initiatives for commercial buildings.
- Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): Promotes energy efficiency nationwide.
- Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT): Market-based incentive scheme for industrial
energy savings.
- Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL): Facilitates the adoption of energy-efficient
technologies.
- National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): National program to
boost energy efficiency.
- Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP): Provides funding and assistance for
energy efficiency projects.
2.4 New Initiatives and Recent Programmes, Schemes
Ministry of Power-
Oversees the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity; formulating policies related to power
generation and consumption; promoting energy efficiency and renewable energy; ensuring reliable and
affordable electricity supply; implementing power sector reforms and regulations.
Key Initiatives-
Implementation of UDAY (Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana) for financial turnaround of power distribution
companies; promotion of renewable energy sources; implementation of Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti
Yojana (DDUGJY) for rural electrification; overseeing the National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) for
modernizing the power grid; facilitating the implementation of the Saubhagya scheme to achieve universal
household electrification
Electrification Initiatives in India-
Initiative Objectives Launch Key Achievements

Date
Deen Dayal Electrification of all un-electrified December Improved rural electrification
Upadhyaya Gram villages (Census 2011); Strengthening 2014 infrastructure, metering, and
Jyoti Yojana sub-transmission & distribution HT/LT lines construction.
(DDUGJY) infrastructure; Feeder segregation.
Pradhan Mantri Achieve universal household October 2.86 crore households
Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar electrification; Provide electricity 2017 electrified by 31.03.2021;
Yojana – connections to all un-electrified rural 100% electrification in seven
Saubhagya and urban poor households. states by 31.03.2021.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)

1. MNRE is the nodal Ministry for new and renewable energy in India, established in 1981, became
MNRE in 2006.
Vision and Mission:
Vision: Develop renewable energy technologies to make India a net foreign exchange earner.
Mission: Ensure energy security, increase clean power share, provide energy access, ensure affordability,
and promote energy equity.
Autonomous Institutions:
1. National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), Haryana: Focuses on solar energy R&D and self-reliance.
Implements ALMM, PLI Scheme, Suryamitra Program.
2. National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai: Focuses on wind energy R&D. Implements various
wind energy projects.
3. Sardar Swaran National Institute of Bio-Energy, Punjab: Focuses on bio-energy R&D. Implements
biomass conversion and biofuel production projects.
Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSUs):
1. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Limited (IREDA):
Established in 1987 as a Non-Banking Financial Institution. Promotes and finances renewable energy
projects. Motto: “Energy for Ever.”
2. Solar Energy Corporation of India Limited (SECI):
Promotes self-reliance in renewable power and green energy transition. Implements MNRE schemes.
Skill Development Programs:
1. Suryamitra Program (2015): Trains solar PV technicians.
2. Varunmitra Program (2019): Trains solar water pumping technicians.
3. Vayumitra Program (2018): Trains wind energy technicians.
4. Jal Urja Mitra Program (2020): Trains small hydro power plant technicians.
List of Schemes and Initiatives to Promote Energy Production in India:

Solar Energy
Program/Scheme Launch Key Objectives and Features Specific Targets

Date
Jawaharlal Nehru Nation al 2008 Promote solar energy through solar Achieve a deployment of
Solar Mission (JNNSM) thermal and photovoltaic routes; 20,000 MW of solar
support assembly of solar modules. power by 2022.
Solar Parks and Ultra Mega 2014 Develop solar parks with shared Initial target of 20,000
Solar Power Projects infrastructure to reduce costs and MW, increased to 40,000
Scheme facilitate faster setup of solar MW by 2025-26.
power projects.
PM KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri 2019 Set up decentralized renewable 10,000 MW of renewable
Kisan Urja Suraksha Utthaan energy power plants, solarize power plants, 27.5 lakh
Mahabhiyan) agriculture pumps, and provide solar pumps.
standalone solar pumps.
SRISTI (Sustainable Rooftop 2017 Financial incentives for installing Generate 40 GW from
Implementation for Solar rooftop solar projects to generate rooftop solar projects by
Trasfiguration of India) 40 GW by 2023-2024. 2023-2024.
PM JANMAN (Pradhan 2023 Focus on solar power for Electrify 100,000 PVTG
Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya particularly vulnerable tribal households and provide
Maha Abhiyan)
groups and provide solar lighting in solar lighting in 1500

Multi-Purpose Centres. MPCs.
Roof Top Solar (RTS) 2015 Provide incentives and subsidies Achieve a cumulative
Program for installing rooftop solar systems capacity of 40,000 MW by
in residential, institutional, and 2022.
social sectors.
Viability Gap Funding (VGF) - Support the setup of grid- Minimum capacity of
Scheme connected solar PV projects 2000 MW to be set up by
through financial assistance. solar power developers.
UDAY (Ujjwal Discom 2015 Revival package for electricity Improve operational
Assurance Yojna) distribution companies, efficiencies and financial
emphasizing renewable energy and stability of DISCOMs.
efficiency.
Renewable Purchase - Mandate for DISCOMs to purchase 29.91% of energy from
Obligation (RPO) a certain percentage of electricity renewables by 2024-25,
from renewable sources. increasing to 43.33% by
2029-30.
Solar Energy Scheme for - Provide financial assistance for 50%, 75%, and 90%
Small Powerloom Units solar energy plants to power loom subsidy depending on the
units, reducing electricity costs. category of the applicant.
Production Linked Incentive 2021 Enhance GW scale manufacturing Tranche-I for 8,737 MW,
(PLI) Scheme for National of high-efficiency solar PV modules. Tranche-II for 39,600 MW
Program on High Efficiency manufacturing capacity.
Solar PV Modules
Approved List of Models and 2021 Promote domestic manufacturing Ensure quality and
Manufacturers (ALMM) by endorsing indigenous solar reliability in government-
Scheme models and manufacturers. led solar projects.
PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijeli 15 Feb Provide free electricity to Benefit 1 crore
Yojana 2024 households through subsidized households across India.
solar panel installations.
National Wind-Solar Hybrid 14 May Promote large-scale grid- Achieve 175 GW of
Policy 2018 connected wind-solar PV hybrid installed renewable
systems for efficient utilization of energy capacity by 2022.
transmission and land.
International Solar Alliance 2015 Mobilize USD 1 trillion in solar Facilitate mobilization of
investments by 2030 for massive USD 1 trillion in solar
scale-up of solar energy investments by 2030.
deployment among member
nations.
One Sun One World One Oct 2018 Establish a global solar energy grid Mobilize USD 1 trillion in
Grid (OSOWOG) to share solar power across solar investments by
countries. 2030.
Wind Energy
Initiative/Policy Year Key Features and Objectives Specifics and Impact

Launched
National Offshore 2015 Develop offshore wind energy Identifies zones within EEZ suitable
Wind Energy Policy in India's EEZ; streamline for development based on wind
permits and approvals; offer potential and environmental
incentives for private factors.
investment.
National Institute of - Serves as the nodal agency for Facilitates capacity building and
Wind Energy (NIWE) offshore wind initiatives; technical feasibility assessments for
conducts feasibility studies and offshore wind projects.
R&D activities.
Generation Based Post-April Promotes wind projects Maximum of Rs. 1 crore per MW;
Incentive (GBI) 2012 through fiscal incentives; offers applicable to grid-connected
Rs. 0.50 per unit of electricity projects registered with IREDA.
fed into the grid.
National Clean 2010 Financed by a clean energy Renamed in 2017 to include
Energy Fund (NCEF) cess on coal, supports environmental focus; funds projects
innovative clean energy advancing renewable energy and
projects. smart grid technologies.
Green Energy 2015-16 Integrates solar and wind Supports large-scale renewable
Corridor energy sources with the energy investments, especially in
national power grid to enhance Rajasthan and Gujarat; includes two
energy efficiency. implementation phases.
Bio Fuels
Initiative/Policy Year Key Objectives and Features Specific Targets and

Launched Achievements
National Policy On Bio 2018 Promotes the production and use -
Fuels of biofuels; supports energy
security, reduces greenhouse
emissions, boosts agriculture.
Ethanol Blended Petrol 2003 Aims to reduce fossil fuel use, Achieved 10% blending by
Program lower emissions, and decrease oil 2021-22; Target of 20%
imports by blending ethanol with blending by 2025.
petrol.
Pradhan Mantri JI- VAN 2019 Supports the production of 2G bio- Financial support up to Rs. 150
Yojana ethanol using non-food biomass crore per project; two-phase
resources. implementation.
GOBAR-DHAN 2018 Converts organic waste into biogas Plans for 500 new Waste to
and bio-CNG, promoting waste Wealth plants including 200
management and energy CBG plants by 2023.
production in rural areas.
SATAT Scheme 2018 Encourages the production of Goal of setting up 5,000 plants
Compressed Bio Gas (CBG) as an producing 15 million tons of
alternative fuel. CBG by 2023.
Repurposed Used - Collects and converts used cooking Potential to recover 220 crore
Cooking Oil (RUCO) oil into biodiesel. litres of used cooking oil for
biodiesel by 2022.
Global Bio Fuel Alliance 2023 Facilitates international Comprised of 19 countries and
cooperation on biofuels, aiming to 12 organizations focusing on
accelerate global adoption and biofuel transition.
production.
Compressed Biogas - Integrates CBG into city gas Mandatory blending of CBG in
Distribution - City Gas distribution networks to enhance CGD networks starting from
Distribution Network energy distribution and promote 2025-2026.
cleaner fuel usage.
SAMARTH Mission 2021 Aims to co-fire biomass with coal Requires thermal power
in thermal power plants to reduce plants to use 5–10% biomass;
carbon emissions and address over 1 lakh MT of biomass co-
stubble burning. fired as of March 2023.
National Bioenergy 2022 Utilizes surplus biomass for power Budget of Rs 1715 crore with
Program generation and supports the Rs 858 crore for Phase-1; CFA
production of Biogas, BioCNG, and up to Rs. 10 crore for BioCNG
Biomass Briquettes/Pellets. production.
Hydrogen Fuel
Initiative/Policy Year Objectives and Features Targets and Achievements

Launched
National Green 2023 Establish India as a global hub for - 5 MMT per annum green
Hydrogen Mission green hydrogen; promote hydrogen production by
production, utilization, and export. 2030.
Financial Commitment: Rs. 19,744 - Addition of 125 GW
crore. renewable energy.
Development of Green Hydrogen - Attract over Rs. 8 lakh
Hubs; Strategic Hydrogen crore investments; create
Innovation Partnership (SHIP). over 6 lakh jobs.
- Save over Rs. 1 lakh crore
in fossil fuel imports; 50
MMT annual GHG emission
reduction.
Strategic Interventions 2023 Financial mechanism within the - ₹17,490 crore allocation
for Green Hydrogen National Green Hydrogen Mission. until 2029-30 for domestic
Transition (SIGHT) production of green
hydrogen and electrolyzers.
Green Hydrogen/Green 2022 Increase domestic production of - 25-year waiver of inter-
Ammonia Policy green hydrogen to 5 million tonnes state transmission charges
by 2030. for projects commissioned
by June 2025.
Define green hydrogen/ammonia - Facilitate renewable
production using renewable energy. energy banking; grant open
Allow grid connectivity and access and connectivity.
unconsumed power use.
Waste To Energy
1. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan-
The Swachh Bharat Mission, or Clean India Mission, was launched in 2014 to promote waste-to-energy (WTE)
as part of waste management plans. The mission includes the following measures to promote WTE:
1. Waste to Wealth Mission- A decentralized waste processing technology park that uses segregated
municipal solid waste as feedstock for gasifiers and pyrolysis units to generate energy
2. National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP)- Encourages the use of biogas and
organic manure produced from urban, industrial, and agricultural waste
3. WTE Programme- Provides financial assistance to set up plants for generating biogas, BioCNG, and
power from urban, industrial, and agricultural waste
4. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC)- Determines tariffs for power generated from WTE
plants to improve their financial viability
5. Power ministry- Amending the Electricity Act, 2003 to include a provision for state electricity discoms
to mandatorily purchase all power generated from municipal solid waste
2. The Waste to Energy Programme-

It aims to support the establishment of facilities that convert urban, industrial, and agricultural wastes into
Biogas, BioCNG, Power, or syngas. This initiative runs from FY 2021-22 to FY 2025-26.
Central Financial Assistance (CFA): Provides funding to developers for the successful commissioning of Waste
to Energy plants. The specific financial assistance includes:
a) Up to Rs. 4.0 Cr for BioCNG generation from new biogas plants.
b) Up to Rs. 0.75 Cr/MW for power generation from new biogas plants.
c) Rs. 0.4 Cr/MW for power from bio and agro-industrial waste.
1. Enhanced CFA for projects in Special Category States and for registered Gaushalas.
2. The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is designated as the implementing agency
for this programme.
3. The programme considers projects with loans from banks or financial institutions, as well as self-financed
projects. Special provisions apply to self-financed projects, requiring recommendation from the Project
Appraisal Committee.
4. SATAT Initiative Support: Provides advance CFA for bank-financed BioCNG projects under the SATAT
initiative.
Other steps taken by the Government of India to promote the installation of Waste to Energy (WTE) plants
for generating energy from municipal solid waste, presented in point form:
1. Amended Tariff Policy-2016: Mandates Distribution Licensee(s) to procure 100% power from all
Waste-to-Energy plants in the state.
2. Amendment to Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 (June 2015): Includes provisions for the use of
BioCNG produced from waste, including municipal solid waste, in motor vehicles.
3. National Policy on Biofuels-2018: Promotes the production of Bio-CNG and other biofuels.
4. Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) Initiative: Encourages Oil
Marketing Companies (OMCs) to purchase Bio-CNG produced from waste including municipal solid
waste.
5. Import Machinery Concessions: Certificates for availing concession on custom duty issued by the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy for import of machinery and components for setting up WTE
projects.
6. Programme on Energy from Urban, Industrial, Agricultural Wastes/Residues and Municipal Solid
Waste: Implemented by MNRE; provides Central Financial Assistance for the establishment of WTE
plants, valid until March 2021 and recommended for continuation till 2025-26 to meet existing
liabilities.
7. MNRE's Waste to Energy Programme under National Bioenergy Programme: With a budget outlay of
Rs 600 crore for FY 2021-22 to FY 2025-26, supports setting up of Biogas/BioCNG/Power plants from
various wastes, providing financial assistance per capacity.
8. SATAT Initiative by Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas: Plans to set up 5000 BioCNG plants with
a production target of 15 MMT of BioCNG by 2023-24.
9. GOBAR-DHAN scheme by Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation: Launched in 2018 as part of
SBM (Gramin) Phase II, provides financial assistance for setting up cluster/community level biogas
plants.
10. Custom Duty Concession Certificates (CDCC): Issued for availing concession on custom duty for
essential project machinery and components.
Hydro Power
The Government has issued measures to promote Hydro Power Sector-
1. Declaring Large Hydro Projects (>25 MW) as Renewable Energy source.
1. Tariff rationalization measures for bringing down hydropower tariff.
2. Budgetary Support for Flood Moderation/ Storage Hydro Electric Projects (HEPs).
3. Budgetary Support to Cost of Enabling Infrastructure i.e., roads/bridges.
4. Subsequently, the Hydro Purchase Obligation (HPO) trajectory, for the period 2021-22 to 2029-30
has also been notified by the Government on 29.01.2021.
5. The Hydro Purchase Obligation (HPO) trajectory, for the period 2021-22 to 2029-30 has also been
notified by the Government on 29.01.2021.
These measures would be particularly beneficial for development of hydro projects, in hilly regions/
States, which are often located in remote and far-flung areas and require development of extensive
associated infrastructure such as roads, bridges etc. for transportation of heavy, large sized equipment
& machinery to the project site.
Classification of Hydro Projects-

It based on Installed Capacity Hydro power projects are generally categorized in two segments i.e. small
and large hydro. In India, hydro projects up to 25 MW station capacities have been categorized as Small
Hydro Power (SHP) projects.
a. Micro: upto 100 KW Mini: 101KW to 2 MW
b. Small: 2 MW to 25 MW
c. Mega: Hydro projects with installed capacity >= 500 MW
d. Thermal Projects with installed capacity >=1500 MW
While Ministry of Power, Government of India is responsible for large hydro projects, the mandate for the
subject small hydro power (up to 25 MW) is given to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
Ocean Energy
Program Description
O-SMART Scheme Launched in August 2018 by the MoES, focuses on advancing oceanographic
research, implementing early warning systems, and promoting the Blue Economy.
Development of Ocean Energy as a main objective. Continued for 2021-26.
Sub-Schemes under Includes Ocean Technology, Ocean Modelling and Advisory Services, Ocean
O-SMART Observation Network, Ocean Non-Living Resources, Marine Living Resources and
Ecology, Coastal Research, Operation and Maintenance of Research Vessels.
Deep Ocean Mission Initiated by MoES in 2021; focuses on deep-sea mining, climate advisory,
(DOM) biodiversity conservation, ocean survey, and energy generation. Features the
development of a manned submersible called Samudrayaan.
Draft Blue Economy Currently being finalized; aims for optimal utilization of maritime sectors for
Policy sustainable coastal development. Includes frameworks for ocean governance,
marine spatial planning, fisheries, infrastructure, and security.
IEA-OES Membership India joined in 2016; facilitates access to global R&D in ocean energy. ESSO-NIOT
is the nodal agency. Focus on cooperation for energy development from waves,
currents, and thermal gradients.
Sindhuja-1 Ocean Developed by IIT Madras, deployed off the coast of Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu.
Wave Energy Generates electricity from sea waves, currently producing 100 watts, with plans
Converter to scale up to one megawatt.
Geo Thermal Energy

Draft National Geo Thermal Policy
The Draft National Policy on Geothermal Energy in India is designed to position the country as a global leader
in geothermal power generation. Key objectives of the policy include:
1. Sustainable Sector Development: Establish a secure, sustainable, and environmentally responsible
geothermal energy sector.
2. Employment Generation: Create new job opportunities within the geothermal sector.
3. Eco-friendly Energy Methods: Promote ecologically sustainable methods for generating energy.
4. Reduction of Greenhouse Gases: Aim to reduce national greenhouse gas emissions.
5. Contribution to Energy Supply: Make a significant contribution to India’s long-term energy supply.
The policy sets ambitious targets to develop the geothermal sector:
1. Initial Phase (by 2022): Deploy 1,000 MW of thermal and 20 MW of electrical geothermal capacity.
2. Long-term Goal (by 2030): Scale up to 10,000 MW of thermal and 1,000 MW of electrical geothermal
capacity.
Furthermore, the policy includes educational programs to increase awareness about geothermal energy's
benefits, particularly its role in reducing electricity demand through technologies like ground source heat
pumps.
India’s First Geo Thermal Project-

1. The Puga Project in Ladakh, spearheaded by Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), marks India's
first venture into geothermal energy, aiming to generate electricity from this renewable source.
2. Situated in the geothermally active Puga Valley of the Changthang region at 14,000 feet, it's set to
be the world's highest-altitude geothermal project.
3. ONGC's initial drilling has successfully tapped high-pressure steam at 100 degrees Celsius,
indicating promising potential for sustainable energy production in this remote area.
Crude Oil
Measures to promote and streamline Crude Oil Energy in India-
Initiative Key Features
Hydrocarbon - Uniform licensing for all hydrocarbons. - Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) for
Exploration and block selection. - Simple revenue sharing model. - Marketing and pricing freedom. -
Licensing Policy Concessional royalty rates. - National Data Repository (NDR) support.
(HELP), 2016
Strategic - Managed by Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL). - Total capacity
Petroleum of 5.33 MMT across three locations: Vishakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur. -
Reserves Additional facilities planned in Chandikhol (Odisha) and Padur (Karnataka).
PLI Scheme for - Proposed in February 2024 to address declining oil production. - Incentives based
Boosting Oil on incremental production. - Targets aging oil fields. - Part of a broader initiative
Production with a budget of Rs 1.97 lakh crore.
Natural Gas
Initiative Description
Hydrocarbon Introduced in 2016 to shift from Production Sharing to Revenue Sharing
Exploration andmechanism. Includes reforms like a 7-year royalty holiday for deep and ultra-
Licensing Policy (HELP)
deep blocks, concessional royalty rates, and a single license for all hydrocarbons.
National Gas Grid An expanding network aiming to reach 34,500 kilometers to ensure equitable
distribution of natural gas across India. Current operational length is
approximately 16,788 kilometers with further expansion planned.
City Gas Distribution Networks of underground pipelines delivering Piped Natural Gas (PNG) and
(CGD) Network Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) to various customers. Expansion is regulated by
the PNGRB, supporting clean energy initiatives and the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala
Yojana by freeing up LPG resources for rural areas.
CBG Blending A mandate to blend Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) with natural gas, starting
Obligation voluntarily in FY 2024-2025 and becoming mandatory by FY 2025-26, reaching a
5% blending requirement by FY 2028-29. Aims to stimulate CBG demand, reduce

LNG imports, and support circular economy initiatives.
Pradhan Mantri Provides clean cooking LPG connections to rural and underprivileged households
Ujjwala Yojana to improve health and reduce reliance on traditional cooking fuels. Includes
(PMUY) financial support and aims to achieve widespread LPG coverage across India.
PAHAL (Direct Benefit Launched in 2015 to ensure LPG subsidies are directly transferred to
Transfer-LPG) beneficiaries' bank accounts, enhancing transparency and reducing subsidy
leakages. Requires linkage with Aadhaar for subsidy eligibility.
Coal
Imitative Details
Mineral Laws Amends the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957
(Amendment) Act, 2020 (MMDR Act) and the Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 (CMSP Act).
Provides for allocation of coal blocks for composite Prospecting License-cum-
Mining Lease (PL-cum-ML). Allows any company selected through
auction/allotment to mine coal for own use or sale without prior experience.
Permits 100% FDI through automatic route for coal mining and associated
processing infrastructure.
Mines and Minerals Enables captive mines owners (except atomic minerals) to sell up to 50% of
(Development and annual production in the open market after meeting end-use plant
Regulation) Amendment requirements. Introduces Single Window Clearance portal for coal sector to
Act, 2021 expedite operationalization of coal mines.
SHAKTI (Scheme for Launched in 2018 to provide coal to stressed power units lacking coal supply.
Harnessing and Allocating Scheme for procurement of 4500 MW aggregate power for five years under
Koyala Transparently in SHAKTI Policy to help states facing power shortage and boost generation
India) capacities.
UTTAM APP Stands for Unlocking Transparency by Third Party Assessment of Mined Coal.
Developed by the Ministry of Coal and Coal India Limited (CIL). Provides a
platform for monitoring the process of Third-Party Sampling of coal across CIL
subsidiaries. Ensures accountability, transparency, effectiveness, and
efficiency in the coal ecosystem.
Coal Gasification Mission Government initiative to introduce clean coal technologies. Coal Gasification
Mission aims to gasify 100 million tonnes of coal by 2030. Reduces reliance
on imports of Natural Gas, Methanol, Ammonia, and other products.
Coal Allocation Developed to monitor the allocation of coal by CIL to States, States to State
Monitoring System Nominated Agencies (SNA), and SNA to consumers transparently.
(CAMS)
Nuclear Energy
1. Nuclear electricity generation increased from 35,334 million units in 2013-14 to 46,982 million units
in 2022-23, and to about 32,017 million units in 2023-24 (up to November).
2. Currently, India has 23 nuclear power reactors installed.
3. Construction and commissioning of ten new reactors totaling 8000 MW are ongoing in various states,
with additional pre-project activities for ten more reactors aimed for completion by 2031-32.
4. An in-principle approval has been given for a 6 x 1208 MW nuclear power plant in collaboration with
the USA in Andhra Pradesh.
5. Over the past decade, nuclear power generation in India has demonstrated excellent safety with
notable achievements including a world record in continuous operation.
6. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is ensuring timely completion of plant shutdowns
and the early start of new units.
7. There is close coordination with state governments during all phases of nuclear power plant
operations.
8. Nuclear power is highlighted as a clean, reliable, 24/7 source of electricity, vital for India’s long-term
energy security and meeting the net zero economy goal by 2070.
Measures Taken-
1. Amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 to facilitate establishment of Joint Venture Companies
(JVC) by Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) with other Central Public Sector
Undertakings to set up nuclear power plants.
2. Joint Ventures with Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs): Government has also allowed Joint Ventures
with PSUs to enhance India’s nuclear program. As a result, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Limited (NPCIL) is now in two joint ventures with the National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
(NTPC) and the Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL).
3. India’s Indigenous Move: The world’s first thorium-based nuclear plant, “Bhavni,” using Uranium-
233, is being set up at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. This plant will be entirely indigenous and will be the
first of its kind. The experimental thorium plant “Kamini” already exists in Kalpakkam.
India’s Three-stage Nuclear Power Program
1. Stage 1: Natural Uranium Fuelled Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
In the first stage, natural uranium was used as fuel for Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors, which also
produced plutonium- 239 as a by-product while generating electricity. The second stage would also
utilize the byproduct plutonium-293.
2. Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) Utilizing Plutonium-Based Fuel
The second stage involves using plutonium- 239 to produce mixed-oxide fuel, which would be used in
Fast Breeder Reactors.
3. Stage 3: Advanced Nuclear Power Systems for Utilization of Thorium
The primary goal of stage 3 is to achieve a long-term nuclear fuel cycle. The advanced nuclear system
would combine thorium and uranium-233. So, using a thermal breeder reactor, India’s abundant
thorium would be utilized. This stage is currently in the research phase.
2.5 Renewable Energy Promotion in India-

The Indian government has implemented numerous measures to boost renewable energy production,
aiming to achieve a capacity of 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030.
1. Inter-State Transmission System (ISTS) Charges Waiver: ISTS charges are waived for the inter-state
sale of solar and wind power for projects commissioned by June 30, 2025. Graded ISTS charges will
apply thereafter.
2. Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) Trajectory: An RPO trajectory has been declared up to 2030 to
ensure a consistent demand for renewable energy.
Launch of Various Schemes and Programs:

1. National Solar Mission
2. Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects.
3. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM).
4. Grid-Connected Solar Rooftop Programme.
5. Production Linked Incentive Scheme under the National Programme on High Efficiency Solar PV
Modules.
6. National Bioenergy Programme.
7. Renewable Energy Research and Technology Development Programme.
8. Incentive schemes for electrolyser manufacturing and green hydrogen production under the
National Green Hydrogen Mission.
9. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM): Supports solar power.
10. Solar Parks Scheme and Solar Rooftop Phase II: Encourage the adoption of solar energy.
11. 12000 MW CPSU Scheme Phase II: Aims to boost government production of solar energy.
12. Green Energy Corridor Scheme: Facilitates the evacuation of renewable power through new
transmission lines and sub-stations.
Infrastructure Development:
1. Establishment of Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks to provide land and transmission on a plug-
and-play basis.
2. Laying new transmission lines and creating new sub-station capacities for efficient power
evacuation.
3. Investment and Bidding Facilitation:
4. Setting up a Project Development Cell to attract and facilitate investments.
5. Implementation of standard bidding guidelines for a tariff-based competitive bidding process for
solar PV and wind projects.
6. Payment Security Mechanisms: Orders have been issued mandating power dispatch against
Letters of Credit or advance payment to ensure timely payments to renewable energy generators.
Policy Framework Enhancements:
1. Notification of Green Energy Open Access Rules 2022.
2. Notification of Late Payment Surcharge and related matters Rules 2022.
3. Notification of Electricity Amendment Rules 2022, including provisions for a Uniform Renewable
Energy Tariff for the Central Pool.
4. Launch of the National Green Hydrogen Mission to position India as a hub for green hydrogen
production and export.
Additionally, to promote and expand hydro power generation, including Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs),
the government has taken the following steps:
1. Declared large hydro power projects as renewable energy sources.
2. Implemented Hydro Purchase Obligation and tariff rationalization measures.
3. Provided budgetary support for flood moderation/storage hydroelectric projects and related
infrastructure.
4. ISTS Charges Waiver for PSPs: Extended to PSPs with construction awarded up to June 30, 2025,
with a phased partial waiver from July 2025 to July 2028.
5. PSP Development Guidelines (April 10, 2023): These guidelines aim to promote the development
of PSPs, recognizing their role in grid stabilization and meeting peak power demand.
6. Revised Guidelines for PSPs:

7. Faster concurrence timelines for DPRs of PSPs involved in bidding processes, integrated
renewable energy projects, and those developed as captive or merchant plants.
8. These comprehensive initiatives demonstrate the government’s commitment to significantly
increasing renewable energy production and enhancing grid stability through pumped storage
projects.
The Government of India is actively pursuing strategies to reduce the use of fossil fuels and enhance
the production of renewable energy, particularly from bioenergy sources, including agricultural
residue. Long Term Low Emission / Carbon Development Strategy (LT-LEDS): Outlined by NITI Aayog
and submitted to the UNFCCC, this strategy details India's approach towards low carbon
development.
Market Mechanisms:
Green Energy Open Access Rules 2022:
1. Simplifies the sale of renewable energy to commercial and industrial consumers.
2. Reduces the minimum capacity for open access transactions to 100 kW.
3. Aims to increase the accessibility and adoption of renewable energy.
Green Term Ahead Market (GTAM):
1. A platform for the trading of renewable energy like wind and solar.
2. Offers different contract types including intra-day and weekly.
3. Enhances the predictability and transparency for energy sales.
Energy Efficiency Measures:
Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Program:
1. Targets energy-intensive industries to reduce specific energy consumption.
2. Allows trading of certified energy savings.
3. Encourages cost-effective energy conservation.
Standards and Labelling (S&L) Scheme:
1. Requires labeling of appliances to show energy efficiency ratings.
2. Guides consumers to opt for more energy-efficient products.
3. Covers various appliances, influencing consumer behavior and energy usage.
Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC):
1. Sets minimum energy standards for new commercial buildings.
2. Includes standards for walls, roofs, windows, and systems like HVAC.
3. Reduces operational energy costs and lowers carbon footprints.
Other Initiatives –
The Indian government has taken significant steps to promote clean energy and sustainable living as part of
its commitment to climate change mitigation
1. Green Hydrogen Mission: An allocation of Rs. 19,700 crores to support the transition to low carbon
intensity and achieve an annual production target of 5 MMT by 2030.
2. Green Credit Programme: Introduced under the Environment (Protection) Act to encourage
behavioural change towards environmental conservation.
3. Sustainable Agriculture Initiatives: Including the establishment of 500 new 'waste to wealth' plants
under the GOBARdhan scheme, and the facilitation of one crore farmers to adopt natural farming.
4. Mangrove and Wetland Conservation: Launch of the MISHTI program for mangrove plantation and
the Amrit Dharohar scheme to optimize wetland usage, enhance biodiversity, and boost local income
through eco-tourism.
5. Promotion of Coastal Shipping: Through Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode with viability gap
funding to utilize this energy-efficient transport mode.
6. Vehicle Scrappage: Allocation of funds for scrapping old government vehicles and supporting states
in replacing old vehicles and ambulances.
The Akshay Urja (Inexhaustible Energy) program is an annual awareness campaign in India that promotes
renewable energy sources and reduces the use of finite resources. The Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) established the program in 2004, and it is celebrated on August 20th every year. The
program highlights the limitless potential of renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, and
biomass.
Unit 3: Ecosystem and Biodiversity

1. Ecology and Ecosystem: Basic concepts of Ecology
2. Ecosystem: Components and Types
3. Biodiversity: Meaning, Components
4. Biodiversity Hotspots
5. Loss of Biodiversity
6. Conservation of Biodiversity: Methods, Recent Plans, Target
7. Convention and Protocols
8. Wildlife Conservation: CITES
9. Endangered Species with reference to India
10. Biosphere Reserves
11. Indian Wildlife Conservation efforts, projects, acts and initiatives in recent times.
3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem: Basic concepts of Ecology
Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their surroundings occurring within an
ecosystem or environment.
Note: German zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined the word "ecology" in 1866 to describe how animals interact
with their surroundings. The word comes from the Greek words oikos, meaning "household," "home," or
"place to live," and logos, meaning "study".
Ecosystem
1. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature.
2. It is the system of interaction or
interdependency of living organisms among
themselves and also with the surrounding
physical environment.
Ecosystem= Interaction (Living Organisms + Physical
Environment)
Examples:
Mangrove Ecosystem, Tropical Rain Forest, Desert Ecosystem, etc.
Environment vs Ecosystem:
Category Environment Ecosystem
Definition It is the surrounding where It is the community where biotic and abiotic
organisms live. components interact.
Components Comprises physical components. Comprises biological components.
Function Provides living space for elements. Provides interaction between elements.
Conditions Provides conditions for life. Provides relations between components.
Types Can be macro or micro. Can be aquatic or terrestrial.
Mobility Environment changes as organism Ecosystem remains the same regardless of

moves. organism's location.
Temporality Environment is a place in time. Ecosystem remains constant over time.
The Four Spheres of the Earth-

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected geo-spheres-
Sphere Components
Lithosphere Continents, ocean floor, rocks, sand, dust, metal,
brick, asphalt
Hydrosphere Earth’s oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, rain, snow
Atmosphere Earth’s oxygen, nitrogen, ozone, wind particles, other
gases
Biosphere Earth’s living organisms: plants, humans, animals,
insects, microbes
Cryosphere Frozen water on Earth: ice, glaciers, polar ice caps,
icebergs, sea ice
(Part of Hydrosphere)
Hydrosphere
1. The hydrosphere includes all forms of water in the Earth’s environment.
2. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the movement and flow of water in rivers,
streams and the ocean (beach).
3. Plant and animal organisms rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential.
Atmosphere -
1. The atmosphere referrers to the air that
surrounds the earth.
2. The atmosphere is always in motion and
constantly changing. It’s believed that there are
about 14 different gases that make up the
atmosphere.
3. The atmosphere is also responsible for the
weather as the weather occurs within the lower
atmosphere.
Biosphere
1. Earth has different components-
Lithosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere.
2. Biosphere is that part of lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere where plants
and human beings live.
3. It is part of the earth where life exists.
4. It consists of living organisms and the dead
organic matter.
Species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere-

Term Meaning
Species A group of organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile
offspring.
Population A group of individuals of the same
species living in the same area and
interacting with each other.
Community All populations of different species
living and interacting in the same area.
Ecosystem A biological community of interacting
organisms and their physical
environment.
Biome A large naturally occurring community
of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat.
Biosphere The global sum of all ecosystems and
includes all living organisms on Earth.
3.2 Ecosystem: Components and Types
Ecosystem is a system of interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Interaction Description
Type
Biotic Living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem; obtained from the biosphere; capable of
reproduction. Examples include animals, birds, plants, fungi, etc.
Abiotic Non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem; obtained from the
lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples include water, air, soil, sunlight, etc.
Biotic Factors-
Biotic factors are of two types- Produces and Consumers
Type Meaning Examples
Producers Organisms that produce organic compounds Plants, algae, certain bacteria, and some
from inorganic substances through protists
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
Consumers Organisms that obtain energy and nutrients Herbivores (deer, rabbits), carnivores (lions,
by feeding on other organisms or organic wolves), omnivores (humans, bears), and
matter decomposers (fungi, bacteria)
Consumers are categorised into different types based on their feeding habits and the sources of their
nutrition within the ecosystem.
Type Description Examples
Herbivores Consumers that primarily feed on plants and plant-based Deer, cows, rabbits,
materials. grasshoppers
Carnivores Consumers that primarily feed on other animals. Lions, wolves, snakes,
hawks
Omnivores Consumers that feed on both plants and animals. Humans, bears, raccoons,
pigs
Decomposers Organisms that break down dead organic matter into Fungi (mushrooms),
simpler substances, recycling nutrients. bacteria, worms
Detritivores Consumers that feed on decomposing organic matter, such Earthworms, woodlice,
as leaf litter and dead plant material. dung beetles
Abiotic Factors-
Abiotic Factor Description
Sunlight Primary source of energy for photosynthesis in plants.
Temperature Influences metabolic rates, affecting the survival and activity of organisms.
Water Essential for hydration, cellular processes, and maintaining osmotic balance.
Soil Provides anchorage for plants, houses essential nutrients, and serves as a habitat for
organisms.
Air Contains gases necessary for respiration and photosynthesis.
Wind Affects seed dispersal, plant growth, and temperature regulation.
pH Influences the availability of nutrients and the activity of enzymes in organisms.
Humidity Affects water loss through transpiration and influences the distribution of organisms.
Altitude Impacts atmospheric pressure, temperature, and oxygen availability.
Topography Determines the distribution of habitats and influences microclimates.
Types of Ecosystems-
Ecosystems can be broadly categorized into two main types based on their presence and flow of water: 1.
Terrestrial Ecosystem 2. Aquatic Ecosystem
The largest ecosystem in the world is the aquatic ecosystem. It comprises freshwater and marine
ecosystems. It constitutes 70% of the surface of the earth.
Ecosystem Characteristics Examples

Type
Terrestrial Found on land surfaces and characterized by soil, Forests, grasslands, deserts,
vegetation, and various habitats. tundra, etc.
Aquatic Found in water bodies and distinguished by factors such Oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds,
as salinity, depth, and water flow. wetlands, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystems-
Ecosystem Description Examples in India
Type
Forests Dense areas with high tree density and diverse Tropical rainforests (Western Ghats),
flora and fauna. They play a vital role in Deciduous forests (Madhya Pradesh),
maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance. Alpine forests (Himalayas)
Grasslands Open areas dominated by grasses and herbs, with Savannas (Deccan Plateau), Alpine
few trees and shrubs. They support grazing meadows (Western Himalayas), Thar
animals and are important for agriculture. Desert (Rajasthan)
Deserts Arid regions characterized by low precipitation Thar Desert (Rajasthan), Rann of
and sparse vegetation. Adapted flora and fauna Kutch (Gujarat), Cold deserts (Ladakh)
thrive in extreme conditions.
Wetlands Areas where water covers the soil, either Mangroves (Sundarbans), Marshes
permanently or seasonally. They support unique (Chilika Lake), Swamps (Keoladeo
biodiversity and provide various ecosystem National Park)
services.
Mountains High-altitude regions with diverse ecosystems Himalayan region (including Eastern,
due to variations in altitude, temperature, and Western, and Central Himalayas),
precipitation. They are biodiversity hotspots. Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats
Coastal Regions where land meets the sea, characterized Coastal plains (Konkan Coast,
by dynamic ecosystems influenced by tides, Coromandel Coast), Estuaries
waves, and currents. They support diverse marine (Sundarbans), Coastal dunes (Rann of
life. Kutch)
Aquatic Ecosystems-
Ecosystem Description Examples in India
Type
Oceans Vast bodies of saltwater covering a significant Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal
portion of the Earth's surface. They host
diverse marine life.
Seas Large bodies of saline water that are partially Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of
enclosed by land. They support various marine Bengal
ecosystems.
Rivers Flowing bodies of freshwater that play a crucial Ganges River, Brahmaputra River,
role in shaping landscapes and supporting Yamuna River
aquatic life.
Lakes Large inland bodies of water surrounded by Dal Lake (Kashmir), Chilika Lake (Odisha),
land. They vary in size, depth, and ecosystem Vembanad Lake (Kerala)
characteristics.
Ponds Small bodies of freshwater, usually shallow and Wular Lake (Kashmir), Loktak Lake
isolated. They support a variety of aquatic (Manipur), Pichola Lake (Rajasthan)
plants and animals.
Estuaries Coastal areas where rivers meet the sea, Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra
forming brackish water habitats. They are rich Delta), Chilika Lake (Odisha)
in biodiversity.
Wetlands Transitional zones between terrestrial and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan),
aquatic ecosystems, characterized by seasonal Bhitarkanika Mangroves (Odisha), Rann
flooding. of Kutch (Gujarat)
Fresh Water Ecosystem:

Lentic ecosystems are freshwater habitats that include ponds, lakes, marshes, swamps, and ditches, and are
characterized by still water. The term "lentic" comes from the Latin word lentus, which means "slow" or
"motionless". Lentic ecosystems are a type of freshwater ecosystem, along with lotic ecosystems, which
include running water like rivers and streams.
Lentic ecosystems provide resources for both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. They are characterized by
physical and chemical interactions, as well as biotic plants, animals, and micro-organisms.
Lentic ecosystems typically have three major zones of habitat:
1. Littoral: The shallow-water zone, where light penetrates to the bottom and supports rooted plants
and bottom-dwelling animals
2. Limnetic: The water open to effective light penetration, where plant and animal plankton are
supported
3. Profundal: The bottom zone
Biotic interactions-
Biotic interactions are the effects that two species have on each other when they live in the same
community. These interactions can occur between individuals of the same species or individuals from
different species. The five primary types of biotic interactions are: mutualism, competition, commensalism,
predation, and parasitism.
Ecological Niche-
1. It is the unique functional role or position of an organism in its natural habitat.
2. It is a description of the organism’s
a) Habitat (Habitat Niche)
b) Place in food chain (Food Niche)
c) Reproductive characteristics (Reproductive Niche)
d) Chemical and Physical requirement (Chemical and Physical Niche)
3. A Niche is unique for a species. It means by the above descriptions we can identify a particular
species.
Habitat-
a) It is the place where a living organisms’ lives.
b) It corresponds to the address of an organism.
c) A single habitat maybe common for more than one organism which has similar requirements.
Ex: A rain forest is habitat for many species. So, all these species have one habitat.
Habitat Niche
A habitat is a particular place where A niche defines a specific role played by organisms
organisms live, i.e. address. in an ecosystem, i.e. profession.
Habitat is not species-specific, and many Niche is species-specific, and it supports only a
species can occupy the same habitat. single species.
Habitat consists of several niches. Niche is specific to a particular species, which may
overlap with a similar niche but must have distinct
differences.
Habitat is a superset of niche. Niche is a subset of habitat.
Examples: desert, ocean, mountains, Examples: different trophic positions occupied by
grassland, forest, etc. Darwin’s finches.
Types of Species
Type Description Examples

Keystone Species that cause significant changes in the abundance or occurrence of Tiger, Lion,
Species at least one other species when they are added to or removed from an etc
ecosystem
Priority A priority species indicates a significant threat within an ecoregion, and Big Cats
Species conserving this species will greatly help in addressing the broader threat
Flagship A species is chosen to serve as a representative, symbol or ambassador Elephants
Species for a specific habitat, issue, campaign or environmental cause.
Indicator An indicator species or a group of species is selected to represent and Corals
Species provide information about the condition of an ecosystem or a specific
process occurring within that ecosystem
Foundation Serve as the dominant primary producers in an ecosystem, exhibiting both Bees
Species abundance and influence.
Umbrella It acts as an umbrella for conservation attempts and programs. Tigers
Species Conservation of umbrella species would extend protection to other
species as well.
Functions of Ecosystem-
Function Description
1. Ecological succession or The process by which an ecosystem evolves over time, transitioning from
ecosystem development a barren or disturbed state to a stable, mature state through the
colonization of plant and animal species.
2. Homeostasis (or The maintenance of a stable internal environment within the ecosystem
cybernetic) or feedback through regulatory processes, ensuring that essential factors such as
control mechanisms temperature, pH, and nutrient levels remain within optimal ranges.
3. Energy flow through the The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another within the
food chain ecosystem, typically starting with producers (plants) and moving through
various consumer levels (herbivores, carnivores) until reaching
decomposers.
4. Nutrient cycling The recycling of essential nutrients (such as carbon, nitrogen,
(biogeochemical cycles) phosphorus, and water) through living organisms, soil, air, and water
bodies, ensuring their availability for future generations of life forms.
Function 1. Ecological Succession-

Successio Primary Succession Secondary Succession
n Type
Definition Occurs where no previous community existed, Occurs where an existing community has
often on barren rock or soil. been disturbed, leaving behind soil and
remnants of vegetation.
Pioneer Lichens and mosses are common pioneer Fast-growing grasses, herbs, and shrubs
Species species, initiating soil formation. often pioneer, aiding in soil stabilization.
Time Takes centuries or millennia to reach a climax Progresses more rapidly, often completing
Scale community due to slow soil formation. within decades or centuries, depending on
the severity of the disturbance.
Example Volcanic eruptions and glacial retreats lead to Forest fires and clear-cutting of forests
primary succession. trigger secondary succession.
Note-
1. The primary community is like the first settlers in a new land, laying the groundwork for others to
come.
2. The seral community is like the evolving community that follows, with different species gradually
taking over.
3. The climax community is like the mature, stable neighbourhood where everyone has found their
place and things remain relatively unchanged unless there's a major shake-up.
Function 2. Homeostasis or Feedback Control Mechanism-

Homeostasis refers to an ecosystem's ability to self-regulate and maintain equilibrium.
Types of Homeostasis:
1. Regulation: Some species regulate internal conditions, like body temperature, through physiological
processes.
2. Conformity: Many organisms conform to external environmental conditions, such as variations in
temperature and osmotic concentration.
3. Migration: Organisms may migrate to less stressful environments temporarily to maintain
homeostasis.
4. Suspension: Some organisms enter states of dormancy or suspended development to survive adverse
conditions.
Hibernation and Aestivation are some examples of Homeostasis.
Hibernation Aestivation
Also known as “winter sleep”. Also known as “summer sleep”.
Longer duration. Short duration.
Animals look for a warm place to sleep. Animals look for a moist, cool and shady place to
sleep.
It prevents any internal body damage due to low It prevents excessive water loss and internal body
temperatures. damage due to high temperatures.
Hibernation takes place in warm and cold-blooded Aestivation takes place in cold-blooded animals
animals like bats, mammals, birds. like snails, earthworms, frogs, etc.
Function 3. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem-

In ecosystem energy gets transferred form one organism to another. These levels are known as trophic
levels. Based on the direction it is of two types.
Food Chain-
1. In ecosystem energy gets transferred form one organism to another.
2. This chain of dependence among organisms is called a food chain.
3. It can be of different types:
1. Grazing food chain
2. Detritus food chain.
4. The flow of energy in a food chain is always unidirectional.
Food Web-
1. The feeding relationship in a natural ecosystem is complicated.
2. The food chain does not remain simple and linear.
3. Rather it is complicated by several inter-connected overlapping food chains.
4. This happens when greater number of species feed on many kinds of prey.
5. Such complicated food network is called food web.
Food Chain Food Web

A linear pathway showing the flow of energy A multitude of networks showing the flow of
energy
An organism of higher-level trophic feeds on a An organism of higher trophic level has access to
specific organism of lower trophic level more members of a lower trophic level.
Has no effect on the adaptability and Has a role in improving the adaptability and
competitiveness of organisms. competitiveness of an organism.
Trophic Levels-
1. The various energy levels in a food chain are called Trophic levels.
2. Trophic levels show us the position of an organism in a food chain.
Ex: Primary consumers, secondary consumers etc.
Ecological Pyramid-
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms
at different trophic levels.
1. In a food web Ecological Pyramids are graphical representation of:
a. Total Number of Species (Pyramid of Numbers)
b. Total Biomass (Pyramid of Biomass)
c. Total Energy availability (Pyramid of Energy)
2. For different ecosystems different ecological pyramids are constructed.
3. These are of two types:
a. Vertical Pyramids
b. Inverted Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers
1. Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different species (population) at
each trophic level.
2. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
completely inverted.
3. It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of
number does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.
Pyramid of numbers – upright
In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level.
Pyramid of numbers – inverted

In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic level. E.g. Tree
ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately
and measuring their dry weight.
This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
Pyramid of Biomass – upright-

For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top. The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next
trophic level i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic level i.e.
secondary consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount
of biomass.
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted

In contrast to the upright biomass pyramid, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may
assume an inverted form.
This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly.
Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the
producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape.
Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable.
An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each transfer
to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids-

1. It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a
food web.
3. Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given
any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
Pollutants and Trophic Level –
Biomagnification
Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants), which cannot be broken down by detrivores, not only
move through the various trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration.
Biomagnification / Bio- Bio Accumulation Bioconcentration
amplification
Bio-amplification (or) Bioaccumulation occurs within It is a form of
biomagnification, refers an organism, where a bioaccumulation by
to an increase in the concentration of a substance absorption directly from
concentration of a builds up in the tissues and is water. It is specifically
substance as you move absorbed faster than it is referred to
up the food chain. removed. as bioconcentration.
Ecosystem Services
1. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems.
2. These include:
a) Economic Benefits
b) Ecological Benefits
c) Medical Benefits, etc
Carrying Capacity
1. Carrying capacity is the maximum capacity or resources that the system can sustain for the given
population.
2. It is the number of people, animals, or crops which a region can support without environmental
degradation.
3. The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed.
4. It can be altered by improved technology
Function 4. Bio-geo Chemical Cycling or Nutrient Cycling

1. Energy flow and nutrient circulation are the major functions of the ecosystem.
2. Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients
of food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.
3. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and compounds makeup 97% of
the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms.
4. In addition to these, about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the survival and
good health of plants and animals.
5. These elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to living and
then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion.
6. This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere).
Types of Nutrient Cycles-

1. Based on the replacement period, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.
2. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized.
3. Most gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.
4. In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from
the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavailable for immediate cycling.
5. Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Gaseous or Sedimentary cycle
A. Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, etc. and
B. Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the earth’s crust (soluble elements mostly found in
earth’s crust) — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.
Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle describes the path of a water droplet from the time it falls to the ground until it
evaporates and returns to our atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle
1. The carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the
atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.
2. Since our planet and its atmosphere form a closed environment, the amount of carbon in this system
does not change.
Oxygen Cycle
1. Oxygen cycle, circulation of oxygen in various forms through nature.
2. Free in the air and dissolved in water, oxygen is second only to nitrogen in abundance among
uncombined elements in the atmosphere.
3. Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air and water as carbon dioxide (CO2).
Nitrogen Cycle
1. It is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively
passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.
2. It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay and
putrefaction.
Sulphur Cycle
Sulphur cycle is the collection of processes that involves the movement of sulphur between the rocks,
waterways and living systems.
Phosphorous Cycle
1. The phosphorus cycle is the process by which phosphorus moves through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
2. Phosphorus is essential for plant and animal growth, as well as the health of microbes inhabiting the
soil, but is gradually depleted from the soil over time.
Other Concepts in Ecosystem:

Ecotone-
1. An ecotone is a transition area between two biological communities, where two communities
meet and integrate.
1. It may be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and forest) or regional (the
transition between forest and grassland ecosystems).
Edge Effect-
The edge effect is an ecological concept that describes how there is a greater diversity of life in the region
where the edges two adjacent ecosystems overlap, such as land/water, or forest/grassland.
Invasive Species
Invasive alien species are species that are introduced, accidentally or intentionally, outside of their natural
geographic range and that become problematic.
3.3 Biodiversity: Meaning, Components
Biodiversity comes from two words: Bio meaning life and diversity meaning variability. It includes the
different plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, the genetic information they contain, and the
ecosystems they form.
Biodiversity is important to most aspects of our lives. It supports everything in nature that we need to
survive, such as food, clean water, medicine, and shelter.
Components of Biodiversity-
It is studied at three levels:
a. Genetic Diversity
b. Species Diversity
c. Ecological Diversity
Comparison between the components of Biodiversity-
Component Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity

Meaning Variation within species Variety of different species Variety of different ecosystems
at the genetic level present in a particular area or habitats in a region
Ex: Different breeds of Ex: Rainforest with diverse Ex: Tropical rainforests, deserts,
dogs, varieties of crops plant and animal species, wetlands
coral reefs
Scope Diversity of genes, Richness and evenness of Terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
alleles, and genetic species within a community ecosystems
traits
Importance Essential for adaptation Supports stability andProvides habitat diversity,
and evolution functionality of ecosystems supporting a wide range of
species
Inter- Influences species Influences genetic diversity Supports species diversity and
connection diversity and vice versa within species genetic diversity
Species Diversity- Components:
Species Richness Species Evenness Species Diversity
Species richness is simply Species evenness is a description of species diversity is the number of
the number of species in the distribution of abundance different species (species richness)
a community. across the species in a community. combined with the relative
Species evenness is highest when all abundance of individuals within
species in a sample have the same each of those species in
abundance. a given area.
Note: Alpha diversity measures the species diversity in an ecosystem while beta diversity measures the
change in species diversity mainly between two communities or two ecosystems. Whereas, gamma diversity
measures the overall biodiversity of a large geographic region.
3.4 Biodiversity Hotspots
Coined by Norman Myers, the term “Biodiversity hotspots” can be defined as the regions which are known
for their high species richness and endemism.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation.
Biodiversity hotspots are identified and promoted by organizations like Conservation International, focusing
on conservation efforts in areas with high species richness and threat levels.
India- Biodiversity Hotspots:
India boasts diverse ecosystems, with approximately 23.39% of its land covered in forests, housing around
91,000 animal species and 45,500 plant species.
There are four recognized biodiversity hotspots in India: the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma area,
and Sundaland. These hotspots are areas of high biodiversity, endemism, and vulnerability.
1. The Himalayan hotspot spans across northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and India's northwest and
northeastern states. It encompasses diverse ecosystems, including alpine meadows, subtropical
broadleaf forests, and temperate broadleaf forests.
2. The Indo-Burma hotspot covers parts of northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia, featuring a
wide range of habitats and high levels of overall biodiversity. It faces threats from logging, agriculture,
infrastructure development, and climate change.
3. The Western Ghats, extending along India's western coast, are known for their rich biodiversity and
crucial role in regulating rainfall. However, deforestation, monoculture plantations, and habitat
fragmentation pose significant threats.
4. Sundaland encompasses islands in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. It is home to
unique flora and fauna, including orangutans and rhinos, but faces threats from industrial forestry,
wildlife trade, and habitat destruction.
Biodiversity in Western Ghats

Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the Western Ghats represents geomorphic
features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes.
It also has an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the
world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity.
3.5 Loss of Biodiversity-
The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human activities.
There are four major causes –
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

2. Over-exploitation
3. Alien species invasions
4. Co-extinctions.
Causes Description Examples

Habitat loss Habitat loss and fragmentation are the primary 1. Conversion of forests in the Western
and drivers of species extinction, especially in Ghats for coffee and tea plantations
fragmentation tropical rainforests. Activities such as has fragmented habitat for endemic
deforestation for agriculture and urbanization species like the Nilgiri tahr.
result in the destruction and fragmentation of 2. Urbanization in the Delhi-NCR region
habitats, leading to declines in biodiversity. has led to the loss of natural habitats
Pollution further degrades habitats, for migratory birds.
exacerbating the threat to species survival. 3. Deforestation in the Western Ghats
Large-scale habitat fragmentation disrupts has led to the loss of habitat for
ecological processes and affects species endemic species like the Malabar civet
requiring large territories or migratory routes, and lion-tailed macaque.
leading to population declines. 4. Conversion of mangrove forests for
aquaculture along the coasts of Gujarat
and Maharashtra threatens
biodiversity.
Over- Over-exploitation of natural resources by 1. Illegal poaching of tigers and
exploitation humans, driven by population growth and leopards for their body parts threatens
demand for food and other commodities, poses their survival in protected areas like
a significant threat to biodiversity. Species such Ranthambore National Park.
as marine fish are over-harvested for 2. Unsustainable logging in the
commercial purposes, leading to population Andaman Islands has led to habitat loss
declines and ecosystem imbalances. Historic for endemic species like the Nicobar
examples include the extinction of species like megapode.
Steller's sea cow and the passenger pigeon due
to over-hunting.
Alien species Introduction of non-native species, either 1. Lantana camara, an invasive plant
invasions/ intentionally or accidentally, can have species, has invaded grasslands and
Invasive devastating effects on native biodiversity. forests in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,
Species Invasive alien species often outcompete native displacing native flora and reducing
species for resources and disrupt ecosystems, biodiversity.
leading to declines in native species 2. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
populations. crassipes) is an invasive aquatic plant
that has choked water bodies like the
Dal Lake in Kashmir, impacting native

aquatic flora and fauna.
Co-extinctions Co-extinctions occur when a species becomes In Mauritius, the extinction of the Dodo
extinct, leading to the extinction of other bird led to the imminent danger of the
species that depend on it for survival. For Calvaria tree coextinction.
example, the extinction of a host species can Other examples-
result in the extinction of its associated 1. Bird-plant mutualism: Birds rely on
parasites or symbiotic organisms. Co- specific plant species for food and
extinctions further exacerbate biodiversity loss shelter.
and disrupt ecological relationships, leading to 2. Pollinator-plant relationships:
cascading effects on ecosystem functioning and Plants depend on pollinators for
stability. reproduction, and vice versa.
3. Host-parasite relationships:
Parasites depend on host species
for survival.
4. Predator-prey interactions:
Declines in prey populations can
affect predator survival.
Other than these 4, pollution and climate change have now become significant factors in loss of biodiversity.
Pollution Pollution encompasses the introduction of 1. Pollution from industrial effluents and
harmful substances into the environment, agricultural runoff has severely
including air, water, and soil pollution. Pollutants degraded water quality in rivers like
such as industrial chemicals, pesticides, heavy the Ganges and Yamuna, affecting
metals, and plastic waste can poison or harm aquatic biodiversity.
organisms, degrade habitats, and disrupt 2. Air pollution from vehicular emissions
ecosystem functions. Pollution can lead to and industrial activities in cities like
declines in population sizes, genetic diversity, and Delhi has led to respiratory problems
overall ecosystem health, contributing to in humans and affected the health of
biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. urban trees and plants.
Climate Climate change refers to long-term alterations in 1. Rising temperatures and changing
Change temperature, precipitation patterns, and other rainfall patterns in the Himalayas are
climatic factors, primarily driven by human causing shifts in the distribution of
activities such as fossil fuel combustion and alpine plant species, affecting
deforestation. Climate change can directly and biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
indirectly impact biodiversity by altering habitats, 2. Rising sea levels due to climate change
triggering extreme weather events, shifting threaten coastal habitats like
species distributions, and exacerbating existing mangroves and coral reefs in the
threats such as habitat loss and pollution. Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Changes in climate conditions can disrupt affecting marine biodiversity.
ecological relationships, endanger vulnerable
species, and increase extinction risks.
Eutrophication- (Concept related to Pollution in the Ecosystem)
It is the gradual increase in the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients in an aging
aquatic ecosystem such as a lake. The productivity or fertility of such an ecosystem naturally increases as
the amount of organic material that can be broken down into nutrients increases.
Parameter BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Meaning The amount of dissolved oxygen The amount of oxygen required for chemical
consumed by aerobic microorganisms in oxidation of organic and inorganic
water to decompose organic matter contaminants in water
Process Biological oxidation process involving Chemical oxidation process using strong
aerobic microbes oxidants
Organisms Aerobic microorganisms Chemical reagents
Involved
Measurement Incubation of water sample for 5 days at Chemical oxidation with strong oxidant
Method 20°C
Time Required Typically, 5 days Few hours to a day
for Test
Value Indicates the amount of organic matter Reflects the total organic and inorganic load
Interpretation in water and its biodegradability in water
Relative Value Generally lower than COD Generally higher than BOD
Application Water quality assessment, sewage Industrial effluent assessment, pollution
treatment control
Limitation Slow process, does not account for all Rapid but less specific, doesn't differentiate
pollutants types of pollutants
3.6 Conservation of Biodiversity: Methods, Recent Plans, Target, Convention and Protocols
Methods of Biodiversity Conservation-

Method In-situ Conservation Ex-situ Conservation
Definition Conservation of species within their Conservation measures conducted outside the
natural habitats, aiming to protect natural habitat, involving relocation to
ecosystems, habitats, and populations. controlled environments.
Methods Establishing protected areas, wildlife Captive breeding programs, botanical gardens
sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves; for seed conservation, tissue culture for plant
habitat restoration and management; propagation, zoos for endangered species,
community-based conservation efforts. gene banks for storing genetic material.
Examples 1. Kaziranga National Park in Assam, 1. Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad,
home to the Indian rhinoceros and housing diverse species including the Indian
Bengal tiger, among other endangered elephant and Asiatic lion.
species. 2. National Botanical Research Institute in
2. Sundarban Tiger Reserve in West Lucknow, preserving plant diversity and
Bengal, conserving the Royal Bengal conducting research.
tiger population. 3. National Gene Bank in New Delhi,
3. conserving genetic material of crop species.
Protected Areas:
Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited.
The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorization guidelines for protected
areas.
There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws
of each country or the regulations of the international organizations involved.
The term "protected area" also includes Marine Protected Areas, the boundaries of which will include some
area of ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple countries which remove the
borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.
Types:
1. National Parks
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
3. Conservation Reserves
4. Community Reserves
5. Marine Protected Areas
National Park
1. It is a protected area constituted for the protection and conservation of wildlife or its environment.
2. They are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
natural significance.
3. National parks are given highest level of protection. Unlike wildlife sanctuaries, no human
interference in any form of harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private
ownership rights is allowed.
There are multiple objectives for creating a National Park:

1. It can help in the protection of the ecosystem is a specific area or region
2. Conservation of species that are on the verge of extinction
3. To preserve natural resources for ecological development
4. It can help in preserving varied species
As of 2024, India has 106 national parks covering 40,500 square kilometers, which is about 1.23% of India's
total surface area. Madhya Pradesh has the maximum number of National Parks (11).
Note:
1. The Jim Corbett National Park (Jim Corbett National Park is also known as Hailey National Park,
Ramganga National Park, and Corbett National Park) is the oldest National Park in India. It is located
in Uttrakhand and was established in 1936.
2. Hemis National Park in Ladakh is the largest National Park in India. Hemis National Park is globally
famous for its snow leopards, it is believed to have the highest density of them in any protected area
in the world.
3. The first Marine National Park is located in the Gulf of Kutch and was created in 1982. It is situated
on the southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch in the Devbhumi Dwarka district of Gujarat state.
4. The Keibul Lamjao National Park is a national park in the Bishnupur district of the state of Manipur in
India. It is the only floating National Park in the world.
5. Raimona National Park, located in the western region of Assam, is the 106th national park in India. It
covers 422 square kilometers, and is part of a contiguous forest that forms the westernmost buffer
zone of Manas Tiger Reserve. (Declared in 2021)
Wildlife Sanctuary
1. It is a protected area constituted for the protection and conservation of wildlife or its environment.
2. They are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
natural significance.
3. In wildlife sanctuaries, certain rights of people living inside, are permitted as long they don’t harm
the wildlife.
4. Such activities include harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products, livestock grazing,
ownership of private land.
5. There are 567 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 125564.86 km2 in 2024.
List of Important Wildlife Sanctuaries:
No. Name Location Year Area Significance

1 Corbett National Nainital, Uttarakhand 1936 521 km2 The Bengal Tigers
Park (Jim Corbett
National Park)
2 Ranthambore Sawai Madhopur, 1980 392 km2 Majestic Tigers
National Park Rajasthan
3 Bandipur National Gundlupet, 1974 874 km2 Tiger, Asian elephant
Park Chamarajanagar and many types of
District, Bandipur, biomes
Karnataka
4 Keoladeo Ghana Bharatpur, Rajasthan 1905 28.7 km2 Avifauna Birds
National Park
5 Nagarhole National Kodagu district and 1988 642.39 km2 Tigers, Indian bison and
Park Mysore district, elephants
Karnataka
6 Sariska National Park Near Kraska, Alwar 1955 866 km2 Bengal tigers
District, Sariska,
Rajasthan
7 Kaziranga National Kanchanjuri, Assam 1908 430 km2 One horned Rhinos,
Park Tigers and Wild
Buffaloes
8 Bhadra Wildlife Chikkamagaluru town, 1951 492.46 km2 Tiger,
Sanctuary Karnataka
9 Kanha National Park Madla/ Balaghat 1955 940 km2 Tigers
districts, Madhya
Pradesh
10 Sunderbans National Dayapur, Gosaba, West 1984 1,330.12 Bengal tigers
Park Bengal km2
11 Bandhavgarh Badhavgarh, District 1968 1,536 km2 White tiger
National Park Umaria, Madhya
Pradesh
12 Gir National Park and Junagadh District, Gir 1965 1,412 km2 Asiatic lion
Sasan Gir Sanctuary Somnath District and
Amreli District Gujarat,
India
13 Periyar National Park Idukki, Kottayam and 1982 305 km2 Asian Elephants, Periyar
Pathanamthitta, Kerala Lake
state, India
14 Pench National Park Turia, Seoni Dist, Kurai, 1983 758 km2 Inspired Rudyard
Madhya Pradesh Kiplingto write 'The
Jungle Book', While

Tigers
15 Manas National Park Fatemabad - 1990 490.3 km2 wild water buffalo,
Mathanguri Road, Jyoti Assam roofed turtle,
Gaon, Assam hispid hare, golden
langur and pygmy hog
16 Dudhwa National Palia Kalan, Uttar 1977 542.67 km2 Tiger and swamp deer
Park Pradesh
17 Panna National Park Panna and Chhatarpur 1981 625.4 km2 tiger
districts, Madhya
Pradesh, India
18 Tadoba Andhari Chandrapur, 1955 90.44 km2 Tiger
Tiger Reserve Maharashtra, India
19 Chinnar Wildlife Munnar - Udumalpet 1984 1,171 km2 Endangered grizzled
Sanctuary Road, Munnar, Kerala giant squirrel
20 The Great Himalayan SaiRopa, Kullu, 1984 866.41 km2 Globally
National Park Himachal Pradesh threatened,musk deer
and the western horned
tragopan
21 Dandeli Wildlife Uttara Kannada District NA 2.36 km2 Crocodiles, great
Sanctuary , Karnataka India hornbill and Malabar
pied hornbill
22 Silent Valley National Mannarkkad, Palakkad 1905 820 km2 Lion Tailed Macaque
Park District, Kerala
23 Rajaji National Park Dehradun, 1983 107 km2 Asian elephants, Bengal
Uttarakhand tigers
24 Bhagwan Mahavir Caranzol, Goa 1978 4,400 km2 Snakes, particularly the
Wildlife Sanctuary king cobra and black
panther
25 Hemis National Park Leh, Jammu and 1981 101 km2 Snow leopards , gompas
Kashmir and holy chortens
26 Interview Island Andaman and Nicobar NA 7506.22 km2 Elephants
Wildlife Sanctuary Islands, Bay of Bengal
27 Kachchh/ Kutch Great Rann of Kutch, 1986 5000 Km2 Greater flamingo
Desert WLS Kutch district, Gujarat,
India
28 Nelapattu Bird Andhra Pradesh 1976 4953.71 km2 " Largest habitat for
Sanctuary pelicans, also Babblers,
Flamingos, Open Billed
Stork etc
29 Karakoram Wildlife Leh District, Jammu 1987 4,149 km2 Chiru or "Tibetan
Sanctuary and Kashmir, India Antelope, ibetan gazalle,
Himalayan ibex
30 Indian Wild Ass Little Rann of Kutch, 1973 3,568 km2 Endangered Indian Wild
Sanctuary (Wild Ass Gujarat, India Ass/ ghudkhar
WLS)
31 Dibang Wildlife Dibang Valley , 1991 6.14 km2 Rare species - mishmi
Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh, takin, asiatic black bear,
India gongshan muntjac, red
panda, red goral and
musk deer
32 Nagarjuna Sagar- Nalgonda & 1978 861.95 km2 Bengal tiger
Srisailam WLS/ Rajiv Mahaboobnagar,
Gandhi WLS Telangana
33 Rollapadu Wildlife Kurnool District, 1988 783 Km2 Great Indian Bustard and
Sanctuary Rollapadu, Andhra Lesser Florican
Pradesh
34 Papikonda Wildlife Andhra Pradesh 1978 282 km2 Tiger, Wild water buffalo
Sanctuary was seen here till 1980s,
but appears to be extinct
in this region
35 Pakhui/ Pakke Tiger Kameng district, 1977 26.22 km2 Large cats - tiger,
Reserve Arunachal Pradesh, leopard and clouded
India leopard
36 Kamlang Wildlife Lohit District, 1989 6.05 km2 Elephant , Tiger, giant
Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh, flying squirrel
India
37 Mehao Wildlife Lower Dibang Valley 1980 20.98.62 Bengal tiger, hoolock
Sanctuary district, Arunachal km2 gibbon, leopard and
Pradesh clouded leopard.
38 Eaglenest Wildlife Arunachal Pradesh 1989 681.99 km2 Birdwatcher's Paradise.
Sanctuary Asian elephant, capped
langur (endangered), red
panda, gaur, Asiatic
black bear, Arunachal
macaque
39 Bornadi Wildlife Udalguri District& 1980 551.55 Km2 Pygmy hog, hispid hare
Sanctuary Baksa District Assam, (both protected)
India
40 Garampani Wildlife Karbi Anglong district, 1952 607.70 km2 hoolock gibbons and
Sanctuary Assam golden langurs, hot
springs
41 Hoollongapar Jorhat, Assam 1997 608.55 km2 Western hoolock gibbon
Gibbon Sanctuary and 15 species of apes
42 Bhimbandh Wildlife Munger district, Bihar 1976 485.20 Km2 Tigers, panthers, birds
Sanctuary
43 Achanakmar Wildlife Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh 1975 1,027.53 Tiger, leopard, bison

Sanctuary km2
44 Shoolpaneshwar Narmada district of 1982 975 km2 Python, pangolin, Flying
Wildlife Sanctuary Gujarat squirrels
45 Tamor Pingla Surajpur District, 1978 2073 km2 Elephant
Wildlife Sanctuary Chhattisgarh
46 Shenbagathoppu Virudhunagar and 1988 423.55 km2 Grizzled giant squirrel
Grizzled Squirrel Madurai districts, Tamil (vulnerable species),
Wildlife Sanctuary Nadu Periyar Tiger
47 Cauvery Wildlife Karnataka, India 1987 219 Km2 popular for Mahseer
Sanctuary fish, birds
48 Kedarnath Wildlife Chamoli & 1972 975 km2 Endangered Himalayan
Sanctuary Rudraprayag, musk deer
Uttarakhand
49 Hastinapur WLS Meerut, Hapur, Bijnore 1986 2073 km2. Twelve - Horned Deer or
and Amroha, in Uttar "Baara Singha", the State
Pradesh, India Bird - Saaras
[Crane],crocodiles,
turtles, playful Ganga
Dolphins, Birds
50 Koyna Wildlife Satara, Maharashtra 1985 423.55 km2 Royal Bengal Tiger and
Sanctuary King Cobra
51 Ramgarh Vishdhari Alwar District, 1955 219 Km2 Bengal tigers, leopards
Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan
Tiger Reserves-
Tiger Reserves are same as sanctuaries. But they are monitored by NTCA under Project Tiger.
The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on ‘core-buffer’ strategy.
In India, there are a total of 55 Tiger Reserves, with Dholpur – Karauli Tiger Reserve being the 55th Tiger
Reserve in India as of 2023.
As of 2024, India has 55 tiger reserves across 18 states, covering nearly 2.21% of the country's geographical
area.
Largest: Nagarjunsagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh on the basis of core area.
Smallest: Orang Tiger Reserve in Assam on the basis of core area.
Tiger Protection Status:
1. Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I
2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List: Endangered.
3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Appendix I.
India currently harbors almost 75% of the world’s wild tiger population.
Recently Declared Tiger Reserves
1.Dholpur – Karauli Tiger Reserve- Rajasthan (2023)
2.Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve–Madhya Pradesh (2023)
3.Ranipur Tiger Reserve –Uttar Pradesh (2022)

4. Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve – Rajasthan (2022)
Biosphere Reserves
Man and Biosphere Program Launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB) is an
intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of
relationships between people and their environments.
(UNESCO introduced Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage where
biodiversity is implicit in the latter in 1972 and UNESCO Global Geoparks for holistic sustainable
development, protection and education.)
Biosphere reserves have three-fold aim:
1. Conservation of genetic resources, species, and ecosystems
2. Scientific research and monitoring
3. Promoting sustainable development in communities of the surrounding region.
National Park vs Wildlife Sanctuary vs Biosphere Reserve:

Parameter National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
Protection type Protection of wildlife Reserved for species- Ecosystem oriented-reserves

oriented plant or animal all forms of life
Legislation Wildlife Protection Wildlife Protection Act, UNESCO’s Man and
Act, 1972 1972 Biosphere (MAB)
Level of Greater degree of Lesser degree of protection Greater Degree of Protection
Protection protection than
sanctuaries
Regulation of Activities like grazing, Allowed to a limited extent No interference except in
Human Activities hunting, forestry or in the wildlife sanctuaries buffer and transition zone
cultivation etc. are
strictly prohibited.
Boundaries Clearly delineated by Not sacrosanct Clearly delineated by
legislation legislation
Upgradation and Cannot be Can be upgraded to a National Parks and wildlife
Down gradation downgraded to a National Park Sanctuaries may become a
Wildlife Sanctuary part of Biosphere Reserve
IUCN Status Category II of the Category IV of protected Roughly corresponds to
protected areas areas. IUCN Category V of
protected areas.
Note:
a) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was India's first, established in 1986.
b) Panna Biosphere Reserve is the latest in India (2011).
c) The Great Rann of Kutch Biosphere Reserve was made in 2008 in the desert area of Gujarat. It is the
largest Biosphere Reserves of India. It is famous for Indian Wild Ass and Kharai Camel.
List of Biosphere Reserves in India
Biosphere Year Location Famous Wildlife and Significance

Reserve
Nilgiri 1986 Karnataka, 1. It forms confluence of Afro-tropical and Indo-Malayan biotic
Tamil Nadu, zones of the world.
Kerala 2. It includes evergreen, semi evergreen, moist deciduous
montane sholas and grassland types of vegetation.
3. Animals like Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiri langur, slender loris, blackbuck,
tiger, gaur, Indian elephant and marten are found here.
4. Tribal groups like the Todas, Kotas, Irullas, Kurumbas, Paniyas,
Adiyans, Edanadan Chettis, Cholanaickens, Allar,
Malayan, etc., are native to the reserve.
Nanda Devi 1988 Uttarakhand 1. The Biosphere Reserve includes reserve forests, evam soyam
(civil) forests, panchayat (community) forests, agricultural
land, grassy slopes, alpine meadows (bugiyals) and snow-
covered areas.
2. It was inscribed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988
3. Home to Seven endangered mammal species such as the snow
leopard, Himalayan black bear. brown bear, musk deer and
bharal/blue sheep.
4. Communities living here mainly belong to two ethnic groups,
the Indo-Mongoloid (Bhotia) and Indo-Aryan.
5. Some 312 floral species that include 17 rare species have been
found here.
6. Fir, birch, rhododendron, and juniper are the main flora.
Nokrek 1988 Meghalaya 1. The entire area is mountainous and Nokrek is the highest peak
(West Garo of the Garo hills.
Hills) 2. The tropical climate is characterized by high humidity,
monsoon rains (April–October) and high temperatures.
3. Highly vulnerable and threatened fauna species in Nokrek
include the Slow Loris, Petaurista philippensis (Giant flying
squirrel) and Macaca leonina (Pig-tailed macaque).
4. 90% of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve is covered by evergreen
forest. Some patches of bamboo forest can also be found in
the lower altitudes, and a remarkable variety of endemic Citrus
spp.
Gulf of 1989 Tamil Nadu 1. The Gulf of Mannar endowed with 3 distinct Coastal
Mannar (Rameshwara ecosystems: coral reef, seagrass bed and mangroves is
m to considered one of the world’s richest region.
Kanyakumari) 2. This habitat is the feeding grounds for the largest endangered
marine mammal Dugong i.e., Dugong dugon and, also, sea
turtles.
3. It is also important for crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms,

fishes, turtles and many other mammals.
4. The inhabitants are mainly Marakeyars, local people
principally engaged in fisheries.
5. Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands.
Sundarbans 1989 West Bengal 1. It is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
(Gangetic 2. The scientists listed 428 birds, some, like the Masked Finfoot
Delta) and Buffy fish owl, are recorded only from the Sunderbans.
3. The Indian Sunderbans is bound on the west by river
Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and
Raimangal.
4. The area is home to 9 out of 12 species of kingfishers found in
India as well rare species such as Goliath heron and spoon-
billed sandpiper
5. It is a world heritage site and a Ramsar site
6. It is also home to “rare and globally threatened species, such
as the critically endangered northern river terrapin (Batagur
baska), the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella
brevirostris), and vulnerable fishing cat (Prionailurus
viverrinus).
Manas 1989 Assam 1. It is the first reserve included in the network of tiger reserve
under Project tiger in 1973, tagged as World Heritage Site.
2. It is famous for its rare & endangered endemic such as Assam
Roofed Turtle, Hispid Hare, Golden Langur and Pygmy Hog.
Also for its population of Wild water buffalo.
3. Includes a range of forested hills, alluvial grasslands and
tropical evergreen forests.
4. The Manas-Beki system is the major river system flowing
through the property and joining the Brahmaputra River
further downstream.
5. Pagrang is the only forest village located in the core of the
Manas national park
6. It is contiguous with the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.
Great 1989 Andaman 1. Home to the two most primitive tribes namely- Nicobarese &
Nicobar and Nicobar Shompens.
Islands 2. Ecosystems- tropical wet evergreen forests, mountain ranges,
and coastal plains.
3. These islands also host the growth of coral reefs (the existence
of which is threatened by the plastic debris & marine litter).
4. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR) has been
declared as one of the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves by UNESCO
5. The Sundalands which is one of the four biodiversity hotspots

in India includes the Nicobar group of Islands
Similipal 1994 Odisha 1. It was formally designated a tiger reserve in 1956 and brought
under Project Tiger in the year 1973.
2. UNESCO world heritage site
3. Similipal has 1,076 flowering species and 96 species of orchids.
4. It boasts of having tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical
moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous hill forests, high level
sal forests and sprawling meadows.
5. Two tribes, the Erenga Kharias and the Mankirdias, inhabit the
reserve’s forests and practise traditional agricultural activities.
6. Similipal is home to a wide range of wild animals including
tigers and elephants, besides 304 species of birds, 20 species
of amphibians and 62 species of reptiles.
Dibru- 1997 Assam 1. Comprises semi-evergreen forests, swamp forests, deciduous
Saikhowa forests and wet evergreen forests.
2. It is identified as Important Bird Area (IBA) housing such
avifauna as(lesser adjutant, black-necked, greater adjutant)
storks, crested serpent eagle, white-winged wood duck,
greater spotted eagle, great pied hornbill
3. It is the largest swamp forest in north-eastern India
4. Mammals found in the Park include Tiger, Elephant, Leopard,
Jungle Cat, Bears, Small Indian Civet, Squirrels, Gangetic
Dolphin, Hoolock Gibbon, etc
5. Maguri Motapung wetland is a part of the Reserve.
Dihang- 1998 Arunachal 1. It includes steep terrain, subtropical forests, alpine meadows,
Dibang Pradesh grasslands and bamboo brakes. The area is rich in species of
rhododendrons, orchids
2. Fauna: rock python, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leopard,
red panda, musk deer, bison, Himalayan black bear, red fox,
Indian wild dog, sloth bear, civet.
3. Forms a part of one of the world’s “Bio-Diversity Hot spots”
4. About 195 species of birds had been recorded. Of these, the
scatter’s Monal and Blyth’s Tragopan are among the most
interesting
5. The BR provides the rich for all organisms like saprophytes, as
Monotropa uniflora, Epipogium spp and Gastrodia spp.
Pachmarhi 1999 Madhya 1. Pachmarhi comprises three protection sites: the Bori
Pradesh Sanctuary, Satpura National Park and Pachmarhi Sanctuary –
otherwise known as the Satpura Tiger Reserve. Also known as
the ‘Queen of Satpura’.
2. Characterized by high population growth, with Gond tribes
accounting for 50% to 90%.
3. There are a variety of birds: black eagle, the Malabar Pied

Hornbill, Paradise Flycatcher, Malabar Whistling Thrush and
even the Crested Serpent Eagle can be spotted at the reserve
4. The forests are dominated by Teak. They include the
westernmost groves of Sal
5. Large mammal species include tigers, leopard, wild
bear, gaur, chital deer, muntjac deer, sambar deer, and rhesus
macaque
Khangchen 2000 Sikkim 1. Mount Khangchendzonga, the third-highest peak in the world.
dzonga A UNESCO Mixed World Heritage Site.
2. The most popular species- Himalayan Tahr and snow leopard,
clouded leopard, leopard, golden cat, leopard cat, jungle cat,
jackal, large Indian civet, red panda, Tibetan wolf, blue sheep,
musk deer, goral, etc.
3. It includes a range of ecoclines, varying from sub-tropic to
Arctic, as well as natural forests in different biomes.
4. The epiphytes and lianas are abundant here.
5. There are a few Lepcha tribal settlements inside the park.
6. The park contains Tholung Monastery,a gompa located in the
park's buffer zone. It is considered one of the most sacred
monasteries in Sikkim.
Agasthyam 2001 Kerala, Tamil 1. Agastyamalai is also home to the Kanikaran, one of the oldest
alai Nadu surviving ancient tribes in the world.
2. Anai Mudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and South
India.
3. ABR includes the Indian Ecoregions of tropical wet evergreen
forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, South
Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola.
4. It encompass the wildlife sanctuaries Shendurney Wildlife
Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife
Sanctuary, and Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
Achanakma 2005 Madhya 1. The topography of the soil in the Amarkantak plateau
r- Pradesh is bauxite rocks.
Amarkantak 2. Major watersheds of peninsular India.
3. Maikal hill ranges,Vindhya ,Satpura lies within the reserve.
4. The tropical Moist deciduous forests makes 63% of the area,
and remaining area is covered with tropical dry deciduous
vegetation which constitutes the southern part of the
biosphere reserve.
5. It is home of 67 threatened faunal species, which includes Four
horned antelope, Saras crane, Asian white-backed vulture,
Indian wild dog, Sacred grove bush frog
6. Tribal communities- Gonds and their sub tribes like Madia,

Mudia, Gurva, Agariya and Rajgond. Other tribes are Baigas,
Kol, Kanwar and Pradhans.
Great Rann 2008 Gujarat 1. Largest BSR in India.
of Kutch 2. Kachchh Biosphere Reserve (KBR) is mainly composed of two
major ecosystems called Great Rann of Kachchh (GRK) and
Little Rann of Kachchh (LRK)
3. A reserve also covers part of finest grassland of Asia called
“Banni”
4. The Rann of Kachchh comprises a unique example of Holocene
sedimentation. Consists of 42 islands
5. The fifteen biospehre reserve designated by government of
India (2008) represents combination of saline deserts and
seasonal wetlands
6. Indian Wild Ass-Endangered animaly only found in this reserve
7. Major fauna are Coral Reef, Coral Lichen,Coral Sponge, Green
Sponge,Puffer Fish,Turtles,Dolphins.
Cold Desert 2009 Himachal 1. The cold desert of India are located adjacent to the Himalaya
Pradesh Mountains.
2. Rain shadow zone of Himalayas. It is stretched along the
Western Himalayas.
3. Cold Desert is noted for the preservation of the snow leopard.
4. It comprises the Pin Valley National Park and its surroundings,
Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarchu and Chandratal, etc.
5. Some of the common fauna you can spot here include
Himalayan black bear, Himalayan blue sheep, Himalayan ibex,
snow pigeon, Tibetan gazelle, woolly hare, red fox, etc.
Seshachala 2010 Andhra 1. Seshachalam hills, the first Biosphere Reserve in AP.
m Hills Pradesh 2. The reserve is a home for nearly 1756 species of flowering
plants.
3. It has large reserves of Red
Sandalwood (Pterocarpussantalinus) which is used in
medicines, soaps, spiritual rituals.
4. Highly endangered wildlife species, like slender loris, Indian
giant squirrel, mouse deer, golden gecko, etc
5. There are total 18 biosphere reserves in India out which 11 are
a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves based on
the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
Panna 2010 Madhya 1. Ken River (one of the least polluted tributaries of the Yamuna
Pradesh River) flows through the reserve and the Ken-Betwa river
interlinking project will also be located in it.
2. Panna Biosphere Reserve falls in bio-geographic zones of
Deccan Peninsula and Biotic Province of Central highlands .
3. The region is famous for Panna Diamond Mining.

4. UNESCO included it in the Man and Biosphere Programme in
2020
5. The Panna tiger reserve is situated in the Vindhya mountain
range in the northern part of MP.
6. Among the animals found here are the tiger,
leopard, chital, chinkara, nilgai, sambhar and sloth bear.
World Network of Biosphere Reserves: by UNESCO

Panna Biosphere Reserve (PBR) is the latest (In 2020) from India to be added to World Network of Biosphere
Reserves (WNBR).
India has a total of 18 Biosphere Reserves and with the inclusion of PBR, the number of internationally
designated WNBR has become 12.
In 2000, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve became the 1st BR from India to be included in the WNBR.
In 2018, the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve became the 11th BR to be included in the list.
Conservation Reserves-
1. They are declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government.
2. The aim of conservation reserves is to protect landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their
habitat.
3. They act as buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and
protected forests of India.
4. It is important to note that the rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.
Examples: Bankapur Peacock Conservation Reserve (Karnataka), Beas River Conservation Reserve (Punjab).
Community Reserves
1. They are declared by the State Government in any private or community land.
2. The land should not be within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve.
3. It is basically an area where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and
its habitat
4. These areas also act as buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
reserved and protected forests of India.
5. Rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.
Examples: Lalwan community reserve in Punjab, Gogabeel in Bihar, etc
Sacred Groves-
1. They are patches of forests or natural vegetation generally dedicated to local folk deities or tree
spirits.
2. These groves are considered “sacred” and are protected by local community. Community reserves
may include such sacred groves and thus enjoy protection.
Examples: Kovil Kadu at Puthupet (Tamil Nadu), Gumpa Forests (Sacred Groves attached to Buddhist
monasteries) in Arunachal Pradesh
Eco-sensitive zone-
1. It is an area notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC), around
Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
2. Notifications declaring areas as ESZ are issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
3. The main aim behind ESZs is to regulate certain activities and thus minimise the negative impacts of
such activities on the fragile ecosystem surrounding the protected areas.
4. Activities permitted: ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rainwater
harvesting, organic farming, adoption of green technology and use of renewable energy sources.
Western Ghats- Eco-sensitive Area-
The Central Government has designated 56,825 Sqkm of the Western Ghats region as an Ecologically
Sensitive Area (ESA). The ESA includes protected areas and World Heritage Sites. The ESA prohibits:
1. Mining activities
2. Thermal power plants
3. Highly polluting industries
4. New "Red" category industries
5. Expansion of existing "Red" category industries
6. New expansion projects of building and construction with built-up area of 20,000 square meters
and above
In order to protect and conserve Western Ghats, MoEFCC had constituted two Committees viz., the
Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) headed by Prof. Madhav Gadgil and the High Level Working
Group (HLWG) headed by Dr. K. Kasturirangan, to review the recommendations of the WGEEP.
Marine Protected Areas
These are protected areas within or adjacent to seas, oceans, estuaries, lagoons. In these areas human
activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters.
The MPAs in India are defined according to IUCN guidelines.
There are five designated MPAs in India:
1. Gulf of Mannar National Park, Tamil Nadu
2. Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park, Gujarat
3. Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary, Gujarat,
4. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
5. Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Odhisa
Ex-situ Conservation-
1. Ex-Situ conservation refers to the conservation of biodiversity outside of the normal habitats.
2. The degree to which people influence the managed population's natural dynamics varies greatly, and
this may involve changing living conditions, reproductive cycles, resource access, and protection from
mortality and predators.
3. Ex-situ conservation can take place both inside and outside of a species' native range.
4. Examples- Zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, seed banks, and captive breeding programmes are a
few examples of ex-situ conservation techniques.
3.6 Biodiversity Conservation- Measures taken by India

India is one among the 17 mega-diverse countries of the world. But many plants and animals are facing the
threat of extinction. To protect the critically endangered and other threatened animal and plant species,
Government of India has adopted many steps, laws and policy initiatives.
1. Biological Diversity Act 2002
1. It is passed to implement UN Convention on Conservation of Biodiversity.
2. It addresses issues related to access to genetic resources and associated knowledge and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilization of biological resources to the country and its people.
Exceptions:
1. Local people and communities
2. For growers and cultivators of biodiversity of the area and to Vaids and Hakims to use biological
resources.
3. Exemption through notification of normally traded commodities.
4. For collaborative research through.
Three tier structure
1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
2. State Biodiversity Authority (SBB)
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local level
2. National Mission on Biodiversity and Human Well-being, 2020
1. Launched in 2020 by the Government of India, the mission aims to explore the neglected links
between biodiversity and human well-being.
2. It spans across the sectors of health, economic development, agricultural production, and livelihood
generation.
3. It addresses health and livelihood concerns along with efforts to mitigate climate change and related
disasters.
4. One of the components of the mission explicitly links biodiversity to human health through the One
Health framework.
5. As part of the programme, institutions are encouraged to set up surveillance systems at potential
emerging infectious disease hotspots across India.
Initiatives to conserve Biodiversity-

1. Project Tiger
1. For conservation of endangered species Indian Tiger
(Pantheratigris). Core
2. Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973 Zone
3. Conducted by National Tiger Conservation Authority. Buffer
4. Tiger census- pugmark technique, camera trapping, DNA
Zone
fingerprinting -4 years once.
5. Project aims at ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers in-
situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves.
6. Tiger Reserve consists of Core zone and Buffer zone
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):
It is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
It was established in 2006 under Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
Objectives:
1. Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become legal.
2. Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves by providing a basis for
MoU with States within the federal structure.
3. Providing for an oversight by Parliament.
4. Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.
NTCA Members:
Minister in charge of MoEFCC (as Chairperson),
Minister of State in MoEFCC (as Vice-Chairperson),
three members of Parliament, the Secretary (MoEFCC), and other members.
Tiger Census-
1. The national tiger census is done every four years by the National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA) in partnership with state forest departments, conservation NGOs, and the Wildlife Institute of
India (WII).
2. The census uses a double sampling method based on ground-based surveys and images from camera-
traps.
3. India's tiger population increased to 3,682 in 2022, up from 2,967 in 2018, according to an estimate
released on Saturday.
4. The largest tiger population of 785 is in Madhya Pradesh, followed by Karnataka (563) & Uttarakhand
(560), and Maharashtra (444).
5. The tiger abundance within the Tiger Reserve is highest in Corbett (260), followed by Bandipur (150),
Nagarhole (141), Bandhavgarh (135), Dudhwa (135), Mudumalai(114), Kanha (105), Kaziranga (104),
Sundarbans (100), Tadoba (97), Sathyamangalam (85), and Pench-MP (77).
2. Project Elephant
1. Launched in 1992 as a centrally sponsored scheme.
2. The project's objectives include:
a) Protecting elephants, their habitats, and corridors
b) Addressing issues of man-animal conflict
c) Welfare of captive elephants
3. Mainly implemented in 13 states ie., Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal, Assam, Jharkhand, Kerala,
Karnataka etc.,
Elephant Corridors-
1. Elephant corridors are a vital component of Project Elephant, facilitating the movement of
elephants between fragmented habitats to ensure their conservation and genetic diversity.
2. The Right of Passage project by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) focuses on establishing and
maintaining these corridors.
3. India has seen a significant increase in elephant corridors, from 88 in 2010 to 150 as of September
2023.
4. West Bengal has the highest number of corridors (26), making up 17% of the total, while the east-
central region has 52 corridors, comprising about 35% of the total.
5. The project has also led to the creation of elephant reserves across India, including Wayanad,
Nilambur, Coimbatore, Nilgiri, and Rayala Elephant Reserves, aimed at conserving elephant
populations and their habitats.
Other Measures-
1. E-50:50 forum for international conservation of elephants.
2. Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme under CITES
3. Haathi Mere Saathi Initative by MoEF in partnership with Wildlife Trust of India.
3. Vulture Protection Program
1. Decline of vultures first seen in Keoladeo Ghana National Park.
2. Red-headed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long billed vulture are Critically endangered.
3. Diclofenac is the cause which are used for ailing inflammation in livestock causing renal failure in
vultures.
4. Ban on usage of Diclofenac and usage of alternative drug Meloxicam.
Other Measures-
1. Vulture Safety Zones
2. Vulture Restaurants by Maharashtra and Punjab
3. SAVE- Save Asia’s vultures from Extinction for White backed, slender billed and Long billed
Vulture.
4. One horned Rhinoceros Protection
1. Rhinos are poached for their Horns.
2. Last Male White Northern Rhino Sudan died last year bring its species closer to extinction.
Protection Measures-
1. The five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia and Malaysia) have signed a declaration
‘The New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos 2019’ for the conservation and protection of the species.
2. Recently, the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has begun a project to
create DNA profiles of all rhinos in the country.
3. National Rhino Conservation Strategy: It was launched in 2019 to conserve the greater one-horned
rhinoceros.
4. Indian Rhino Vision 2020: Launched in 2005, it was an ambitious effort to attain a wild population of
at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in the Indian state of
Assam by the year 2020. The Bodo Autonomous Council, WWF India, International Rhino Foundation
(IRF) support it.
5. Project Snow Leopard

1. An Indian initiative started in Jan 2009 for strengthening wildlife conservation in Himalayan High
altitudes.
2. Global endangered species found in Himalayan and Central Asian mountains.
3. Conservation above 3000 metres in western and trans Himalayas, above 4000 metres in eastern
Himalayas.
4. Most snow leopards are found in China followed by Mongolia and India.
5. In India it is found in all 4 Himalayan states and 2 UTs above 3000 metres altitude.
Project Chettah (Cheetah Reintroduction Project)-
1. Initiated in September 2022, the Cheetah Reintroduction Project in India aims to restore the
population of cheetahs, declared extinct in 1952.
2. The project involves translocating cheetahs from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park
in Madhya Pradesh.
3. Key collaborators include the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), Madhya Pradesh
Forest Department, Wildlife Institute of India (WII), and cheetah experts from Namibia and South
Africa.
4. Cheetahs, known as the fastest land animals, are "crepuscular" hunters, active at sunrise and
sunset.
5. Cheetah females have a gestation period of 92-95 days and typically give birth to a litter of
approximately three to five cubs.
6. Sea Turtle Project

1. Olive Ridley turtle visits India coasts during winter for hatching.
2. MoEFCC with collaboration with UNDP started the project in 1999. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun is the implementation agency.
3. Vulnerable in IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.
4. Conservation of Olive Ridley turtles is done in the Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS), Andhra Pradesh.
Yanadi tribe are directly involved in the conservation bid.
Olive Ridely Turtles- Arribada- An arribada is a mass nesting event of sea turtles, where hundreds of
turtles come ashore at the same time to lay eggs. The word "arribada" means "arrival by sea" in Spanish.
This happens every year in India, Mexico, and Costa Rica, but in India, the arribada occurs in three
beaches in Odisha: Gahirmatha, Devi River mouth, and Rushikulya. The Indian population of olive ridley
turtles is the largest rookery in the world.
7. Crocodile Conservation Project

1. Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled back the once threatened crocodilians from the
brink of extinction and place them on a good path of recovery.
2. To build up a level of trained personnel for better continuity of the project through training imparted
at project-sites and through the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training
Institute, Hyderabad.
3. Gharial is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
8. Project Hangul
1. Started in 1970’s. Population increased to over 340 by 1980 from 150 in 1970.
2. Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India.
3. State animal of Jammu & Kashmir
4. Found in Dachigam National Park at elevations of 3,035 meters
5. UT of Jammu & Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of
these animals.
6. As of 2023, there are 289 Kashmir stags, with highly skewed male female ratio of 15:100.
7. The hangul is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2022.
8. The hangul is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss, overgrazing by
domestic livestock, poaching, predation, diseases, and human-wildlife conflicts.
9. Dolphin Conservation Measures
1. Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the National Aquatic
Animal.
2. River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu River systems of
Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
3. Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
Captive Breeding Programs in India
Captive breeding means that members of a wild species are captured, then bred and raised in a
special facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert.
1. Snake -Katraj Snake Park, Pune
2. Crocodile -Madras Crocodile Bank, Chennai
3. Lion -Devaliya Safari Park, Gujarat
4. Gharial -National Chambal Sanctuary, Chambal
5. Vulture -Ramanagara Vulture Sanctuary, Karnataka.
6. Dolphin –Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur.
7. Macaque- Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai.
Conventions and Protocols on Biodiversity

1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (a multilateral treaty) was opened for signature at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into effect in 1993.
2. The Convention is legally binding; countries that join it (‘Parties’) are obliged to implement its
provisions.
3. 195 UN states and the European Union are parties to the convention.
4.All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has three main objectives:
1. the conservation of biological diversity.
2. the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and
3. the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
There are two protocols under this convention. 1. Cartagena Protocol 2. Nagoya Protocol
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety-
1. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international
agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity,
taking also into account risks to human health.
2. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
3. It addresses technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues.
Nagoya Protocol
1. It is the second Protocol to the CBD- Convention on Biodiversity (Other one- Nagoya Protocol); the
first is the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
2. It is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
3. The Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
4. This protocol, also known as Biodiversity Accord; saves the developing countries from “foreign
illegitimate bioprospecting”.
5. It addresses the problem source countries of genetic resources by recognizing their right to get a
share in benefits reaped by foreign bioprospectors.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020)
The ‘Aichi Targets’ were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya conference.
It is a short-term plan provides a set of 20ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as the Aichi
Targets. India has developed 12 National Biodiversity Targets (NBT) under the CBD process in line with the
20 global Aichi biodiversity targets.
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: (30*30 Plan)
1. It replaced Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
2. The “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework” (GBF) was adopted
bythe 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity.
3. It includes four goals and 23 targets to be achieved by 2030.
4. COP 15 took place in Montreal, Canada in Dec 2022. (Chaired by China)
5. Through Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), countries agreed to protect 30
percent of the planet by 2030. (That is why it is called 30*30)
6. The countries pledged to achieve 23 targets to reverse ecosystem degradation under four
overarching goals for the survival of the natural world.
Targets:
1. 30x30 Deal:
a. Restore 30% degraded ecosystems globally (on land and sea) by 2030
b. Conserve and manage 30% areas (terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine) by 2030
2. Stop the extinction of known species, and by 2050 reduce tenfold the extinction risk and rate of all
species (including unknown)
3. Reduce risk from pesticides by at least 50% by 2030
4. Reduce nutrients lost to the environment by at least 50% by 2030
5. Reduce pollution risks and negative impacts of pollution from all sources by 2030 to levels that are
not harmful to biodiversity and ecosystem functions
6. Reduce global footprint of consumption by 2030, including through significantly reducing
overconsumption and waste generation and halving food waste
7. Sustainably manage areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry and substantially
increase agroecology and other biodiversity-friendly practices
8. Tackle climate change through nature-based solutions
9. Reduce the rate of introduction and establishment of invasive alien species by at least 50% by 2030
10. Secure the safe, legal and sustainable use and trade of wild species by 2030
11. Green up urban spaces
Global Biodiversity Fund-

The Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF) is a fund that supports investments in global biodiversity
and helps to scale up financing for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
The GBFF was ratified and launched at the Seventh Assembly of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) on
August 24, 2023.
The fund's goals include:
1. Helping countries achieve the KMGBF goals and targets
2. Strengthening national-level biodiversity management, planning, policy, governance, and finance
approaches
3. Mobilizing and accelerating investment in the conservation and sustainability of wild species and
ecosystems
The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) –
It is a global effort to protect and restore the world's ecosystems. The UN General Assembly adopted the
resolution in March 2019.
The UN Decade's goals include:
1. Stopping and reversing the destruction of ecosystems
2. Identifying and encouraging restoration-friendly consumption
3. Building up capacity for restoration initiatives
2024 United Nations Biodiversity Conference- (COP16 of CBD)

1. The Parties (Countries) under CBD, meet at regular intervals and these meetings are called
Conference of Parties (COP).
2. The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is held every two
years. The first COP was held in Nassau, Bahamas in 1994. The most recent COP was held in Kunming,
China and Montreal, Canada from October 11–15, 2021 and December 7–19, 2022.
3. The 2024 United Nations Biodiversity Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological
Diversity is a conference scheduled to be held from October 21 to November 1, 2024 in Cali,
Colombia.
2. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)
The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, is an
environmental treaty of the United Nations that provides a global platform for the conservation and
sustainable use of terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory animals and their habitats.
Enforcement Year: The Convention came into force on November 1, 1983.
Convention has two Appendices:
Appendix I - lists migratory species that are endangered or threatened with extinction.
Appendix II- lists migratory species which have an unfavorable conservation status and which require
international agreements for their conservation and management.
CMS Conference of Parties- The Conference of the Parties (COP) of the Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species (CMS) is held at least once every three years. The COP is the primary decision-making
body of the CMS, setting the budget and priorities for the following three years.
CMS CoP14-
The Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS COP 14) concluded on February 17, 2024 (in Samarkand,
Uzbekistan).
The parties agreed to adopt listing proposals for 14 migratory species and several other resolutions for
global wildlife conservation.
Major Outcomes:
1. Adoption of Samarkand Strategic Plan: The meeting adopted the Samarkand Strategic Plan for
Migratory Species for 2024-2032, outlining strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of
migratory animals and their habitats.
2. Addressing Light Pollution: New Global Guidelines were introduced to address the impacts of light
pollution on migratory species, recognizing the importance of minimizing artificial light's negative
effects on their behaviour and habitats.
3. Species Listings: Fourteen migratory species, including the Eurasian Lynx, Pallas’s Cat, and Sand Tiger
Shark, were added to CMS Appendices I and II, reflecting their conservation status and the need for
concerted efforts to protect them.
4. Concerted Actions and Action Plans: Implementation of new Concerted Actions for six species, such as
the Chimpanzee and Blue Shark, was initiated, along with the development of three new Action Plans
for aquatic species: the Atlantic Humpback Dolphin, the Hawksbill Turtle, and the Angelshark.
5. Agreement on Migratory Bird Conservation: Parties agreed on the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), a
significant migratory route, with the establishment of a coordinating unit in India to facilitate
conservation efforts across the flyway's 30 range states.
6. Publication of State of the World’s Migratory Species Report: The first-ever State of the World’s
Migratory Species report was published, providing valuable insights into the current status and
conservation needs of migratory species worldwide.
7. Launch of Global Partnership on Ecological Connectivity (GPEC): The GPEC was launched to maintain,
enhance, and restore ecological connectivity for migratory species, with support from various parties
including Belgium, France, Monaco, and Uzbekistan.
8. Amendment Proposals: Proposals for amending CMS Appendices I and II were discussed and
recommended by the Committee of the Whole (COW) for adoption, reflecting ongoing efforts to
enhance the effectiveness of the convention in safeguarding migratory species.
9. India's significant contributions to migratory species conservation were acknowledged, including its
National Action Plan for the Conservation of Migratory Birds and various initiatives aimed at protecting
marine turtles, establishing transboundary protected areas, and implementing wildlife protection
laws.
3. Ramsar Convention
It is an international treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
It is named after the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the Caspian Sea, where the treaty was signed on 2 February
1971. The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day
Known officially as ‘the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat’ (or, more recently, just ‘the Convention on Wetlands’), it came into force in 1975.
At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use” (means maintenance of ecological character within
the context of sustainable development.) of wetlands.
Montrux Record
Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
Note: In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the
Ramsar Convention.
Largest Ramsar Site in India is Sundarban Wetlands (4230 sq km)
Recently (31st Jan 2024), 5 Ramsar sites were added to the list.
1. Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
2. Longwood Shola Reserve Forest, Tamil Nadu
3. Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve, Karnataka
4. Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve, Karnataka
5. Aghanashini Estuary, Karnataka
List of Ramsar Sites in India: (80 as of April 2024)

S.No. Ramsar Site Name State Year Area (km2)
1 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 2002 901

2 Deepor Beel Assam 2002 40
3 Kanwar (Kabar) Taal Bihar 2020 26.2
4 Nanda Lake Goa 2022 0.42

5 Khijadia WLS Gujarat 2021 6
6 Nalsarovar BS Gujarat 2012 123
7 Thol Lake Gujarat 2021 6.99
8 Wadhvana Wetland Gujarat 2021 10.38
9 Bhindawas WLS Haryana 2021 4.11
10 Sultanpur NP Haryana 2021 142.5
11 Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh 2005 0.49
12 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 2002 156.62

13 Renuka Lake Himachal Pradesh 2005 0.2
14 Ranganathituu BS Karnataka 2022 5.18
15 Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve Karnataka 2024 0.5
16 Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve Karnataka 2024 0.98
17 Aghanashini Estuary Karnataka 2024 4.8
18 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 2002 614

19 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 2002 3.73
20 Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 1905 1512.5
(Longest Lake in India)
21 Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 2002 32
22 Sakhya Sagar Madhya Pradesh 2022 2.48
23 Sirpur wetland Madhya Pradesh 2022 1.61
24 Yashwant Sagar Madhya Pradesh 2022 8.22
25 Lonar Lake (Impact Crater Lake) Maharashtra 2020 4.27
26 Nandur Madhameshwar Maharashtra 2019 14
27 Thane Creek Maharashtra 2022 65.21
28 Loktak Lake Manipur 1990 266
29 Pala Wetland Mizoram 2021 18.5
30 Ansupa Lake Odisha 2021 2.31
31 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 2002 650
32 Chilika Lake (Oldest Ramsar Site in India) Odisha 1981 1165
33 Hirakud Reservoir Odisha 2021 654
34 Satkosia Gorge Odisha 2021 981.97
35 Tampara Lake Odisha 2021 3
36 Beas CnR Punjab 2019 64
37 Harike Wetland Punjab 1990 41
38 Kanjli Wetland Punjab 2002 1.83
39 Keshopur-Miani CmR Punjab 2019 34
40 Nangal WLS Punjab 2019 1
41 Ropar Wetland Punjab 2002 13.65
42 Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1981 28.73

43 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 1990 240
44 Chitrangudi BS Tamil Nadu 2021 2.6
45 Gulf of Mannar Marine BR Tamil Nadu 2022 526.72
46 Kanjirankulam BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.96
47 Karikili BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.584
48 Koonthankulam BS Tamil Nadu 2021 0.72
49 Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest Tamil Nadu 2022 12.475
50 Pichavaram Mangrove Tamil Nadu 2022 14.786
51 Point Calimere WLS & BS Tamil Nadu 2002 385
52 Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex Tamil Nadu 2022 0.94
53 Udhayamarthandapuram BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.44
54 Vaduvur BS Tamil Nadu 2022 1.12
55 Vedanthangal BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.4
56 Vellode BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.77
57 Vembannur Wetland Complex Tamil Nadu 2022 0.2
58 Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 2024 4.5
59 Longwood Shola Reserve Forest Tamil Nadu 2024 1.16
60 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2005 2.4
61 Hokera Wetland UT of JK 2005 13.75
62 Hygam Wetland CnR UT of JK 2022 8.02
63 Shallbugh Wetland CnR UT of JK 2022 16.75
64 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes UT of JK 2005 3.5
65 Wular Lake UT of JK 1990 189
66 Tso Kar (High Altitude Ramsar Site) UT of Ladakh 2020 95.77
67 Tsomoriri (High Altitude Ramsar Site) UT of Ladakh 2002 120
68 Bakhira WLS Uttar Pradesh 2021 28.94
69 Haiderpur Wetland Uttar Pradesh 2021 69
70 Nawabganj BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 2
71 Parvati Arga BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 7
72 Saman BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 5
73 Samaspur BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 8
74 Sandi BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 3
75 Sarsai Nawar Jheel Uttar Pradesh 2019 2
76 Sur Sarovar (Keetham Lake) Uttar Pradesh 2020 4.31
77 Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora) Uttar Pradesh 2005 265.9
78 Asan Barrage Uttarakhand 2020 4.44
79 East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal 2002 125
80 Sundarban Wetland West Bengal 2019 4230
(Largest Ramsar Site in India)
Biodiversity Conservation- International Measures

1. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
2. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1973.
3. IUCN Red Data Book
4. T*2 Initiative to double Tigers numbers
5. International NGOs- WWF, TRAFFIC, Green Peace
T*2 Initiative-
The "Tx2" initiative aims to double the population of tigers worldwide by the year 2022. Led by the Global
Tiger Forum (GTF), the initiative involves collaboration between governments, conservation organizations,
and local communities in tiger range countries.
It focuses on habitat protection, anti-poaching efforts, and community engagement to ensure the long-term
survival of tigers.
Challenges- habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict remain significant obstacles to achieving the
target.
International Organisations and NGOs-
Organization Year Major Objectives
Established
World Wildlife Fund 1961 WWF aims to conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats
(WWF) to the diversity of life on Earth through habitat protection, wildlife
conservation, and sustainable development.
Fauna & Flora 1903 FFI is committed to conserving threatened species and ecosystems
International worldwide by supporting conservation projects, conducting
scientific research, and advocating for environmental protection.
United Nations 1972 UNEP sets the global environmental agenda, promotes sustainable
Environment development, and advocates for the protection of the global
Programme environment through policy development and international
(UNEP)- Inter cooperation.
Governmental
Organisation
Conservation 1987 CI works to protect nature for the benefit of people by conserving
International biodiversity, promoting sustainable practices, and addressing
climate change through science, partnerships, and policy advocacy.
TRAFFIC
1. The TRAFFIC, the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network, is a leading non-governmental organisation
working on wildlife trade in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
2. It is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).
3. It was established in 1976 and has developed into a global network, research-driven and action-
oriented, committed to delivering innovative and practical conservation solutions.
4. Headquarters: Cambridge, United Kingdom
5. It aims to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
The Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) –

It is a voluntary intergovernmental alliance that was launched at COP27 in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt on
November 8, 2022. The alliance is led by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Indonesia, with India, Sri
Lanka, Australia, Japan, and Spain later joining. The MAC's goal is to promote mangroves as a nature-
based solution to climate change.
Mangroves are dense coastal forests that cover less than 1% of the Earth's surface but can store up to
10 times more carbon per hectare than terrestrial forests. They can store carbon up to 400% faster
than land-based tropical rainforests. Mangroves also act as natural barriers against rising tides and
storm surges, and provide breeding grounds for marine biodiversity. 80% of global fish populations
depend on healthy mangrove ecosystems.
3.8 Wild Life Conservation: CITES:

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is
an international agreement to which States and regional economic integration organizations adhere
voluntarily. CITES adopted in 1963.
CITES entered into force in July 1975. Currently there are 183 Parties (include countries or regional economic
integration organizations).
Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
The CITES Secretariat is administered by UNEP (The United Nations Environment Programme) and is located
at Geneva, Switzerland.
CITES CoP 19-
1. The Conference of the Parties (CoP) is a meeting that takes place every two to three years to review
the implementation of CITES.
2. The 19th meeting of the CoP, also known as the World Wildlife Conference, took place in Panama
City, Panama from November 14–25, 2022. The CoP reviews the implementation of the
Convention, considers proposals to amend the lists of species, and recommends measures to
improve the Convention's effectiveness.
3. CITES CoP 20 will be held in 2025.
3.9 Endangered Species in India:

Species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future are called Endangered Species.
Their population numbers have declined significantly, and they are threatened by various factors such as
habitat loss, poaching, climate change, and pollution.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes endangered species based on specific
criteria, including population size, rate of decline, and geographic range. Conservation efforts are aimed at
protecting and restoring their habitats, implementing measures to reduce threats, and breeding programs
to increase their numbers.
Causes Description
Loss of Habitat Destruction of forests, the natural habitat of many species, due to human
activities such as deforestation and urbanization.
Hunting and Poaching Mass hunting and poaching activities, especially in the past, have significantly
reduced the population of many species in the wild.
Environmental Pollution Increased pollution poses health hazards to both humans and wildlife,
contributing to the endangerment of species.
Imbalances in Predator- Disruption of the natural balance between predators and prey, leading to
Prey Dynamics overhunting of species by predators due to reduced prey populations.
Overgrazing and Continuous grazing and overcrowding in small areas lead to the destruction
Overcrowding of vegetation, affecting the ecosystem and species survival.
IUCN Red Data Book-

1. The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international
NGO.
2. It works in the field of biodiversity conservation, research, field projects and advocacy.
3. It publishes Red Data List or Red Data Books every year. Red Data book contains the conservation
status of different species or organisms. It gives the list threatened species.
4. The categories in the Red Data book include:
1. Extinct (Ex)
2. Extinct In The Wild (Ew)
3. Critically Endangered (Cr)
4. Endangered (En)
5. Vulnerable (Vu)
6. Near Threatened (Nt)
7. Least Concern (Lc)
8. Data Deficient (Dd)
9. Not Evaluated (Ne)
Top 10 Endangered Species in India in 2024:
No. Species Status Major Threats Habitat Major Locations
Found In
1 Bengal Tiger Endangered Poaching, habitat Forests, Sundarbans,
loss, human-wildlife mangroves, Western Ghats,
conflict wetlands Central India
2 Asiatic Lion Endangered Habitat loss, human- Gir Forest Gir National Park,
wildlife conflict Gujarat
3 Snow Leopard Endangered Poaching, declining Mountain ranges, Ladakh, Himachal
prey, habitat loss Himalayas Pradesh,
Uttarakhand,
Himalayas
4 One-horned Vulnerable Poaching, habitat Grasslands, Kaziranga National
Rhinoceros loss, flooding foothills of Park, Manas National
Himalayas Park
5 Blackbuck Endangered Poaching, habitat Grasslands, scrub Rajasthan, Gujarat,
loss, roadkills areas Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka
6 Lion-tailed Endangered Habitat loss, hunting, Rainforests, Western Ghats,

Macaque roadkills Western Ghats South India
7 Resplendent Critically Habitat loss, Rainforests, high- Anamudi summit,
Tree Frog Endangered restricted range altitude areas Kerala
8 Kashmiri Red Critically Habitat loss, land Forests, Dachigam National
Stag Endangered encroachment mountains Park, Kashmir
9 Nilgiri Tahr Endangered Poaching, habitat Mountainous Western Ghats,
loss, climate change grasslands, rocky Kerala, Tamil Nadu
cliffs
10 Indian Bison Vulnerable Poaching, habitat Grasslands, Western Ghats,
(Gaur) loss, food scarcity forests Eastern Ghats,
Central India
Great Indian Bustard:

1. Scientific Name: Ardeotis nigriceps
2. Habitat: Dry grasslands and scrublands
3. Distribution: The largest population of GIBs are found in Rajasthan. The GIB
is also found in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat
states. Desert National Park, near Jaisalmer, and coastal grasslands of the
Abdasa and Mandvi talukas of Kutch District of Gujarat support some
populations
4. Features: Large bird with a horizontal body, long bare legs, black crown on
the forehead, brownish body with marked wings
5. The species has a current viable population of 100- 150 individuals in India
6. Conservation Status:
a. IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
b. Wildlife (Protection)Act, 1972: Schedule 1
c. CITES: Appendix 1
7. Threats: The biggest threat to this species is hunting, which is still prevalent
in Pakistan. This is followed by occasional poaching outside Protected Areas,
collisions with high tension electric wires, fast moving vehicles and free-
ranging dogs in villages.
Indian Wildlife Conservation efforts, projects, acts and initiatives in recent times:
1. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau is a statutory multi-disciplinary body established by the Government of India
under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to combat organized wildlife crime in the country.
Under Section 38 (Z) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, it is mandated to collect and collate intelligence
related to organized wildlife crime activities and to disseminate the same to State and other enforcement
agencies for immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals; to establish a centralized wildlife crime data
bank.
It assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of flora & fauna as per the
provisions of Wild Life Protection Act, CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.
2. ENVIS
The Environmental Information System acronymed as ENVIS was implemented by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest & Climate Change by end of 6th Five Year Plan as a Plan Scheme for environmental
information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to policy planners, decision makers,
scientists and environmentalists, researchers, academicians and other stakeholders.
ENVIS is a decentralized computerized network database system consisting of the focal point located in the
Ministry and a chain of network partners, known as ENVIS Centres located in the potential
organizations/institutions throughout the count.
3. Joint Forest Management (JFM)

It is partnership involving both the forest departments and local communities in natural forest management.
The concept was introduced by Government of India through the National Forest Policy of 1988.
1. Under JFM, village communities are entrusted with the protection and management of nearby forests.
2. The communities are required to organize forest protection committees, village forest committees,
village forest conservation and development societies, etc.
3. Each of these bodies has an executive committee that manages its day-to-day affairs.
4. In return of their services to the forests, the communities get the benefit of using minor non-timber
forest produce. As a result, the forest can be conserved in a sustainable manner.
4. National Mission for Green India

GIM, launched in February 2014, is aimed at protecting, restoring and enhancing India’s diminishing forest
cover and responding to climate change by a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures.
Objectives of the Mission:
1. To protect, restore and enhance India’s falling forest cover.
2. To respond to climate change through a combination of adaptation as well as mitigation measures.
3. To increased forest-based livelihood incomes.
4. To enhance annual Carbon sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes in the year 2020.
5. Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)

1. To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of India
came up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority).
2. The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India,
and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
3. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest
(NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
4. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining
90%.
5. According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to
take up compensatory afforestation.
6. For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the
state.
Net Present Value

1. It depends on the location and nature of the forest and the type of industrial enterprise that will
replace a particular parcel of forest.
2. These payments go to the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) and are used for afforestation
and reforestation.
The Forest Advisory Committee under FCA, 1980, constituted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC) decides on whether forests can be diverted for projects and the NPV to be
charged.
It is a mandatory one-time payment that a user has to make for diverting forestland for non-forest use,
under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. This is calculated on the basis of the services and ecological
value of the forests.
India State of Forest Report

ISFR is a biennial (once in 2 years) publication of Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the
Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change. The ISFR assesses the forest and tree cover, bamboo
resources, carbon stock and forest fires.
The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023
It states that India's total forest and tree cover is 80.9 million hectares, which is 24.62% of the country's
geographical area. This is an increase of 2,261 sq km from the 2019 assessment, with 1,540 sq km of forest
cover and 721 sq km of tree cover increasing since then.
The report also states that 17 states and union territories have more than 33% of their area under forest
cover.
Madhya Pradesh had the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and
Maharashtra.
The top five States in terms of forest cover as a percentage of their total geographical area were Mizoram
(84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74.34%) and Nagaland (73.90%).
The top five states with the highest increase in forest cover are:
1. Karnataka: 1,025 sq km
2. Andhra Pradesh: 990 sq km
3. Kerala: 823 sq km
4. Jammu & Kashmir: 4th position
5. Mizoram: 85.41 percent of total geographical area
The report also notes that there is a decrease in forest cover in the North-East region except in Tripura
and Assam.
Important Acts to protect Wildlife:

1.Indian Forest Act 1927
1. The Indian Forest Act,1927 aimed to regulate the movement of forest produce, and duty leviable
forest produce.
2. It also explains the procedure to be followed for declaring an area as Reserved Forest, Protected
Forest or a Village Forest.
3. This act has details of what a forest offence is, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest,
and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act.
4. After the Forest Act was enacted in 1865, it was amended twice (1878 and 1927).
It has divided forests into 3 types-
Degree of protection-
Reserved forests > Protected forests > Village forests.
Criticisms
1. The act gave immense discretion and power to the forest bureaucracy which often led to the
harassment of the forest dwellers.
2. Moreover, it led to depriving the nomads and tribal people their age-old rights and privileges to use
the forests and forest produce.
3. The revenue earning potential from timber overshadowed the other values like biodiversity,
prevention of soil erosion, etc.
2. Wildlife Protection Act 1972

The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for protection of plants and
animal species.
1. Has 6 schedules: (Changed to 4 in the recent amendment) Schedule I and part II of schedule II cover
animals which are in the category of endangered species.
2. Schedule V – Vermins wild mammals and birds which are harmful to crops, farm animals or which
carry disease, can be hunted with permission of chief wildlife warden(recently Nilgai, Rhesus Monkey
culled under it)
3. Schedule VI- exotic plant species.
Objective of effectively protecting the wildlife of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and
illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives.
Wild Life Act provides
1. State wildlife advisory boards, National Board for Wildlife
2. Regulations for hunting wild animals and birds
3. Establishment of sanctuaries and national parks,
4. Regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and trophies, and
5. Judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022:

The Act seeks to increase the species protected under the law and implement CITES.
The number of schedules has been reduced to four:
1. Schedule I containing animal species enjoying the highest level of protection.
2. Schedule II for animal species subject to a lesser degree of protection.
3. Schedule III for protected plant species, and
4. Schedule IV for scheduled specimens under CITES.
The Act permits the use of elephants for 'religious or any other purposes'.
The penalties have also been increased for general and specially protected animals' violations.
National Board for Wildlife

1. Statutory Organization constituted under the WPA, 1972.
2. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and its vice chairman is Minister of Environment.
3. It serves as apex body to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around
national parks and sanctuaries.
4. Members include Parliament Members, NGOs, eminent conservationists, ecologists.
The functions of the NBWL are as follows.
1. Promotion and development of wildlife and its conservation.
2. Advise the government on matters relating to wildlife conservation and preservation.
3. Giving or reserving clearances to projects in and around national parks and other protected areas.
4. No alteration of boundaries of the protected areas is possible without the NBWL’s approval.
3. Forest Conservation Act 1980
1. Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, the Centre
Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980.
2. It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produces and the duty
levied on timber and other forest produce.
3. Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
4. Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required for diversion
of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
5. An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on these approvals.
6. The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely reserved forests, village forests,
protected forests and private forests.
Recent Amendment-
1. The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act (FCAA), 2023, which came into force on December
1, 2023, amends the Forest Conservation Act (FCA), 1980.
2. The ‘Act’s name was changed to Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980 to
reflect the potential of its provisions.
3. The amendments seek to streamline the application of the Act to recorded forest lands, private
forest lands, plantations, etc.
4. It allows state governments to clear forest diversions that were previously considered illegal
under the original legislation.
5. The FCAA eliminates the need to obtain consent from habitation level gram sabhas before final
forest clearance (violation of the Forest Rights Act of 2006)
6. It broadens the scope of forest and wildlife conservation activities to include initiatives like
zoos, safaris, and eco-tourism facilities.
7. The FCAA also establishes guidelines for compensatory tree plantation to offset tree felling.
8. Critics argue that the FCAA undermines the protection of forests and violates the rights of
forest dwellers and gram sabhas as designated by the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
4. Environmental Protection Act 1986

1. It empowers the central government to establish authorities under section 3(3) charged with
mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific problems that
are peculiar to different parts of the country.
2. Central Ground water Board is created under EPA.
3. EIA, CRZ are based on this Act.
In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act of
1986.
a) To protect and improve environmental qualities.
b) To establish an authority to study, plan and implement long term requirements of environmental
safety.
c) To cover all problems relating to environment comprehensively.
Recent Amendments Proposed-
1. The Ministry has proposed the decriminalisation of the existing provisions of the EPA, 1986 in order to
weed out fear of imprisonment for simple violations.
2. Instead of imprisonment, the amendments propose the creation of an Environmental Protection Fund in
which the amount of penalty imposed by the Adjudicating Officer after adjudicating the damage to the
environment shall be remitted.
Environmental Impact Assessment

History
After Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984, Government of India tightened environmental laws in India.
Environmental protection act, 1986 was enacted. Most important provision in this EIA.
Meaning
1. EIA is an assessment of damage or loss caused by a particular project to the environment.
2. It helps to explore alternatives on a cost benefit analysis to environment.
3. It covers mining, infrastructure development, real estate, Thermal, hydro and nuclear power
plants.
4. It ensures proper oversight of project management and execution.
6. Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers Rights Act 2006

1. Nodal Agency for the implementation is Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA).
2. Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional Forest Dwelling Communities.
3. Recognition Criteria: Forest dwellers for three generations prior to 13.12.2005 primarily resided in
and have depended on the forests for bonafide livelihood needs.
4. Maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 ha.
5. National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included along with Reserve Forest, Protected Forests for
the recognition of Rights.
6. Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce
(MFP- all non-timber forest produces like honey, bamboo, tendu leaves) by tribals.
7. Gram Sabha has been designated as the competent authority for initiating the process of determining
the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights.
7.National Green Tribunal Act 2010

1. NGT is a statutory body established under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010.
2. Composition: One full time Chairperson, not less than ten but subject to maximum of twenty full time
Judicial Members as the Central Government may, from time to time, notify.
3. It is for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and
conservation of forests and other natural resources.
4. An order/decision/award of Tribunal is executable as a decree of a civil court.

NGT deals in the following acts
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
8. It does not deal with Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
8.Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016
1. To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of India came
up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority).
2. The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India,
and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
3. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest
(NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
4. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%.
5. According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to take
up compensatory afforestation.
6. For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the
state.
Compensatory Afforestation
Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes such as
mining or industry, the user agency pays for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest land, or when
such land is not available, twice the area of degraded forest land.
Issues Related to Biodiversity

Bio-Piracy
1. The practice of commercial exploitation of biochemicals or genetic materials which occur naturally is
known as biopiracy.
2. Typically, indigenous people have traditional cognition primarily consisting of biological features and
genetic diversity of the natural environment from one generation to another.
Ex: Patenting of Azadirachta indica – Neem by USA Company
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library
The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) is an Indian digital knowledge repository of
the traditional knowledge, especially about medicinal plants and formulations used in Indian systems of
medicine.
Set up in 2001, as a collaboration between the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the
MINISTRY OF AYUSH.
The TKDL contains documentation of publicly available traditional knowledge (TK) that:
1. relates to Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Yoga
2. is in digitized format
3. is available in five international languages: English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish.
Policies related to Environment and Bio Diversity

1. National Forest Policy 1988
2. National Conservation Strategy and Policy statement on Environment and Development.
3. National Policy and macro-level action strategy on Biodiversity.
4. National Biodiversity Action Plan (2009).
5. National Agriculture Policy.
6. National Water Policy.
7. National Environment Policy (2006).
National Forest Policy 1988 –
Aims to have a minimum of one third (1/3rd) of the total land area under forests.
Objectives:
1. Increase in the forest and tree cover.
2. Involvement of local communities in the protection, conservation and management of forests
through Joint Forest Management Program.
3. Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor forest produce and small timber of the rural
and tribal populations.
4. Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-situ and in-
situ conservation measures.
5. Significant contribution in maintenance of environment and ecological stability in the country.
Steps Taken by Government for Biodiversity Protection

Indian Government has taken various biodiversity protection steps. Important measures include:
1. The Central Government has enacted the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The Act, inter alia, provides
for the creation of Protected Areas for the protection of wildlife and also provides for punishment
for hunting of specified fauna specified in the schedules I to IV thereof.
2. Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 have been framed for the protection of
wetlands, in the States.
3. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System also
provides assistance to the States for the management of wetlands including Ramsar sites in the
country.
4. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control of illegal trade in wildlife, including
endangered species.
5. Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History society and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History are some of the research organisations undertaking research on conservation
of wildlife.
6. The Indian Government has banned the veterinary use of diclofenac drug that has caused the rapid
population decline of Gyps vulture across the Indian Subcontinent. Conservation Breeding
Programmes to conserve these vulture species have been initiated at Pinjore (Haryana), Buxa (West
Bengal) and Rani, Guwahati (Assam) by the Bombay Natural History Society.
7. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats‘ has been modified
by including a new component namely ‘Recovery of Endangered Species‘ and 16 species have been
identified for recovery viz. Snow Leopard, Bustard (including Floricans), Dolphin, Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr,
Marine Turtles, Dugong, Edible Nest Swiftlet, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode, Manipur Brow-
antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic Lion, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s
Courser.
8. Under the ‘Recovery of Endangered Species’ component of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme
‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’ for the recovery of endangered species viz. Hangul in
Jammu and Kashmir, Snow Leopard in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
Arunachal Pradesh, Vulture in Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat, Swiftlet in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Nadu, Sangai Deer in Manipur, the government has to spend lakhs of
rupees.
9. Protected Areas, viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves all
over the country covering the important habitats have been created as per the provisions of the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including threatened species and
their habitat.
10. Financial and technical assistance is extended to the State Governments under various Centrally
Sponsored Schemes, viz, ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and ‘Project
Elephant’ for providing better protection and conservation to wildlife.
11. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972 to apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders.
12. The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the field formations and intensify
patrolling in and around the Protected Areas.
Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio Diversity

1. Fisheries Act 1897.
2. Indian Forests Act 1927.
3. Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957.
4. Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960.
5. Wildlife protection act 1972.
6. Water (prevention and control of pollution) act 1974.
7. Forest Conservation Act 1980.
8. Air (prevention and control of pollution) act 1981.
9. Environment Protection Act 1986.
10. Biological Diversity Act 2002.
11. Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) act 2006.
Steps taken by the GoI for Environmental Protection-

1. Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched Mission LiFE,
aimed at promoting sustainable lifestyles and consumption patterns to address climate change. India
participated in COP 27 with a focus on mainstreaming the LiFE theme, highlighting the importance of
transitioning to sustainable lifestyles.
2. Long-Term Low Carbon Development Strategy: India launched its long-term low carbon
development strategy at COP 27, demonstrating its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and transitioning to a low-carbon economy.
3. Cheetah Re-introduction Project: India successfully conducted the historic re-introduction of

cheetahs from Namibia, marking the first wild-to-wild intercontinental translocation. This initiative
aims to establish a viable cheetah population in India and contribute to global conservation efforts.
4. Expansion of Ramsar Sites Network: India added ten wetlands to the List of Wetlands of
International Importance, expanding its Ramsar Sites network to 80, the largest in Asia. Ramsar Sites
play a crucial role in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services.
5. Ban on Single-Use Plastics: India imposed a ban on identified single-use plastic items from July 1,
2022, to combat plastic pollution. The government also implemented extended producer
responsibility (EPR) principles for plastic packaging, promoting eco-friendly alternatives and
sustainable plastic packaging.
6. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): The Ministry continued implementing the NCAP to reduce
air pollution levels in Indian cities. Regional workshops, capacity-building initiatives, and the launch
of the PRANA portal were undertaken to monitor and improve air quality.
7. TX2 International Award: Indian Tiger Reserves received international recognition through the TX2
Tiger Conservation Excellence award. Efforts to conserve tigers, such as enhanced protection, habitat
management, and community involvement, have contributed to the increase in tiger populations.
8. Circular Economy and Waste Management: India focused on promoting circular economy principles
and waste-to-wealth initiatives. Circular Economy Action Plans were developed for various waste
categories, and regulations on extended producer responsibility were implemented for plastic
packaging, e-waste, batteries, and tires.
Unit 4: Waste Management and Pollution Control

1. Solid Waste: Solid Wastes and their Classification
2. Methods of Disposal and Management of Solid Wastes in India
3. Environmental Pollution: Types of Environmental Pollution – Sources and Impacts
4. Pollution Control, Regulation and Alternatives: Recent projects, acts and initiatives to reduce
Environmental Pollution in India
5. Impact of Transgenics on Environment and their Regulation
6. Eco Friendly Technologies in Agriculture
7. Bioremediation: Types and Scope in India.
4.1 Solid Waste: Solid Wastes and their Classification
Waste is defined as unwanted and unusable materials and is regarded as a substance which is of no use.
Waste that we see in our surroundings is also known as garbage.
Types of Waste
1. Solid waste
Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment
plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded materials including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or
contained gaseous material.
2. Liquid waste
Liquid waste can be defined as such Liquids as wastewater, fats, oils or grease (FOG), used oil, liquids, solids,
gases, or sludges and hazardous household liquids.
Types of Solid Waste-
According to its:
1. Origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional)
2. Contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc)
3. Hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc).
Types of Solid
Waste
Municipal Solid Industrial Solid Biological Solid

Waste Waste Waste
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): It consists of household waste, construction and demolition debris (CnD),
sanitation residue, and waste from streets, generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes.
As per the MoEF it includes commercial and residential waste generated in municipal or notified areas in
either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical
wastes;
Industrial Solid Waste (ISW): In a majority of cases, it is termed as hazardous waste as they may contain
toxic substances, are corrosive, highly inflammable, or react when exposed to certain things e.g. gases.
Biomedical waste or hospital waste: It is usually infectious waste that may include waste like sharps, soiled
waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc., usually in the
form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. These can be a serious threat
to human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner.
The Government has comprehensively revised the waste management rules and has notified -Solid Waste
Management Rules, 2019, Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2018, Bio-Medical Waste Management
Rules, 2019, Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2019, E-
waste Management Rules, 2018 and Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016 for
sound management of various types of wastes in the country.
Measures to deal with Solid Waste in India-

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has enacted several waste management rules
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, including rules for solid waste, plastic waste, bio-medical
waste, construction and demolition waste, hazardous waste, electronic waste, and battery waste.
1. Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified
the Solid Waste Management Rules in 2016, which lay down regulations for the management and
handling of solid waste. These rules emphasize source segregation, collection, transportation,
processing, and disposal of solid waste in an environmentally sound manner.
2. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Under various waste management rules, including plastic waste,
e-waste, and battery waste, the concept of EPR has been introduced. Producers are responsible for the
collection and management of the waste generated from their products, encouraging them to adopt
environmentally friendly practices.
3. Local Body Responsibilities: Local authorities, municipalities, and panchayats are responsible for
implementing solid waste management practices at the grassroots level. They are tasked with setting up
waste collection systems, segregation facilities, and treatment plants, as well as promoting public
awareness about waste management practices.
4. Financial Assistance: The central government provides financial assistance to states and union territories
through schemes like the Swachh Bharat Mission Urban (SBM-U) and Swachh Bharat Mission Grameen
(SBM-G). These schemes aim to improve solid waste management infrastructure and promote behavioral
change towards cleanliness and waste segregation.
5. Increased Processing Capacity: The capacity for processing different types of waste, including solid waste,
hazardous waste, bio-medical waste, electronic waste, plastic waste, and construction and demolition
waste, has increased since 2014. This indicates progress in waste management infrastructure and
practices.
6. Focus on Source Segregation: Initiatives under Swachh Bharat Mission Urban 2.0 aim to create "Garbage
Free Cities" by focusing on door-to-door collection, source segregation, and scientific processing of
municipal solid waste. Similar efforts are undertaken in rural areas through Swachh Bharat Mission –
Grameen Phase II.
7. Segregation and Storage: Waste generators are required to segregate solid waste into three streams:
biodegradable, non-biodegradable, and domestic hazardous wastes, as per the Solid Waste Management
(SWM) Rules 2016. This segregated waste should be handed over to authorized waste pickers or
collectors as directed by local authorities.
8. State Level Advisory Board: State Governments and Union Territory Administrations are required to
constitute a State Level Advisory Board to review the implementation of solid waste management rules
and provide necessary advice for their effective enforcement.
9. Central Assistance: States and Union territories receive additional central assistance for solid waste
management under the Swachh Bharat Mission Urban (SBM-U) and Swachh Bharat Mission Grameen
initiatives.
10. Capacity Building: The government conducts capacity building programs, workshops, and training
sessions for municipal authorities, waste workers, and other stakeholders involved in solid waste
management. These initiatives aim to enhance knowledge and skills related to waste management
practices and technologies.
11. Innovative Solutions: The government encourages the adoption of innovative technologies and solutions
for solid waste management, including waste-to-energy projects, composting, and bioremediation
techniques. These initiatives promote resource recovery from waste and minimize environmental
pollution.
12. Public Participation: The government promotes public participation and community involvement in solid
waste management initiatives. Citizens are encouraged to actively participate in waste segregation,
composting, and recycling programs, thereby contributing to a cleaner and healthier environment.
13. Monitoring and Enforcement: State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees
(PCCs) monitor and enforce compliance with solid waste management rules and regulations. They
conduct regular inspections, issue guidelines, and take enforcement actions against violators to ensure
adherence to waste management norms.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
1. EPR is a policy approach under which producers are given a significant financial and physical
responsibility (with respect to segregation and collection of waste at the source) for the treatment or
disposal of post-consumer products.
2. Assigning such responsibility could in principle provide incentives to prevent wastes at the source,
promote product design for the environment and support the achievement of public recycling and
materials management goals.
Plastic Waste
Plastic waste, or plastic pollution, is 'the accumulation of plastic objects (e.g.: plastic bottles and much more)
in the Earth's environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, and humans.
Plastics often contain additives making them stronger, more flexible, and durable. But many of these
additives can extend the life of products if they become litter, with some estimates ranging to at least 400
years to break down.
Single Use and Micro Plastics-
Types of
Plastics
Microplastics Single Use plastics Others
Micro Plastics
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that result from both commercial product development and the
breakdown of larger plastics. As a pollutant, microplastics can be harmful to the environment and animal
health.
Single-use plastic
It is a disposable material that can be used only once before it is either thrown away or recycled, like plastic
bags, water bottles, soda bottles, straws, plastic plates, cups, most food packaging and coffee stirrers are
sources of single use plastic.
India has banned single-use plastic from 2022.
Government measures to deal with Plastic Waste-
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, has taken significant steps
to address the issue of plastic waste management.
1. Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021: The government has prohibited identified single-
use plastic items with low utility and high littering potential by 2022. This includes items such as ear buds
with plastic sticks, plastic flags, plates, cups, glasses, cutlery, straws, and more.
2. Increase in Plastic Carry Bag Thickness: The thickness of plastic carry bags has been increased from 50 to
75 microns as of September 30, 2021, and further to 120 microns by December 31, 2022. This measure
aims to reduce littering and encourage reuse of plastic bags.
3. Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The Plastic Waste Management (Amendment)
Rules, 2022, include guidelines on EPR for plastic packaging. These guidelines set mandatory targets for
EPR, recycling of plastic packaging waste, reuse of rigid plastic packaging, and the use of recycled plastic
content. The aim is to move towards sustainable plastic packaging and reduce the plastic footprint.
4. Strengthening Waste Management Infrastructure: The Swachh Bharat Mission is being utilized to
strengthen waste management infrastructure in states and union territories. Special Task Forces and a
National Level Taskforce have been constituted to coordinate efforts for eliminating single-use plastics
and implementing plastic waste management rules effectively.
5. Comprehensive Action Plans: State and UT governments, along with concerned central
ministries/departments, have been requested to develop comprehensive action plans for eliminating
single-use plastics and implementing plastic waste management rules in a time-bound manner.
6. Awareness Generation: The government has organized awareness campaigns, essay writing
competitions, and initiatives like the India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021 to spread awareness about
the importance of eliminating single-use plastics and promoting sustainable alternatives.
7. Ban on Identified Single Use Plastic Items: Single-use plastic items with low utility and high littering
potential have been prohibited across the country since July 1, 2022. This includes measures to regulate
the thickness of plastic carry bags, with stricter regulations coming into effect gradually.
8. Enforcement and Monitoring: Regular enforcement drives are being undertaken to implement the ban
on single-use plastic items and ensure compliance with regulations regarding plastic carry bag thickness.
Online platforms such as the National Dashboard and CPCB Monitoring Module are in operation to
monitor implementation and address grievances.
9. Promotion of Eco-Alternatives: Private enterprises are actively manufacturing eco-alternatives to banned
single-use plastic items. A significant number of manufacturers and startups participated in the National
Expo on eco-alternatives to banned single-use plastics items and Conference of Startups -2022,
showcasing the variety of eco-friendly alternatives available.
10. Certification of Compostable Plastics: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has certified over 200
manufacturers/sellers of compostable plastics, indicating a growing market for environmentally friendly
alternatives.
11. Financial Assistance: The government provides additional central assistance to states/UTs under the
Swachh Bharat Mission for solid waste management, including plastic waste management, in both urban
and rural areas.
12. The release of the 'National Circular Economy Roadmap for reduction of Plastic waste in India' marks a
significant collaborative effort between leading research institutions from India and Australia. The aim is
to foster research and industry partnerships to develop a roadmap for India's transition to a circular
economy in the plastics sector. India's commitment to achieving a Net Zero target by 2070, as pledged
by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, underscores its leadership in this quest for sustainability.
13. Global Plastics Treaty: India and Australia are actively engaged in negotiations for a Global Plastics Treaty,
leveraging their strengths in waste management and recycling policies to prioritize resource efficiency
and environmental protection.
14. Technological Innovations: India's Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) is at the forefront of
developing technologies to reduce India's carbon footprint and promote recycling. Initiatives such as the
'Recycling on Wheels' bus and the Repurposed Used Cooking Oil (RUCO) van demonstrate India's
commitment to waste-to-wealth concepts and sustainable practices.
15. Pioneering Initiatives: CSIR institutions like the Indian Institute of Petroleum and the Central Road
Research Institute have pioneered technologies such as biofuel production from used cooking oil and
steel slag road construction, showcasing India's leadership in addressing environmental challenges.
16. Policy Framework: The Indian government has formulated various policies and rules, including the Plastic
Waste Management Rules and e-Waste Management Rules, to drive the country towards a circular
economy. These efforts aim to address plastic waste challenges and promote sustainable waste
management practices.
17. The collaboration between India and Australia on the circular economy is crucial for both countries, with
a shared goal of reducing plastic waste and achieving a circular economy. This initiative reflects India's
commitment to environmental sustainability and its proactive approach to addressing global challenges
like climate change and plastic pollution.
18. Awareness Campaigns: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has organized
awareness campaigns specifically focused on single-use plastics, including the "Awareness Campaign on
Single Use Plastic – 2021" and a pan-India essay writing competition for school students.
19. Innovation Challenges: Events like the India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021 have been organized to
encourage innovation in developing alternatives to single-use plastics and digital solutions for plastic
waste management.
20. Task Forces and Action Plans: Special Task Forces have been constituted at both state and national levels
to eliminate single-use plastics and ensure effective implementation of Plastic Waste Management Rules,
2016. Comprehensive action plans have been developed by states/UTs and concerned central
ministries/departments.
21. Online Platforms for Monitoring: To ensure effective monitoring, several online platforms such as the
National Dashboard, centralized online Portal for Extended Producer Responsibility, and CPCB Grievance
Redressal App have been launched.
UN Resolution on ‘End Plastic Pollution’ -
1. India played a significant role in addressing global plastic pollution at the fifth United Nations
Environment Assembly (UNEA 5.2) held in Nairobi.
2. India's draft resolution focused on collective voluntary action by countries to tackle plastic pollution.
3. India emphasized the importance of considering national circumstances and capabilities while
addressing plastic pollution, particularly for developing countries.
4. The resolution adopted by 175 countries included India's key objectives, marking a historic moment in
global efforts to combat plastic pollution.
5. The resolution calls for continued efforts by countries to combat plastic pollution, including promoting
sustainable consumption and production, adopting circular economy approaches, and developing
national action plans.
6. It also requests the convening of a forum to exchange information and activities related to plastic
pollution.
7. India's involvement in the resolution underscores its dedication to addressing plastic pollution both
domestically and globally.
E- Waste
Electronic waste, also called e-waste, various forms of electric and electronic equipment that have ceased
to be of value to their users or no longer satisfy their original purpose.
E- Waste Types:
E-waste is categorized into 21 types under two broad categories:
1. Information technology and communication equipment.
2. Consumer electrical and electronics.
1. Laws to manage e-waste have been in place in India since 2011, mandating that only authorized
dismantlers and recyclers collect e-waste. E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 was enacted in 2017.
2. India’s first e-waste clinic for segregating, processing and disposal of waste from household and
commercial units has been be set-up in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
3. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimates e-waste generation based on sales data and
product lifespan. In FY 2020-21 and 2021-22, India generated 13,46,496.31 tonnes and 16,01,155.36
tonnes of e-waste, respectively, relatively low compared to other major economies.
4. E-Waste Collection and Processing: In FY 2021-22, a total of 5,27,131.57 tonnes of e-waste were collected
and processed.
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 in
supersession of the E-waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011.
1. Over 21 products (Schedule-I) were included under the purview of the rule. It included Compact
Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury containing lamps, as well as other such equipment.
2. For the first time, the rules brought the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), along
with targets. Producers have been made responsible for the collection of E-waste and for its exchange.
3. Various producers can have a separate Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) and ensure
collection of E-waste, as well as its disposal in an environmentally sound manner.
4. Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as an additional economic instrument wherein the
producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time of sale of the electrical and electronic
equipment and returns it to the consumer along with interest when the end-of-life electrical and
electronic equipment is returned.
5. The role of State Governments has been also introduced to ensure safety, health and skill
development of the workers involved in dismantling and recycling operations.
6. A provision of penalty for violation of rules has also been introduced.
7. Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Committee/Council/Corporation) have been assigned the duty to
collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized dismantlers or recyclers.
8. Allocation of proper space to existing and upcoming industrial units for e-waste dismantling and
recycling.
Other Measures to Address E-Waste:

1. Revised Rules: The Ministry revised and enforced the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 from April 1,
2023. These rules aim to manage e-waste responsibly and establish an improved Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) regime. All stakeholders like manufacturers, producers, refurbishers, and recyclers
must register on a CPCB portal. The rules encourage formal sector engagement and ensure
environmentally sound recycling. They also introduce provisions for environment compensation,
verification, and audits, promoting a Circular Economy through EPR and scientific e-waste
recycling/disposal.
2. Enforcement Action Plan: An action plan is in place for nationwide enforcement of the E-Waste
(Management) Rules. States/Union Territories (UTs) and their respective Pollution Control
Boards/Committees (SPCBs/PCCs) are implementing this plan. Additionally, an e-waste management
review portal is operational to track the progress of the action plan.
3. Formalization of E-Waste Recycling Sector: The government has taken steps to formalize the e-waste
recycling sector, including compulsory authorization of dismantling and recycling units by State Pollution
Control Boards (SPCBs)/ Pollution Control Committees (PCCs). Guidelines and Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPs) for e-waste processing have been issued by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), and monitoring of these units is conducted by CPCB and SPCBs/PCCs.
4. E-Waste Management Rules, 2016: The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016, effective from October 1,
2016, apply to various stakeholders such as manufacturers, producers, consumers, collectors, recyclers,
etc. These rules establish an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regime, wherein producers are
obligated to manage e-waste generated from their products. Producers must obtain EPR Authorization
from CPCB and set annual e-waste collection targets.
5. E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: The government notified the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022,
effective from April 1, 2023, replacing the 2016 rules. These new rules introduce a revamped EPR regime,
requiring registration of manufacturers, producers, refurbishers, and recyclers on a CPCB portal. The
rules expand the list of notified Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) to 106 items and set e-waste
recycling targets for producers. They also introduce provisions for environment compensation,
verification, audit, and the constitution of a Steering Committee for oversight.
6. Reduction of Hazardous Substances: The E-Waste (Management) Rules mandate producers to ensure
that their products do not contain hazardous substances like lead and mercury beyond prescribed
concentrations. Additionally, provisions for the recognition, registration, skill development, and safety
of workers involved in e-waste dismantling and recycling are included in the rules.
7. E-Waste Generation Data: The government monitors e-waste generation, with data showing an increase
from 7,08,445 tonnes in 2017-2018 to 10,14,961.2 tonnes in 2019-2020.
8. Regulation and Management: E-waste management is regulated under the E-Waste (Management)
Rules, 2016, covering twenty-one types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE).
9. Import Ban: To control e-waste influx, the government has banned e-waste import by listing it in
Schedule VI of the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules,
2016.
10. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Producers of notified EEE are responsible for e-waste disposal
under EPR, with annual collection and recycling targets based on previous sales figures.
11. Compliance Monitoring: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) oversees compliance through an
Action Plan, including identifying non-EPR authorized producers and verifying e-waste management
facilities.
12. State Involvement: State Pollution Control Boards and Pollution Control Committees ensure monitoring
and compliance of producers within their jurisdictions.
Measures to address the issue of Solar e-waste-

1. Notification of E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change has notified these rules, which mandate every manufacturer and producer of solar photo-
voltaic modules or panels or cells to ensure registration on the portal.
2. Storage and Annual Returns: Manufacturers and producers are required to store solar photo-voltaic
modules or panels or cells waste generated up to the year 2034-2035 as per guidelines laid down by
the Central Pollution Control Board. They also need to file annual returns on the portal.
3. Processing and Inventory: Waste other than solar photo-voltaic modules or panels or cells should be
processed as per applicable rules or guidelines. An inventory of solar photo-voltaic modules or panels
or cells must be maintained distinctly on the portal.
4. Compliance and Standard Operating Procedures: Manufacturers and producers are required to comply
with standard operating procedures and guidelines laid down by the Central Pollution Control Board.
5. Recovery of Materials: Recyclers of solar photo-voltaic modules or panels or cells are mandated to
recover materials as per guidelines set by the Central Pollution Control Board.
6. Earmarking Industrial Space: The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 provide for the earmarking or
allocation of industrial space or shed for e-waste dismantling and recycling in existing and upcoming
industrial parks, estates, and clusters.
Radiological Waste
1. Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material.
2. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear
power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing.
Biomedical Waste
1. Biomedical waste is defined as any type of waste created during a diagnostic process, the treatment
of a condition or disease, or immunizations of humans or animals.
2. It also includes any research activities or processes that involve biological testing.
4.2 Methods of Disposal and Management of Solid Wastes in India

Sanitary Landfills-
Sanitary landfill is a modern engineering landfill where waste is allowed to decompose into biologically and
chemically inert materials in a setting isolated from the environment.
Composting-
1. Composting is an aerobic method (meaning that it requires the presence of air) of decomposing
organic solid wastes.
2. It can therefore be used to recycle organic material.
3. The process involves decomposition of organic material into a humus-like material, known
as compost, which is a good fertilizer for plants. It provides for Biogas also.
Incineration
1. Degradation and complete combustion of waste under high temperature.
2. It is a relatively old method of WtE generation. Incineration generally entails burning waste to boil
water which powers steam generators that generate electric energy and heat to be used in home
Pyrolysis
1. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere
(absence of oxygen). It involves a change of chemical composition.
2. Fast Pyrolysis Reactor (FPR) that will thermo chemically decompose any organic or carbon material
into energy rich oil and gas. Pyrolysis is most commonly used in the treatment of organic materials.
Gasification
1. Gasification is a unique process that transforms a carbon-based material, such as MSW or biomass,
into other forms of energy without actually burning it.
2. It converts the solid and liquid waste materials into usable synthesis gas, or syngas through a chemical
reaction.
Bio-methanation
1. Methanogenesis or Biomethanation is the process of combining organic waste materials into biogas
and manure.
2. Biogas is a gaseous fuel that can be easily used for energy generation and production of heat.
Fermentation
1. In the fermentation process, the sugar in the waste is changed to carbon dioxide and alcohol, in the
same general process that is used to make wine.
2. It is also used to convert food waste into biofuels
Bio-Coal: Torrefaction Technology

India is testing Swedish technology — torrefaction that can convert rice stubble into ‘bio-coal’.
1. Thermal process to convert biomass into a coal-like material to improve the fuel like characteristics.
2. The process involves heating up straw, grass, sawmill residue and wood biomass to 250 degrees
Celsius – 350 degrees Celsius.
3. During the torrefaction process a combustible gas is released, which is utilised to provide heat to the
process. This changes the elements of the biomass into ‘coal-like’ pellets. These pellets can be used
for combustion along with coal for industrial applications like steel and cement production.
Method Meaning Process Advantages Disadvantages

Landfill Disposal of 1. Waste collection and - Cost-effective. - - Limited space
waste in transportation to landfill site. Can accommodate availability. - Risk
designated 2. Compaction and spreading large volumes of of groundwater
land areas of waste in layers. waste. - Methane contamination. -
3. Covering with soil or other capture for energy Generation of
materials to reduce odor and generation. leachate and
prevent pests. methane gas.
4. Installation of liners,
leachate collection systems,
and gas management systems
for environmental protection.
Incineration Thermal 1. Waste is burned at high - Reduces waste - Air pollution
treatment of temperatures in controlled volume by up to from emissions
waste to chambers. 90%. - Energy (unless
reduce 2. Heat generated is used to recovery through controlled). - High
volume produce steam for electricity steam generation. - initial investment
generation or heating. Suitable for costs. - Ash
3. Air pollution control systems hazardous waste disposal requires
are installed to reduce disposal. careful
emissions. management.
Recycling Recovery of 1. Collection of recyclable - Conservation of - Requires
materials materials such as paper, natural resources. - separate
from waste plastics, glass, and metals. Reduction of energy collection and
for reuse 2. Sorting and separation of consumption and sorting
materials based on type. greenhouse gas infrastructure. -
3. Cleaning and processing to emissions. - Job Contamination of
remove contaminants. creation in recycling recyclables
4. Transformation into new industries. reduces quality. -
products or raw materials. Limited markets
for recycled
materials.
Composting Biological 1. Mixing organic waste with - Produces nutrient- - Requires space
decompositio bulking agents like wood chips rich soil conditioner. and proper
n of organic or sawdust. - Reduces methane management to
waste 2. Providing aeration and emissions from prevent odor and
moisture to promote microbial landfills. - Diverts pests. - Slow
activity. organic waste from process
3. Periodic turning to enhance landfills. compared to
decomposition. other methods. -
4. Curing or maturation to Limited to organic
stabilize the compost. waste.
5. Screening to remove
contaminants.
Anaerobic Decompositi 1. Organic waste is placed in a - Generates biogas - High capital and
Digestion on of organic sealed tank or digester. for energy operational costs.
waste in 2. Microorganisms break down production. - - Requires skilled
oxygen-free waste in the absence of Digestate can be operation and
oxygen, producing biogas used as fertilizer. - maintenance. -
(methane and carbon dioxide). Reduces methane Limited to organic
waste.
3. Biogas can be used for emissions from

electricity generation or organic waste.
heating.
4. Digestate, a nutrient-rich
residue, can be used as
fertilizer.
Waste-to- Conversion of 1. Combustion of waste to - Energy recovery - Air pollution
Energy waste into produce heat. from waste. - from emissions
(WtE) heat or 2. Heat is used to generate Reduces reliance on (unless
electricity steam. fossil fuels. - Diverts controlled). - High
3. Steam drives turbines to waste from landfills. initial investment
generate electricity. costs. - Concerns
4. Ash residue is treated and about toxic ash
disposed of. disposal.
Pyrolysis Thermal 1. Waste is heated in the - Produces valuable - High capital and
decompositio absence of oxygen to produce products (gas, oil, operating costs. -
n of waste in gas, oil, and char. char) from waste. - Energy-intensive
the absence 2. Gas and oil can be used for Can handle mixed or process. -
of O energy or chemical production. contaminated Technical
3. Char can be used as a soil waste streams. - challenges in
amendment. Reduces landfill scaling up.
demand.
Sanitary Modern 1. Similar to traditional landfill - Minimizes - Higher
Landfill landfill with process but with added environmental operational costs
engineered environmental safeguards. impact compared to compared to
liners and 2. Waste is compacted and traditional landfills. traditional
leachate covered daily to minimize odor - Methane capture landfills. -
and pest attraction. for energy Requires skilled
3. Leachate is collected and generation. - management and
treated to prevent Adequate monitoring. -
groundwater contamination. 4. protection of Land use
Methane gas is captured and groundwater and restrictions due
used for energy production. soil. to environmental
regulations.
Plasma Conversion of 1. Waste is exposed to high - Complete - High capital and
Gasification waste into temperatures in a plasma arc. destruction of operating costs. -
syngas using 2. Organic materials are organic waste. - Technical
plasma converted into syngas (a Energy recovery complexity and
mixture of hydrogen and from syngas reliance on skilled
carbon monoxide). production. - operators. -
3. Inorganic materials are Minimization of Concerns about
vitrified into an inert glass-like landfill waste emissions and
substance. volume. slag disposal.
4. Syngas can be used for

energy production or chemical
synthesis.
Mechanical Mechanical 1. Waste is mechanically sorted - Maximizes - High initial
Biological sorting and to remove recyclables and inert recovery of investment costs.
biological materials. recyclable - Requires skilled
treatment of 2. Biodegradable fraction materials. - operation and
waste undergoes biological treatment Reduction of maintenance. -
(composting or anaerobic organic waste sent Limited to mixed
digestion). to landfills. - Energy waste streams.
3. Residual waste is sent to recovery from
landfill or energy recovery. residual waste.
Bioremedia Use of 1. Application of specific - Natural - Limited
tion microorganis microorganisms to degradation of effectiveness on
ms to contaminated waste sites. organic certain
degrade 2. Microorganisms break down contaminants. - contaminants. -
contaminants organic pollutants into Cost-effective Requires careful
harmless byproducts. compared to monitoring and
3. Enhanced by controlling traditional management. -
environmental conditions remediation Slow process
(temperature, moisture, pH). methods. - Minimal compared to
environmental other
disturbance. remediation
methods.
Fermentati Biological 1. Organic waste is placed in a - Produces valuable - Requires
on breakdown controlled environment with byproducts such as controlled
of organic
microorganisms. organic acids and environments
waste 2. Microorganisms break down gases. - Reduces and monitoring. -
organic matter into simpler waste volume and Odor issues if not
compounds such as organic odor. - Can be used managed
acids and gases. for composting or properly. -
3. This process typically occurs energy production. Limited to organic
in the absence of oxygen waste.
(anaerobic fermentation) or in
its presence (aerobic
fermentation).
Biomethana Production of 1. Organic waste is placed in a - Generates biogas - High initial
tion methane gas sealed digester tank. for energy investment costs.
from organic 2. Anaerobic bacteria break production. - - Requires skilled
waste down organic matter, Reduces organic operation and
producing biogas (methane waste volume and maintenance. -
and carbon dioxide). odor. - Provides Limited to organic
waste.
3. Biogas is collected and can nutrient-rich sludge

be used for electricity for agricultural use.
generation or heating.
4. Residual sludge can be used
as fertilizer.
Important Terms-
Post-consumer waste
Waste collected after a consumer has disposed of it, for example sweet wrappers or packaging from small
electronic goods such as mobile phones or MP3 players.
Conspicuous and Responsible Consumption
Conspicuous consumption is the practice of purchasing goods or services to publicly display wealth rather
than to cover basic needs.
Polluter Pays Principle
The 'polluter pays' principle is the commonly accepted practice that those who produce pollution should
bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment.
Cogeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the on-site generation of electricity from waste heat.
When generating electricity from coal, natural gas or nuclear power only a fraction of the actual energy
content released during combustion is converted into electricity.
4.3 Environmental Pollution: Types of Environmental Pollution – Sources and Impacts

Pollution
1. Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
2. These harmful materials are called pollutants. Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash.
3. They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories.
4. Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and land.
Types of Pollution- The three major types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution
Point and Non-Point Sources of Pollution
1. Point-source pollution is easy to identify. As the name suggests, it comes from a single place.
2. Nonpoint-source pollution is harder to identify and harder to address. It is pollution that comes from
many places, all at once.
1. Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of unwanted substances in the air. They are particulate matter, aerosols,
harmful gases, noise and radio-active particles which degrade the quality of air.
Air Pollution- Sources/Reasons
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical, or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by
harmful gases, dust, and smoke which affects plants, animals, and humans drastically.
Stubble Burning
Stubble (parali) burning is the act of setting fire to crop residue to remove them from the field to sow the
next crop. In order to plant next winter crop (Rabi crop), farmers in Haryana and Punjab have to move in a
very short interval and if they are late, due to short winters these days, they might face considerable losses.
Therefore, burning is the cheapest and fastest way to get rid of the stubble.
Black Carbon (BC)
1. Black carbon (BC) is the result of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass.
2. It consists of elemental carbon in several forms.
3. Black carbon warms the atmosphere due to the direct absorption of incoming solar radiation and by
reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice.
Black Carbon (BC) vs Brown Carbon (BrC)
Black Carbon (BC), emitted mainly by high-temperature combustion processes (diesel engines, etc.) and
Brown Carbon (BrC), emitted mainly by biomass combustion are the two most important light absorbing
substances in the atmospheric aerosol.
Air Pollution- Impact

Ozone Layer Depletion

1. Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
2. It is caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from
industry and other human activities.
3. The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica.
Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon
dioxide (CO. 2) from the atmosphere. The main cause of ocean acidification is the burning of fossil fuels.
Major Air Description Impact
Pollutant
Particulate Consists of tiny particles suspended in the - Contributes to smog formation.
Matter air, including dust, soot, and smoke. Can - Damages vegetation.
cause respiratory and cardiovascular - Increased healthcare costs due to
problems. respiratory illnesses.
Nitrogen Produced by combustion processes, mainly - Contributes to acid rain.
Dioxide from vehicles and industrial activities. - Impairs visibility.
Contributes to respiratory issues and smog - Damage to infrastructure due to acid rain.
formation.
Sulfur Emitted from industrial processes and - Contributes to acid rain.
Dioxide burning of fossil fuels. Causes respiratory - Harms aquatic life.
issues, acid rain, and damages vegetation. - Decreased agricultural productivity due to
soil acidification.
Carbon Generated by incomplete combustion of - Contributes to the formation of ground-
Monoxide carbon-based fuels. Can cause headaches, level ozone.
dizziness, and even death in high - Loss of productivity due to health issues.
concentrations.
Ozone Forms from chemical reactions between - Damages crops and forests.
pollutants in the presence of sunlight. Can - Harms wildlife.
cause respiratory problems and harm - Reduced outdoor recreational activities.
vegetation.
Lead Emitted from industrial processes, - Impairs cognitive function, especially in
particularly metal smelting and vehicle children.
exhausts. Can lead to neurological and - Affects reproductive health.
developmental issues. - Damages ecosystems and biodiversity.
Mercury Released from coal combustion, mining, - Bioaccumulates in aquatic organisms,
and waste incineration. Accumulates in the posing risks to human health.
food chain, leading to neurological and - Damages ecosystems and wildlife.
developmental issues. - Affects reproductive health.
Volatile Emitted from vehicles, industrial - Contributes to the formation of smog and
Organic processes, and solvents. Can lead to ground-level ozone.
Compounds respiratory issues and contribute to the - Causes respiratory problems.
(VOCs) formation of ground-level ozone. - Contributes to the greenhouse effect and
global warming.
Government Initiatives to Combat Air Pollution-

1. Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards and sector-specific emission and effluent
standards for industries;
2. Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air quality;
3. Introduction of cleaner gaseous fuels like CNG, LPG etc and ethanol blending;
4. Launching of National Air Quality Index (AQI);
5. Leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI standards for vehicles by 1st April 2020;
6. Banning of burning of biomass;
7. Promotion of public transport network;
8. Pollution Under Control Certificate;
9. Issuance of directions under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
10. Installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by 17 highly polluting industrial sectors;
11. Regulating the bursting of pollution-emitting crackers;
12. Notification of graded response action plan for Delhi identifying source wise actions for various levels
of air pollution, etc.
Air Quality Index
In India, AQI calculations include the eight pollutants for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) have been set.
National Clean Air Program- NCAP:

1. It was launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019.
2. It is the first-ever effort in the country to frame a national framework for air quality management with a
time-bound reduction target.
3. It seeks to cut the concentration of coarse (particulate matter of diameter 10 micrometer or less,
or PM10) and fine particles (particulate matter of diameter 2.5 micrometer or less, or PM2.5) by at least
20% in the next five years, with 2017 as the base year for comparison.
4. The plan includes 102 non-attainment cities, across 23 states and Union territories, which were identified
by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on the basis of their ambient air quality data between 2011
and 2015.
5. Non-attainment cities: These are those that have fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) for over five years.
Air Pollution- Way forward

WHO’s 4 Pillar Strategy:
WHO adopted a resolution (2015) to address the adverse health effects of air pollution. There is a need to
adhere to a roadmap highlighted under this.
This 4-pillar strategy calls for an enhanced global response to the adverse health effects of air pollution.
Those four pillars are:
1. Expanding the knowledge base
2. Monitoring and reporting
3. Global leadership and coordination
4. Institutional capacity strengthening
Pollution Management Technology- Electrostatic Precipitator
Originally designed for recovery of valuable industrial-process materials, electrostatic precipitators are
used for air pollution control, particularly for removing particles from waste gases at industrial facilities
and power-generating stations.
2. Water Pollution
1. Water pollution occurs when harmful substances—often chemicals or microorganisms—
contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality
and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.
2. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it, causing water
pollution.
Chemical Oxygen Demand

1. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) analysis is a measurement of the oxygen-depletion capacity of a water
sample contaminated with organic waste matter.
2. Specifically, it measures the equivalent amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize organic
compounds in water.
Biological Oxygen Demand
Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms to
break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period.
Problems related to Water Resources

India is among the world’s most water-stressed countries. In 1950, India had 3,000–4,000 cubic meters of
water per person. Today, this has fallen to around 1,000 cubic meters, largely due to population growth.
China, by contrast, has twice the amount of water per person- about 2,000 cubic meters. - World Bank
Yamuna Water Pollution

Recently, the Supreme Court (SC) has taken suo motu cognizance of pollution of water bodies by untreated
sewage.
The SC was hearing an urgent petition filed by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB), to immediately stop Haryana from
discharging pollutants into the Yamuna River.
Ganga Water Pollution

The main causes of water pollution in the Ganga River are the disposal of human sewage and animal waste,
increasing population density, and disposal of industrial waste into the river.
Diseases Associated with Groundwater Pollution:

1. Black Foot Disease:
Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to "Black Foot Disease," characterized by hyperpigmentation
and hyperkeratosis of the feet, and sometimes hands, due to damage to blood vessels and nerves.
2. Knock-Knee Syndrome:
Chronic exposure to arsenic can also cause "Knock-Knee Syndrome," marked by outward bending of
the legs from the knees.
3. Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome):
Excessive nitrate levels in drinking water can result in "Methemoglobinemia," also known as "Blue
Baby Syndrome." Nitrate reacts with hemoglobin, forming non-functional methemoglobin, which
hinders oxygen transport in the bloodstream, leading to cyanosis (blue discoloration) of the skin,
particularly dangerous for infants.
4. Minamata Disease:
Mercury in water can cause "Minamata Disease," a neurological syndrome characterized by sensory
disturbances, ataxia, muscle weakness, and in severe cases, paralysis and death.
5. Itai-Itai Disease:
Itai-Itai Disease is caused by cadmium poisoning due to industrial pollution from mining activities.
Symptoms include severe pain in the bones and joints, osteomalacia (softening of bones), fractures,
anemia, and kidney damage.
Oil Spill- Land and Water Pollution

An oil spill refers to any uncontrolled release of crude oil, gasoline, fuels, or other oil by-products into the
environment.
Oil spills can pollute land, air, or water, though it is mostly used for oceanic oil spills.
They have become a major environmental problem, chiefly as a result of intensified petroleum exploration
and production on continental shelves and the transport of large amounts of oils in vessels.
Cause:
They have become a major environmental problem, chiefly as a result of intensified petroleum exploration
and production on continental shelves and the transport of large amounts of oils in vessels.
Environmental Impacts
1. Oil on ocean surfaces is harmful to many forms of aquatic life because it prevents sufficient amounts
of sunlight from penetrating the surface, and it also reduces the level of dissolved oxygen.
2. Crude oil ruins the insulating and waterproofing properties of feathers and fur of birds, and thus oil-
coated birds and marine mammals may die from hypothermia (decrease in body temperature to
below-normal levels).
3. Moreover, ingested oil can be toxic to affected animals, and damage their habitat and reproductive
rate.
4. Saltwater marshes and mangroves frequently suffer from oil spills.
5. Experts say that despite best efforts, generally less than 10% of oil spilled in incidents like these is
successfully cleaned up.
Economic Impacts:
If beaches and populated shorelines are fouled, tourism and commerce may be severely affected.
The power plants and other utilities that depend on drawing or discharging sea water are severely affected
by oil spills.
Major oil spills are frequently followed by the immediate suspension of commercial fishing.
Cleanup of Oil Spill:
1. Containment Booms: Floating barriers, called booms are used to restrict the spread of oil and to allow
for its recovery, removal, or dispersal.
2. Skimmers: They are devices used for physically separating spilled oil from the water’s surface.
3. Sorbents: Various sorbents (e.g., straw, volcanic ash, and shavings of polyester-derived plastic) that
absorb the oil from the water are used.
4. Dispersing agents: These are chemicals that contain surfactants, or compounds that act to break liquid
substances such as oil into small droplets. They accelerate its natural dispersion into the sea.
5. Biological agents: Nutrients, enzymes, or microorganisms such as Alcanivorax bacteria
or Methylocella silvestris that increase the rate at which natural biodegradation of oil occurs are
added.
Bioremediation:
1. It can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms or their enzymes to remove and
or neutralize contaminants within the environment to their original condition.
2. In the marine ecosystem, deep sea hydrocarbonoclastic (ability to degrade hydrocarbon) microbial
consortium plays an important role in breaking down oil in the event of a spill.
3. The microbial community serves as energetic primary degraders of a complex mixture of petroleum
hydrocarbons into various aldehydes, ketones and acidic metabolites.
4. These hydrocarbon degrading bacteria don’t depend on hydrocarbons for survival, but have a
metabolic mechanism where they use petroleum products as carbon and energy source and thus, help
cleaning up oil spills.
5. The complete breakdown and degradation of crude oil is achievable using wheat bran marine bacterial
consortia (which are low-cost non-toxic agro-residues) in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Major Oil Spills
1. In 2020, Russia declared a state of emergency in its Krasnoyarsk Region after a power plant fuel
leaked causing 20,000 tonnes of diesel oil to escape into the Ambarnaya River.
2. In 2010, the Deep-Water Horizon incident off the Gulf of Mexico saw nearly 400,000 tonnes of oil spill,
resulting in the death of thousands of species ranging from plankton to dolphins
3. In 1978, a large crude oil carrier ran aground off the coast of Brittany, France, which leaked nearly 70
million gallons of oil into the sea, killing millions of invertebrates and an estimated 20,000 birds.
Water Pollution- Measures

The steps taken by the Government to address the issues of water pollution include the following: -
1. Preparation of action plan for sewage management and restoration of water quality in aquatic
resources by State Governments;
2. Installation of Online Effluent Monitoring System to check the discharge of effluent directly into the
rivers and water bodies;
3. Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of water quality;
4. Action to comply with effluent standards is taken by SPCBs / PCCs to improve the water quality of the
rivers;
5. Financial assistance for installation of Common Effluent Treatment Plants for cluster of Small-Scale
Industrial units;
6. Issuance of directions for implementation of Zero Liquid Discharge;
7. Issuance of directions under Section 5 of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to industries and under
Section 18(1)(b) of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
8. Implementation of National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) and National Wetland Conservation
Programme (NWCP) for conservation and management of identified lakes and wetlands in the
country which have been merged in February, 2013 into an integrated scheme of National Plan for
Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) to undertake various conservation activities including
interception, diversion and treatment of waste water, pollution abatement, lake beautification,
biodiversity conservation, education and awareness creation, community participation etc.
9. Grey water management under Jal Jeevan Mission.
Jal Jeevan Mission:

The Government of India has restructured and incorporated (in 2019) the ongoing National Rural
Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) into the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), with the goal of providing
Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTC) to every rural household by 2024, under the initiative of
"Har Ghar Nal Se Jal" (HGNSJ).
The following kinds of works/ schemes are proposed to be taken up under JJM:
1. In-village water supply (PWS- Protected Water Supply) infrastructure for tap water connection to
every household;
2. Reliable drinking water source development/ augmentation of existing sources;
3. Transfer of water (multi-village scheme; where quantity & quality issues are there in the local
water sources);
4. Technological intervention for treatment to make water potable (where water quality is an issue,
but quantity is sufficient);
5. Retrofitting of completed and ongoing piped water supply schemes to provide FHTC and raise the
service level;
6. Grey water management;
7. Capacity building of various stakeholders and support activities to facilitate the implementation.
Nodal Ministry: Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation under the Jal Shakti Ministry.
Strategy:
1. This Mission focus on integrated demand and supply side management of water at the local level,
including creation of local infrastructure for source sustainability like rainwater harvesting,
groundwater recharge and management of household wastewater for reuse in agriculture.
2. The Mission will converge with other Central and State Government Schemes to achieve its objectives
of sustainable water supply management across the country.
Funding Pattern:
1. 50:50 between Centre and States
2. 90:10 for Himalayan and North-Eastern States.
3. In case of UTs, 100% funding is provided by the Central government.
Coastal Regulation Zone-

The coastal areas of seas, bays, creeks, rivers, and backwaters which get influenced by tides up to 500 m
from the high tide line (HTL) and the land between the low tide line (LTL) and the high tide line have been
declared as coastal regulation zone (CRZ) in 1991.
The coastal regulation zones have been declared by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
change under the Environment Protection Act 1986.
While the CRZ Rules are made by the Union environment ministry, implementation is to be ensured by
state governments through their Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
Shailesh Nayak Committee Report on Coastal Regulation Zone-

1. Shailesh Nayak committee was constituted in June 2014, and it submitted its report in January 2015.
2. The committee recommended relaxation on the terms set up by the CRZ 2011 notification. The major
objective behind the recommendations was to boost tourism, port construction and real estate.
3. The committee suggested diluting the regulatory powers of the Central Government in the coastal
areas. Except for those activities which require environmental clearances all other activity should fall
under the ambit of state and local planning bodies.
Benefits:
1. Economic Growth: The proposed CRZ Notification, 2018 will lead to enhanced activities in the coastal
regions thereby promoting economic growth while also conserving the coastal regions.
2. Boost to Tourism and Employment: It will result in significant employment generation and in better
living standard and add value to the economy of India.
3. Boost to Conservation Efforts: The new notification is expected to rejuvenate the coastal areas while
reducing their vulnerabilities.
4. Boost to Housing: De-freezing FSI Norms will add to creating additional opportunities for affordable
housing. This will benefit not only the housing sector but the people looking for shelter.
Concerns raised for CRZ 2019 notification-
1. Non-inclusion of effect of climate change on coastal areas making coastal ecology vulnerable to raising
sea level and enhances cyclone intensity
2. There shall be well demarcated hazard line to act as buffer for relaxed provisions for economic
development
3. Allowing construction and tourism facilities to boost employment and local economy could damage
fragile coastal ecology in absence of strong environmental safeguards
4. Excessive beach lighting is confusing and harmful to some marine species, including migrating turtles
5. Reduction of CRZ to 50m from hazard lines may result in imminent floods
6. Local communities including fisherman could face displacement challenge on account of commercial
pressure
7. There is apprehension that notification could affect customary land use and traditional land rights.
Grey Water and Black Water

Gray water is all of the wastewater that drains from your shower and kitchen and bathroom sinks. Gray
water has some bacteria but it can be filtered and reused in gardens or lawns, if done properly. Black
water contains human waste and is unsafe. It must be stored in its own tank and disposed of very carefully.
Sewage Treatment Plants

Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from municipal wastewater, containing mainly
household sewage plus some industrial wastewater. Physical, chemical, and biological processes are used to
remove contaminants and produce treated wastewater that is safe enough for release into the
environment.
Bio-Toilets
Bio toilet is a decomposition mechanized toilet system which decomposes human excretory waste in the
digester tank using specific high graded bacteria (aerobic or anaerobic) further converting it into methane
gas and water.
Schemes and Initiatives to deal with Water Pollution in India:

1. Namami Gange Program
1. Namami Gange Program is a flagship program and is an Integrated Conservation Mission of River
Ganga. (2014)
2. It is to accomplish the twin objectives:
i. Effective abatement of pollution
ii. Conservation and rejuvenation.
3. It is being operated under the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti.
4. The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state
counterpart organizations i.e., State Program Management Groups (SPMGs).
The main pillars of the program are:
A. Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure & Industrial Effluent Monitoring
B. River-Front Development & River-Surface Cleaning
C. Bio-Diversity and Afforestation
D. Public Awareness
2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
1. Launched on 2nd October, 2014 to accelerate the efforts to achieve universal sanitation coverage and to
focus on sanitation.
2. The aim is to achieve a clean and open defecation free (ODF) India.
3. Implemented by the Ministry of Jal Shakti (SBM- R), Ministry of Urban Development (SBM-U)
4. The fund sharing pattern between the Centre and States will be 90:10 for North-Eastern States and
Himalayan States and UT of J&K; 60:40 for other States; and 100:0 for other Union Territories, for all the
components.
Important Protocols under SBM-
ODF, ODF+ and ODF++ Protocol:
Norms under ODF:
No visible faeces shall be found in the environment and every household, as well as public/community
institutions, should be using safe technology option for disposal of faeces.
Norms under ODF+:
Not a single person should be defecating and/or urinating in open. All community and public toilets should
be properly maintained and cleaned.
Norms under ODF++: Proper treatment and management of faecal sludge/septage and sewage is safely
managed and treated. There should be no discharge or dumping of untreated faecal sludge/septage and
sewage in drains, water bodies or open areas.
Water + Protocol:
1. It is part of Swachh Bharat Mission –Urban.
2. The Water PLUS protocol aims to provide a guideline for cities and towns to ensure that no untreated
wastewater is released into the environment thereby enabling sustainability of the sanitation value
chain.
3. It is designed to ensure that no untreated wastewater is discharged into the open environment or
water bodies.
Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0

1. The second phase will be implemented on a mission mode between 2020-21 and 2024-25.
2. The second phase will focus on Open Defecation Free Plus (ODF Plus), which includes ODF sustainability
and solid and liquid waste management (SLWM).
3. The ODF Plus program will converge with MGNREGA, especially for grey water management, and will
complement the newly launched Jal Jeevan Mission.
4. The program will also work towards ensuring that no one is left behind and everyone uses a toilet.
5. The fund sharing pattern between the Centre and States will be 90:10 for North-Eastern States and
Himalayan States and UT of J&K; 60:40 for other States; and 100:0 for other Union Territories, for all the
components.
Swachh Survekshan-
1. Swachh Survekshan is a ranking exercise taken up by the Government of India to assess rural and
urban areas for their levels of cleanliness and active implementation of Swachhata mission initiatives.
2. The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India takes up the Swachh Survekshan in urban
areas and the Ministry of Jal Shakti in rural areas.
3. The Quality Council of India (QCI) has been commissioned the responsibility of carrying out the
assessment.
Swachh Survekshan 2023 Awards:
1. Conducted by MoHUA since 2016, it is the world's largest urban sanitation and cleanliness survey.
It promotes healthy competition among cities to improve service delivery and cleanliness.
2. Ranking of Cities: Indore and Surat jointly received the cleanest city title. This marks the first
instance of two cities sharing the top prize since 2016. Navi Mumbai secured the third cleanest city
position.
3. Key Parameters in Evaluation: Factors considered include door-to-door waste collection, source
segregation, cleanliness of public areas, clean water bodies, and citizens' feedback.
4. Cleanest State Award: Maharashtra claimed the cleanest state award, followed by Madhya
Pradesh. Maharashtra achieved 89.24% door-to-door waste collection and 67.76% source
segregation.
5. Bottom Five States: Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Nagaland, and Tripura ranked as the
bottom five states in cleanliness.
6. Other Specialized Awards: Chandigarh received the Safaimitra Surakshit Shehar award for safety
standards for sanitation workers. Varanasi was recognized as the cleanest Ganga town, while
Sasvad in Maharashtra earned the cleanest city title among those with a population below 1 lakh.
Mhow Cantonment was declared the cleanest cantonment in the country.
3. Smart Cities Mission – Government of India

1. GoI launched the 100 smart cities mission in 2015.
2. The objective is to integrate city functions, utilize scarce resources more efficiently, and improve the
quality of life of citizens.
3. To improve safety and security
4. To improve the efficiencies of municipal services.
5. The use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is at the core of enhancing the city’s
liveability, workability, and sustainability.
6. The Ministry of Urban Development has identified 24 key areas that cities must address in their
‘smart cities’ plan.
7. Of these 24 key areas, 3 are directly related to water and 7 are indirectly related to water – Smart-
metre management, leakage identification, preventive maintenance, and water quality modeling.
8. Smart Cities Mission is one of the mechanisms that will help operationalize the nationwide
implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) priorities like poverty alleviation,
employment, and other basic services. Know in detail about the Sustainable Development Goals on
the linked page.
Smart Cities Mission- Solid Waste Management

The purpose of the Smart Cities Mission is to drive economic growth and improve the quality of life of
people by enabling local area development and harnessing technology, especially technology that leads
to Smart outcomes.
Kochi Smart City
The Kochi module reflects the best practices on source segregation of waste as exemplified by the Kochi
Municipal Corporation. The case study shows how source segregation, composting, stringent legal system
coupled with multi-stakeholder participation leads to effective waste managemnet in urban places which
are devoid of adequate landfill spaces.
Panaji Model
The Panaji module explains how the vision of a city for attaining zero landfilling has been successfully
translated into reality by the Corporation of the City of Panaji.
The entire city segregates waste into a minimum of 6 fractions. The dry waste is further segregated into
18-20 fractions for recycling, organic waste is composted and dry waste rejects sent for co-preoccessing
among others good practices.
One vision, stable leadership, repeated and targeted campaigns for different user groups and continuous
innovation to overcome the challengesof new waste streams have helped Panaji achieve this success.
The Gorai module, Dharavi

It details out the need for scientific closure of a dumpsite by the Municipal Corporation of Greater
Mumbai. It captures briefly the technical process involved with a special focus on the communities
perspective.
The module showcases the overall improvement in the standards of living, local economy, environment,
and the biodiversity of the region before and after the scientific closure.
Vijayawada Case Study
The Vijayawada Municipal Corporation has showcased the simple and effective management of organic
waste through decentralized vermicomposting facilities. The module details out the step-by-step guide to
vermicomposting technique - its operation, maintenance, pre and post care. It also highlights the positive
outcomes of vermicomposting for replication by other urban local bodies.
Notable Progress in Bhopal Smart City Project
1. Establishment of Integrated Command and Control Centre – to increase the safety and security of
its people.
2. Establishment of a Cloud-based disaster recovery center.
Smart Cities Mission – Challenges

1. A lot of progress is desired in creating energy-efficient and green buildings.
2. Making Urban Bodies self-reliant
3. The share of public transport is declining, it needs to be increased to meet the needs of increasing
urbanization.
4. Rising air pollution, increase in road congestion due to an increase in urbanization.
3. Soil Pollution- Sources

Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic substances. It is a
serious environmental concern since it harbors many health hazards.
For example, exposure to soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of contracting
leukemia.
Some common soil pollutants are:
1. Lead
2. Arsenic
3. Nickel
4. Mercury
5. Copper
6. Zinc
7. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Causes of Soil Pollution-

Causes of Soil Impact
Pollution
Industrial Contamination of soil with heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins, leading to reduced soil
Waste fertility, plant growth inhibition, and groundwater contamination.
Agricultural Overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides can lead to soil degradation, loss of soil
Activities biodiversity, and contamination of food crops, posing health risks to humans and animals.
Improper Dumping of solid waste, including plastic, electronic waste, and household garbage, can
Waste lead to soil degradation, leaching of pollutants into the soil, and the spread of diseases
Disposal through soil contamination.
Mining Excavation and extraction activities can disturb soil structure, release heavy metals and
Activities toxins into the soil, and cause soil erosion and land degradation, disrupting ecosystems
and habitats.
Urbanization Soil compaction, removal of vegetation, and soil sealing during urban development can
and lead to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and reduced water infiltration, affecting soil
Construction quality and ecosystem services.
Deforestation Removal of trees and vegetation disrupts soil stability, increases soil erosion, and reduces
soil organic matter content, leading to loss of soil nutrients, decreased water retention
capacity, and increased susceptibility to desertification.
Impact of Soil Pollution

Environmental Impact Human Health Impact
1. Soil Degradation: Soil pollution can lead to the 1. Health Risks: Contaminated soil can pose serious
degradation of soil quality, reducing its fertility and health risks to humans. For instance, exposure to
ability to support plant growth. For example, the pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture can
accumulation of heavy metals like lead and lead to respiratory problems and neurological
cadmium from industrial activities can render soil disorders. Similarly, ingestion of crops grown in
unsuitable for agriculture. contaminated soil, such as vegetables with high
levels of arsenic, can increase the risk of cancer.
2. Water Pollution: Pollutants in the soil can leach 2. Food Contamination: Soil pollution can
into groundwater and surface water, contaminate crops grown in polluted areas. For
contaminating water sources. For example, runoff instance, soil contaminated with industrial
from agricultural fields treated with fertilizers and chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can
pesticides can carry nitrogen and phosphorus into lead to the accumulation of toxins in crops such as
nearby water bodies, leading to eutrophication rice and wheat. Consumption of contaminated food
and algal blooms. can result in gastrointestinal illnesses and long-term
health effects.
3. Ecosystem Disruption: Soil pollution can disrupt 3. Development of Diseases: Exposure to pollutants
ecosystems by altering soil chemistry and in the soil can increase the risk of developing various
microbial communities. For example, the diseases and health conditions. For instance,
discharge of untreated wastewater containing exposure to soil contaminated with asbestos fibers
heavy metals into soil can disrupt soil microbial from construction materials can lead to respiratory
activity and reduce biodiversity. This, in turn, can diseases such as asbestosis and lung cancer.
affect plant growth and the availability of nutrients
for other organisms.
4. Air Pollution: Certain soil pollutants, such as 4. Occupational Hazards: Individuals working in
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate industries or occupations that involve exposure to
matter, can volatilize into the air, contributing to contaminated soil may face increased health risks.
air pollution. For example, contaminated soil at For instance, workers in mining and excavation
industrial sites can release VOCs like benzene and activities may inhale dust particles containing heavy
toluene into the air through volatilization and metals like lead and mercury, leading to respiratory
evaporation, leading to poor air quality in problems and neurological disorders.
surrounding areas.
5. Contamination of Wildlife: Soil pollution can 5. Soil and Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated soil
negatively impact wildlife populations by and water can harbor pathogens and disease-
contaminating their habitats and food sources. For causing microorganisms, increasing the risk of soil-
example, soil contaminated with pesticides and transmitted and waterborne diseases among
herbicides can harm insect populations that serve human populations. For instance, soil contaminated
as food sources for birds and other animals. This with fecal matter from untreated sewage can
can lead to a decline in wildlife populations and contain pathogens such as Escherichia coli (E. coli)
disrupt ecological balance within ecosystems. and Salmonella, leading to gastrointestinal
infections and diarrheal diseases.
Solutions:
IPCC’s special report on land and climate change also evaluated some solutions to use land as a tool against
global warming:
1. There are two types of solutions: Those with immediate impact such as conservation of wetlands,
rangelands and mangroves which absorb huge stocks of GHGs like CO2 from the atmosphere. There are
other solutions that are more long-term: Planting of trees, reforestation and afforestation.
2. Avoiding, reducing and reversing desertification would enhance soil fertility and increase carbon storage
in soils and biomass while benefiting agricultural productivity and food security. Prevention
of desertification is, however, preferable to attempts to restore degraded land.
3. Over 30% of food is wasted or lost globally, which contributes to 10% of total GHG emissions from human
activities. A number of response options such as increased food productivity, dietary choices and food
losses and waste reduction can reduce the demand for land conversion. This could free land and create
opportunities for enhanced implementation of other strategies listed here.
4. Creation of windbreaks through afforestation, tree planting and ecosystem restoration programmes that
can function as “green walls” and “green dams” that reduce dust and sandstorms and sand dune
movement.
Soil Pollution- Other Measures
1. The contaminated soil can be excavated and transported to a remote disposal site.
2. Thermal remediation of contaminated soil, which involves heating up the soil in order to vaporize the
volatile toxic pollutants.
3. Soil decontamination via surfactant leaching.
Fly Ash
Fly ash is the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal and is transported
from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
1. Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating plants.
2. Typically, coal is pulverized and blown with air into the boiler's combustion chamber where it
immediately ignites, generating heat and producing a molten mineral residue.
Fly Ash
Composition Fly ash consists of fine particles that are produced as a byproduct of burning pulverized
coal in electric power generation plants.
Advantages - Utilization in construction materials such as concrete and bricks, reducing the need for
virgin materials.
- Improves workability and durability of concrete.
- Reduces greenhouse gas emissions when used as a partial replacement for cement in
concrete production.
Disadvantages - Contains trace amounts of heavy metals and other harmful substances, posing
potential environmental and health risks if not properly managed.
- May require appropriate handling and disposal methods to prevent contamination of
soil and water
Salinisation- Land Pollution

Salinisation refers to increasing salt content within soils. Natural processes cause soil salt content
fluctuations, a phenomenon known as 'primary salinity'
Concern is centered around 'secondary salinity', an anthropogenic exacerbation of natural soil salinity levels.
Curing saline soil for agriculture:
1. Soil washing- Stagnate water and flush it out, but if the water table is affected this might not yield
result.
2. Chemical treatment- Use of Gypsum to counter salinity
3. Isolating the canal water by building side walls.
4. Proper choice of agricultural practices and crops.
5. Discourage borewell instead do rain water harvesting using pits.
Soil Degradation
1. Globally, food security depends on the factor whether or not soils are in good condition to produce crops.
According to UN estimates, about 12 million hectares of farmland a year get seriously degraded.
2. Soils get damaged due to many reasons. Such reasons include erosion, overgrazing, overexposure to
pollutants, monoculture planting, soil compaction, land-use conversion and many more.
3. Nowadays, a wide range of techniques of soil conservation and restoration exist, from no-till agriculture
to crop rotation to water-retention through terrace-building.
Noice Pollution
Noise pollution refers to the excessive or disturbing noise that may harm the activity or balance of human
or animal life.
Noise pollution is an environmental issue that affects both urban and rural areas, arising from various
sources such as traffic, industrial activities, construction, and social events.
Sources of Noise Pollution:
1. Transportation: Road traffic, aircraft, railways, and maritime transport contribute significantly to noise
pollution, especially in urban areas.
2. Industrial Activities: Machinery, equipment, and processes in industries produce noise pollution,
affecting workers and nearby residents.
3. Construction: Construction activities such as drilling, hammering, and heavy machinery operation
generate considerable noise pollution, often disturbing nearby communities.
4. Social Events: Loud music from parties, concerts, festivals, and public gatherings can contribute to noise
pollution, particularly during nighttime hours.
Effects of Noise Pollution:
1. Health Impacts: Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise can lead to various health issues, including
hearing impairment, stress, hypertension, sleep disturbances, and cardiovascular diseases.
2. Environmental Consequences: Noise pollution disrupts wildlife habitats, affecting animal
communication, breeding, and survival. It also contributes to soil erosion and disrupts ecosystem
balance.
3. Social and Economic Disruption: Noise pollution can lead to annoyance, irritation, and decreased quality
of life for affected individuals. It may also impact productivity, learning, and concentration in workplaces
and educational institutions.
Initiatives:
1. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
The CPCB is mandated to track noise levels, set standards as well as ensure, via their state units, that sources
of excessive noise are controlled. The agency has a manual monitoring system where sensors are installed
in major cities and few cities have the facility to track noise levels in real time.
2. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Section 2 (a) of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 includes noise in the definition of ‘air
pollution’. Noise emanating from industry is regulated by State Pollution Control Boards / Pollution Control
Committees (SPCBs / PCCs) for states / Union territories under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981.
3. Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
Noise pollution and its sources are regulated under The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
under The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Act has defined ambient acceptable noise levels, silence
zones, restrictions on the use of loudspeakers, horns, sound-emitting construction equipment, and bursting
of crackers. It has also laid down the responsibility for enforcement. At present, violation of noise pollution
rules is a criminal offence punishable under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
4. Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986
Noise standards for motor vehicles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, diesel generators and certain types of
construction equipment are prescribed under the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
5. National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN)
70 noise monitoring stations under the NANMN was established in 2011, across seven cities.
6. Silence zones:
These are declared by the state governments >> around hospitals, educational institutions and courts.
7. Green crackers: Green crackers are dubbed as ‘eco-friendly’ crackers and are known to cause less air and
noise pollution as compared to traditional firecrackers. These crackers were first designed by the National
Environmental and Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), under the aegis of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) in 2018.
Judicial initiatives:
Revising fines for violations of noise pollution norms:
The National Green Tribunal in 2019, while hearing a case related to noise pollution, had asked the Central
Pollution Control Board to look at revising fines for violations of noise pollution norms.
Ban on loudspeakers during night time at public places:
The Supreme Court in 2005 banned the use of loudspeakers and music systems between 10 pm to 6 am
(except in the cases of public emergencies) at public places citing serious effects of noise pollution on
health of the people living in such areas.
Use of loudspeaker – not a fundamental right:
In 2016, the Bombay High Court ruled that the use of loudspeaker was not a fundamental right.
The Bombay High Court observed that no religion or sect could claim that the right to use a loudspeaker
or a public address system was a fundamental right conferred by Article 25 of the Constitution of India.
4.4 Pollution Control, Regulation and Alternatives: Recent projects, acts and initiatives to reduce
Environmental Pollution in India
India adopted a multi-dimensional approach towards pollution control, encompassing regulatory, technical,
and community-based interventions aimed at safeguarding public health and the environment
Air Pollution Control Measures:
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP):
The NCAP, launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), targets
improving air quality in 131 cities, including non-attainment cities and million-plus cities, across 24 states.
City-specific clean air action plans have been developed, focusing on addressing sources of pollution like soil
and road dust, vehicles, domestic fuel, MSW burning, construction material, and industries. These plans have
short, medium, and long-term actions to mitigate pollution.
Measures for Vehicular Emissions:
Transitioning to Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) fuel standards and promoting the adoption of BS VI compliant
vehicles nationwide.
Implementing radio-frequency identity (RFID) toll collection systems to regulate commercial vehicle entry
and exit in urban areas, thereby reducing vehicular emissions.
Providing subsidies for electric vehicles (e-vehicles) under schemes like Faster Adoption and Manufacture of
(Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME-II) and encouraging the production and use of Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG)
through the Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative.
Control of Industrial Emissions:
Enforcing emission standards for industries, particularly thermal power plants, and banning the use of pet
coke and furnace oil as fuel in the National Capital Region (NCR) and other states.
Installation of Online Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (OCEMS) in red category industries to track
emissions and ensure compliance with regulatory standards.
Promoting the shift to cleaner fuels like compressed natural gas (CNG) and biomass in industrial operations
to reduce pollution levels.
Addressing Stubble Burning:
Implementing subsidy schemes to incentivize the adoption of machinery for crop residue management and
the establishment of custom hiring centers (CHCs) in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Providing financial assistance for setting up paddy straw-based pelletization and torrefaction plants to utilize
crop residues as a source of energy and prevent open burning.
Issuing guidelines and directions for the proper management of stubble burning incidents, including
promoting the use of paddy straw-based briquettes for cremation purposes and encouraging the adoption
of alternative agricultural practices.
Monitoring and Enforcement:
Establishing a comprehensive air quality monitoring network with over 1400 ambient air quality monitoring
stations across the country.
Regularly monitoring air quality parameters and disseminating information to the public through the
National Air Quality Index (AQI) and daily air quality bulletins.
Strengthening enforcement mechanisms with the deployment of dedicated teams for on-ground
inspections, incognito checks, and stringent action against polluting activities.
Public Outreach and Media Engagement:
Conducting stakeholder consultations, review meetings, and awareness campaigns to engage the public,
government agencies, and urban local bodies in air quality management efforts.
Leveraging social media platforms and dedicated media corners on official websites to disseminate
information, address public grievances, and foster community participation in pollution control initiatives.
Regulatory Actions:
Issuing regulatory directives and guidelines for pollution control measures in various sectors, including
industry-specific emission standards and measures to curb vehicular emissions.
Formulating and implementing graded response action plans (GRAP) based on air quality index (AQI)
categories to trigger appropriate responses and interventions during periods of high pollution levels.
Technical Interventions:
Undertaking research projects and studies in collaboration with premier institutions to generate scientific
inputs and develop targeted interventions for improving air quality.
Implementing technical solutions such as dust suppressants, emission compliance testing procedures, and
continuous monitoring systems to mitigate pollution from various sources effectively.
Emergency Response System:
Establishing public grievance redressal portals and emergency response systems to address pollution-related
complaints and incidents promptly.
Deploying specialized teams and flying squads for rapid response, incognito inspections, and enforcement
actions to prevent and mitigate pollution episodes.
Other Actions:
Undertaking initiatives for waste management and disposal, including bio-mining and bio-remediation of
legacy waste sites to reduce open burning and landfill fires.
Providing funding and support for infrastructure development, road repair, and the adoption of cleaner
technologies in industries and urban areas to reduce pollution emissions.
In December 2023, the World Bank launched a comprehensive program to combat India's air pollution
crisis, focusing on the impact of ambient particulate matter (PM)2.5 pollution. The program includes:
Airshed management tools
State-wide Air Quality Action Plans
Regional Airshed Action Plan for the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP)
The World Bank and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) have also suggested
that focusing on air pollution could significantly reduce India's CO2 emissions, contributing to climate
change mitigation
Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards: This involves setting specific standards to assess
the quality of ambient air across the country. These standards serve as benchmarks for monitoring and
controlling air pollution.
Monitoring Network for Ambient Air Quality: Establishing a comprehensive monitoring network to assess
ambient air quality in different regions. This network helps in tracking pollution levels and identifying areas
that require immediate attention.
Promotion of Cleaner/Alternate Fuels: Encouraging the use of cleaner and alternate fuels such as
compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and ethanol blends. By promoting these fuels,
the government aims to reduce emissions from vehicles and other sources.
Introduction of National Air Quality Index (AQI): Launching the AQI to provide real-time information about
air quality to the public. The AQI helps individuals and authorities make informed decisions to protect public
health and reduce exposure to pollution.
Implementation of Bharat Stage IV (BS-IV) Norms: Adopting and implementing stringent emission norms
for vehicles. These norms aim to reduce vehicular emissions and improve air quality by mandating the use
of cleaner technologies and fuels.
Leapfrogging to BS-VI Fuel Standards: Transitioning directly from BS-IV to BS-VI fuel standards to further
reduce vehicular emissions. This move represents a significant leap in emission control measures and aligns
with global efforts to combat air pollution.
Taxation of Polluting Vehicles and Incentivizing Hybrid/Electric Vehicles: Introducing taxes and incentives
to discourage the use of polluting vehicles and promote the adoption of hybrid and electric vehicles. This
initiative aims to accelerate the transition towards cleaner transportation options.
Comprehensive Amendments to Waste Management Rules: Updating and strengthening waste
management rules to address various types of waste, including municipal solid waste, plastic waste,
hazardous waste, biomedical waste, and electronic waste. These amendments aim to improve waste
management practices and reduce environmental pollution.
Ban on Burning of Leaves, Biomass, Municipal Solid Waste: Enforcing bans on burning practices that
contribute to air pollution, such as burning of leaves, biomass, and municipal solid waste. These bans help
prevent the release of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere.
Promotion of Public Transport: Encouraging the use of public transportation modes such as buses, metros,
and e-rickshaws, as well as promoting carpooling. By reducing reliance on personal vehicles, this initiative
aims to decrease traffic congestion and air pollution.
Revision of Environmental Standards for Industries: Updating environmental standards and regulations for
industries to ensure compliance with pollution control measures. These revisions aim to reduce industrial
emissions and minimize environmental impact.
Coordination Meetings with State Governments: Facilitating regular coordination meetings between
central and state governments to address pollution-related issues effectively. These meetings enable
collaboration and joint efforts to tackle environmental challenges at the regional level.
Issuance of Directions under Environmental Acts: Providing regulatory directions and guidelines under
various environmental acts to enforce pollution control measures. These directions help ensure compliance
with environmental regulations and standards.
Installation of Online Continuous Monitoring Devices by Major Industries: Deploying real-time monitoring
devices in major industries to continuously track emissions and ensure compliance with pollution control
norms. These devices provide valuable data for regulatory authorities and industry stakeholders.
Water Pollution Control Measures-

Preventing pollution of water bodies is a crucial aspect of environmental conservation, and both the central
and state governments play important roles in this endeavor.
Water Quality Assessment:
In 2020, the Government of India conducted water quality assessments of lakes, ponds, and tanks in various
states. The analysis compared the data with Primary Water Quality Criteria for Outdoor Bathing to verify
compliance. Results showed that a significant number of monitored locations did not meet the outdoor
bathing criteria.
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (NWMP):

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and
Pollution Control Committees (PCCs), monitors the water quality of lakes, ponds, and tanks at numerous
locations across the country.
Regulation of Industrial Pollution:
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 regulates industrial pollution through a consent
mechanism managed by SPCBs and PCCs.
CPCB issues directives regarding the non-compliance status of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)
to ensure industrial compliance with pollution control measures.
Continuous Effluent Monitoring:
Industrial units are required to install Online Continuous Effluent Monitoring Systems (OCEMS) to obtain
real-time information on effluent quality. Non-compliant units identified through OCEMS are subject to
follow-up inspections and actions.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) have also established
a network of monitoring stations to track the quality of rivers and other bodies of water throughout the
country. In 2018, the PIB reported that 180 out of 351 polluted river stretches had improved water quality.
The PIB also notes that the government has framed policies to support state governments, including the
National Water Policy 2012, which states that water bodies should not be encroached upon or diverted.
Effluent Discharge Standards:
The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 stipulate general discharge standards and industry-specific
effluent discharge standards to prevent pollution in water bodies.
Restoration Guidelines:
CPCB has issued indicative guidelines for the restoration of water bodies, providing stakeholders with
guidance for ensuring the rejuvenation of polluted water bodies.
Conservation Programmes:
Various government programmes such as the National River Conservation Programme (NRCP), National Lake
Conservation Programme (NLCP), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Smart
Cities Mission, and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) are aimed
at conserving and protecting rivers and water bodies.
Action Plan for Sewage Management and Restoration of Water Quality: Developing comprehensive action
plans for sewage management and improving the quality of water bodies. These plans include measures to
treat sewage, prevent water pollution, and restore aquatic ecosystems.
Implementation of National River Conservation Plan: Executing national-level plans to conserve rivers and
reduce pollution in identified stretches. These conservation efforts involve various activities such as sewage
interception, construction of sewerage systems, and community participation in river restoration projects.
Other strategies to reduce water pollution include:
A. Reducing the use of pesticides
B. Treating wastewater
C. Avoiding throwing waste into rivers
D. Reusing, reducing, and recycling
E. Using chemical methods like precipitation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and coagulation
Soil Pollution Control Measures-

PM-PRANAM
In the 2023-24 budget, the government announced the “PM Programme for Restoration, Awareness,
Nourishment and Amelioration of Mother Earth” (PM-PRANAM) scheme. This scheme aims to encourage
states and union territories to use alternative fertilizers and chemical fertilizers in balance.
Bio-engineering
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed bio-engineering measures for soil and
water conservation, watershed management, and soil reclamation.
Location-specific measures
The ICAR has developed measures for soil and water conservation based on location, including watershed
management, soil reclamation, and selecting suitable crops
Reduce, reuse, recycle:
Reduce the amount and toxicity of waste you discard. Reuse containers and try to repair broken things.
Limit chemical fertilizers: Use fewer chemical fertilizers.
Other Measures-
1. Improve hazardous waste management: Properly dispose of solid waste.
2. Stop deforestation: Promote reforestation and afforestation.
3. Act fast in the event of a spill: Contain the soil by covering or paving the area to stop it from
converting into gaseous forms.
4. Encourage organic farming: Practice organic farming.
5. Strengthen policies that control soil pollution: Constant soil quality checks by the agriculture
department.
6. Bioremediation: This technique uses microorganisms and plants to reduce environmental pollution
and renew soil.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ):

The CRZ, established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, aims to protect and conserve India's
coastal environments.
Coastal Zone Management Authorities oversee CRZ regulations, ensuring compliance with rules and
guidelines to safeguard coastal ecosystems and communities.
Determination of High Tide Line (HTL) and Low Tide Line (LTL) is crucial for demarcating CRZ boundaries,
based on spring tide variations.
CRZ regulations protect ecologically sensitive areas like mangroves and coral reefs, acting as natural
buffers against tsunamis and cyclones.
It improves livelihoods of coastal communities, including fishing communities, and enhances resilience
against climate change impacts.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
EIA is a systematic evaluation of potential environmental impacts of proposed projects before
implementation.
It involves stages like screening, scoping, baseline data collection, impact prediction, formulation of
mitigation measures, public consultations, decision-making, and monitoring.
EIA is governed by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, supported by detailed guidelines and
procedures.
Draft EIA Notification 2020 has raised concerns about weakening environmental safeguards, reducing
public participation, and exacerbating vulnerabilities in ecologically sensitive regions.
4.5 Impact of Transgenics on Environment and their Regulation

Transgenic organisms are plants/animals that have been modified through genetic engineering techniques.
These organisms have had specific genes inserted into their DNA to give them new characteristics or traits
that are not naturally found in the species through traditional breeding methods.
GMO vs Transgenic Organisms:
1. Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) and transgenic organism are two terms that are used
interchangeably.
2. However, there is a slight difference between GMO and transgenic organism. Although both have
altered genomes, a transgenic organism is a GMO containing a DNA sequence or a gene from a
different species.
3. While a GMO is an animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering
techniques.
4. Thus, all transgenic organisms are GMOs, but not all GMOs are transgenic.
Regulations-
1. In India, the regulation of all activities related to GMOs and products are regulated by the Union
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the provisions of
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under MoEFCC is authorised to review, monitor
and approve all activities including import, export, transport, manufacture, use or sale of GMO.
3. GEAC recently approved commercial cultivation of genetically modified mustard.
4. GM foods are also subjected to regulations by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
Types of Transgenics-
Transgenics are categorised into- i. Transgenic Crops or GM Crops; ii. Transgenic Animals
Transgenic Crops-
1. Bt Cotton:
1. Bt cotton is genetically engineered to produce a protein called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin, which
is toxic to certain insect pests, particularly bollworms.
2. The Bt toxin is derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, and its gene is inserted into the
cotton plant's genome using genetic engineering techniques.
3. When insect pests like bollworms feed on the Bt cotton plant, they ingest the Bt toxin, which binds
to receptors in their digestive system, leading to cell lysis and ultimately causing their death.
4. Bt cotton reduces the need for chemical insecticides and can provide effective protection against
insect pests, leading to higher crop yields and reduced environmental impact.
5. India approved Bt cotton for commercial cultivation in 2002.
6. According to the 2023 Agricultural Biotechnology Annual report, the International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) has reported that the area of Bt cotton has expanded
to over 95% of the total cotton acreage in India, making it the world's largest producer and exporter.
2. GM Mustard (DMH-11):
1. Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 (DMH-11) is an example of GM mustard, developed by Professor Deepak
Pental from the University of Delhi in 2002.
2. DMH-11 is a cross between the Indian mustard variety "Varuna" and the East European "Early Heera-
2" mustard.
3. It contains two alien genes, "barnase" and "barstar", that come from the soil bacterium Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens.
4. These genes allow for the breeding of high-yielding commercial mustard hybrids. DMH-11 has been
shown to have about 28% more yield than the national check and 37% more than the zonal checks.
5. GM mustard offers potential benefits such as increased yields, reduced labor costs, and improved
weed management, although it remains a subject of debate and controversy due to concerns about
environmental and health impacts.
3. Golden Rice:
1. Golden Rice is genetically engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the rice
grains.
2. The beta-carotene biosynthetic pathway from maize and a soil bacterium is introduced into the rice
genome to enable the synthesis of beta-carotene.
3. Beta-carotene gives the rice grains a golden-yellow color, hence the name "Golden Rice."
4. Consuming Golden Rice can help address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health issue in
many developing countries where rice is a staple food.
5. It is not yet approved in India. It is still under field trails.
4. Bt Brinjal:
1. Bt brinjal, also known as genetically modified eggplant, is engineered to produce the Bt toxin to resist
attack by fruit and shoot borers, which are major pests of brinjal (eggplant).
2. The Bt gene, derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, is inserted into the eggplant's
genome, allowing the plant to produce the insecticidal protein.
3. When fruit and shoot borers feed on Bt brinjal plants, they ingest the Bt toxin, which binds to
receptors in their digestive system, causing their gut cells to rupture and leading to their death.
4. Bt brinjal reduces the need for chemical insecticides, provides effective protection against pests, and
can increase yields for farmers, particularly in regions where fruit and shoot borers are prevalent.
Note-
In India, only Bt Cotton is currently commercially cultivated as a GM crop. Trials are underway for other
crops like brinjal, tomato, maize, and chickpea using transgenic technology.
The GEAC approved the environmental release (in 2023) of GM mustard hybrid DMH-11, bringing it closer
to full commercial cultivation.
Transgenic Animals-
Transgenic animals are organisms that have had their genetic material altered to express one or more traits
that are not naturally present in the species.
Dolly the Sheep:
1. Dolly the Sheep was the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell using a technique called somatic
cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).
2. The nucleus of an adult sheep's mammary gland cell was transferred into an unfertilized egg cell whose
nucleus had been removed.
3. The reconstructed egg cell was then stimulated to divide and develop into an embryo, which was
implanted into a surrogate mother sheep.
4. Dolly was born in 1996 and gained worldwide fame as the first cloned mammal, demonstrating the
possibility of cloning animals from adult cells.
Transgenic Goat (Bakri):
1. Researchers at the National Institute of Immunology (NII) in New Delhi, India, developed a transgenic
goat named Bakri, engineered to produce recombinant human lactoferrin in its milk.
2. Lactoferrin is a multifunctional protein with antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulatory
properties, making it valuable for therapeutic applications.
3. The transgenic goat's milk contains higher levels of human lactoferrin compared to non-transgenic goats,
providing a potential source of this biologically active protein for medical and nutritional purposes.
4. Bakri represents a successful example of biotechnological innovation in India, with potential applications
in healthcare and pharmaceutical industries.
Transgenic Cattle for Enhanced Milk Production:

1. Scientists at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) in India have developed transgenic cattle with
genetic modifications aimed at enhancing milk production and quality.
2. Through genetic engineering techniques, researchers have introduced genes encoding growth factors or
milk proteins associated with higher milk yields into the genome of dairy cattle.
3. These transgenic cattle produce milk with increased levels of specific proteins or growth factors that
promote lactation and mammary gland development, resulting in higher milk production.
Genetically Modified Silk Worms:
1. Researchers at institutions like the Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI) in India have
been working on genetically modifying silkworms to enhance silk production and quality.
2. Through genetic engineering, scientists aim to introduce genes involved in silk protein synthesis or silk
gland development into the genome of silkworms.
3. These transgenic silkworms have the potential to produce silk with desirable properties such as increased
strength, elasticity, or color variations, catering to diverse market demands.
GloFish:
1. GloFish are genetically modified zebrafish that have been engineered to express fluorescent proteins
from other organisms, such as jellyfish or coral.
2. The genes for these fluorescent proteins are inserted into the zebrafish genome, allowing the fish to
produce fluorescent colors under certain light conditions.
3. GloFish are often used as pets and in scientific research to study developmental biology, genetics, and
environmental toxicology.
4. Their fluorescence makes them visually striking and popular among aquarium enthusiasts.
Enviropig:
1. Enviropig is a genetically modified pig developed to reduce the environmental impact of swine farming
by producing lower levels of phosphorus in their manure.
2. The Enviropig carries a transgene that encodes a bacterial enzyme called phytase, which helps break
down phytate, a form of phosphorus found in plant feed.
3. By digesting phytate more efficiently, Enviropigs excrete phosphorus in a more bioavailable form,
reducing the phosphorus content of their manure.
4. This technology has the potential to mitigate water pollution from excess phosphorus runoff in areas
with intensive swine farming.
Environmental Impacts of Transgenic Crops:

Positive Impacts:
1. Reduced Pesticide Use:
Transgenic crops engineered for insect resistance, such as Bt cotton and Bt brinjal in India, require fewer
applications of chemical pesticides, leading to reduced environmental pollution and lower risks to non-
target organisms.
2. Conservation of Soil Health:
Transgenic crops designed for herbicide tolerance, such as herbicide-tolerant soybeans and GM mustard
in India, enable farmers to adopt conservation tillage practices, minimizing soil erosion, and preserving
soil structure and fertility.
3. Enhanced Resource Efficiency:
Transgenic crops engineered for traits like drought tolerance or nitrogen use efficiency, such as drought-
tolerant maize or nitrogen-efficient rice varieties, can improve resource use efficiency, reducing water
consumption and nutrient runoff, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
4. Preservation of Biodiversity:
By reducing the need for chemical pesticides and promoting integrated pest management strategies,
transgenic crops like Bt cotton and Bt brinjal in India contribute to the conservation of beneficial insects,
pollinators, and natural enemies, enhancing overall biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems.
5. Mitigation of Climate Change:
Transgenic crops engineered for traits such as carbon sequestration or reduced methane emissions,
while not yet widespread, hold potential for mitigating climate change by enhancing soil carbon storage,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting climate-resilient agriculture.
6. Alleviation of Food Insecurity:
Transgenic crops engineered for improved nutritional content or higher yields, such as biofortified crops
or high-yielding varieties, have the potential to address food insecurity, enhance food access, and
improve human health outcomes, particularly in resource-limited regions like India.
Negative Impacts:
1. Emergence of Resistant Pests:
Continuous cultivation of transgenic crops expressing insecticidal proteins, such as Bt cotton, may lead
to the evolution of resistant pest populations, diminishing the efficacy of pest control measures and
necessitating the use of alternative control strategies.
2. Genetic Pollution and Gene Flow:
Transgenic crops have the potential to hybridize with wild relatives, leading to genetic pollution and the
spread of transgenes in natural ecosystems, raising concerns about unintended environmental
consequences and long-term impacts on biodiversity.
3. Disruption of Ecological Interactions:
Introduction of transgenic crops into agricultural landscapes may disrupt ecological interactions and food
webs, affecting populations of non-target organisms, including beneficial insects, birds, and soil
microorganisms, with cascading effects on ecosystem dynamics and functioning.
4. Loss of Agrobiodiversity:
Widespread adoption of transgenic crops may lead to the displacement of traditional crop varieties and
local landraces, contributing to the erosion of agrobiodiversity and cultural heritage, particularly in
regions with rich agricultural diversity like India.
5. Potential Risks to Soil Microbial Communities:
The cultivation of transgenic crops, particularly those engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect
resistance, may alter soil microbial communities and ecosystem processes, with potential implications
for soil health, nutrient cycling, and long-term soil productivity.
6. Uncertain Long-Term Environmental Impacts:
Despite extensive testing and regulatory oversight, the long-term environmental impacts of transgenic
crops remain uncertain, including potential ecological risks, unintended consequences, and cumulative
effects on agroecosystems and landscapes.
Environmental Impacts of Transgenic Animals:

Positive Impacts:
1. Enhanced Productivity and Efficiency:
Transgenic animals engineered for traits such as disease resistance, growth enhancement, or improved
feed conversion efficiency have the potential to increase agricultural productivity, reduce resource
inputs, and enhance food security in India and other regions.
2. Reduced Environmental Footprint:
Transgenic animals with traits that enable more efficient nutrient utilization or lower methane emissions,
such as genetically modified livestock or poultry, can help reduce the environmental footprint of animal
agriculture, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient runoff.
3. Improved Livelihoods for Farmers:
By improving the health, welfare, and productivity of livestock and poultry, transgenic animals have the
potential to enhance the economic viability of smallholder farmers, increase rural incomes, and
contribute to poverty alleviation efforts in India's agricultural sector.
4. Sustainable Aquaculture Practices:
Transgenic fish species engineered for traits such as faster growth, disease resistance, or improved feed
conversion efficiency can promote sustainable aquaculture practices, reduce pressure on wild fish stocks,
and enhance food security in coastal regions and inland water bodies.
5. Medical and Biomedical Applications:
Transgenic animals used as bioreactors for the production of pharmaceuticals, vaccines, or therapeutic
proteins offer potential benefits for human health, medical research, and drug development, addressing
unmet medical needs and advancing biotechnology innovation in India.
6. Conservation and Restoration Efforts:
Transgenic animals engineered for traits such as disease resistance, fertility control, or ecosystem
restoration have the potential to support conservation efforts, restore endangered species populations,
and mitigate threats to biodiversity in India's diverse ecosystems.
Negative Impacts:
1. Ethical and Welfare Concerns:
Genetic modification of animals raises ethical concerns related to animal welfare, species integrity, and
moral considerations, prompting debates about the ethical implications of transgenic animal research
and biotechnology applications in India and globally.
2. Potential Risks to Ecosystem Health:
Introducing transgenic animals into natural ecosystems may pose risks to native species, ecological
interactions, and ecosystem functioning, with potential consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem
resilience, and the stability of ecological communities in India's diverse landscapes.
3. Genetic Pollution and Hybridization:
Transgenic animals may interbreed with wild or domesticated populations, leading to genetic pollution,
hybridization, and introgression of transgenes into native gene pools, raising concerns about genetic
integrity, species conservation, and ecosystem integrity in India's biodiverse habitats.
4. Regulatory and Biosafety Challenges:
Regulating the release, monitoring, and management of transgenic animals presents biosafety
challenges, technical complexities, and regulatory hurdles, requiring robust risk assessment frameworks,
stakeholder engagement, and capacity building initiatives in India's regulatory landscape.
5. Uncertainties in Long-Term Impacts:
Despite scientific advancements and regulatory oversight, the long-term environmental impacts of
transgenic animals remain uncertain, including potential ecological risks, unintended consequences, and
ecosystem feedbacks that may emerge over time in India's dynamic environments.
4.6 Eco Friendly Technologies in Agriculture

Eco-friendly technologies in agriculture encompass a range of practices and innovations aimed at promoting
sustainable farming methods, minimizing environmental impacts, and enhancing resource efficiency.
Aspect Traditional Agriculture Eco-Friendly Agriculture
Soil Management Heavy reliance on chemical Emphasizes organic and natural fertilizers,
fertilizers and pesticides minimal pesticide use, crop rotation, and soil
conservation practices
Water Usage Often involves excessive water Utilizes water-saving techniques like drip
use through flood irrigation irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and precision
irrigation systems
Crop Diversity Typically, monoculture or Encourages crop diversity, intercropping, and

limited crop diversity polyculture to improve soil health and reduce pest
pressure
Pest and Disease Relies heavily on chemical Utilizes integrated pest management (IPM),
Management pesticides biological controls, and resistant crop varieties to
minimize pesticide use and promote natural pest
control
Energy High energy consumption from Promotes energy-efficient practices, renewable
Consumption mechanization and energy use, and reduced reliance on fossil fuels
transportation through sustainable farming methods
Biodiversity Often leads to habitat Prioritizes habitat preservation, biodiversity
Conservation destruction and loss of conservation, and ecosystem services through
biodiversity agroecological approaches
Environmental Can contribute to soil Focuses on reducing environmental impact,
Impact degradation, water pollution, enhancing ecosystem resilience, and promoting
and habitat loss sustainable land management practices
Economic Viability May result in short-term gains Strives for long-term sustainability and resilience,
but long-term environmental balancing economic viability with environmental
and economic risks and social benefits
Knowledge and Often based on traditional Integrates modern science, technology, and
Innovation knowledge and practices innovation with traditional ecological knowledge
for sustainable agricultural solutions
1. Agroecology and Organic Farming:

Agroecology emphasizes ecological principles and biodiversity conservation to design resilient and
sustainable farming systems.
Organic farming avoids synthetic inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, relying instead on natural
processes, crop rotations, and biological control methods to maintain soil health and pest management.
Aspect Organic Farming Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)
Meaning Utilizes natural methods to maintain A revolutionary agricultural method that aims
soil health and manage pests, to build a sustainable and cost-effective
reducing the use of synthetic farming system by removing external inputs
chemicals and GMOs. Requires and focusing on resource efficiency.
organic certification and promotes
sustainability and environmental
responsibility.
Advantages - Reduced environmental impact - Reduced financial burden on farmers
- Healthier food products - Improved soil fertility and health
- Preservation of soil health and - Enhanced biodiversity and ecological
biodiversity resilience
- Compliance with organic - Decreased water consumption
certification standards - Empowerment of farmers through
knowledge sharing
Disadvantages - Higher initial costs for certification - Initial transition period may require
and organic inputs adjustment
- Challenges in pest and weed - Dependency on local resources can limit
management without synthetic scalability
chemicals - Challenges in pest management without
- Potential yield variability due to synthetic inputs
reliance on natural methods - Lack of formal certification may affect market
access
Proposed By Originated from various agricultural Developed by agriculturist Subhash Palekar as
movements and proponents a comprehensive natural farming method that
advocating for sustainable farming addresses environmental and economic
practices, including Sir Albert concerns.
Howard, Rudolf Steiner, and J.I.
Rodale.
Approach to Advocates minimal intervention Emphasizes zero external intervention,
Intervention within accepted principles and completely avoiding synthetic inputs and
practices, focusing on natural instead relying on local resources and
methods for pest control and soil traditional practices to enhance soil fertility
health while adhering to global and manage pests.
standards.
Regional Follows globally accepted standards, Aligns with local conditions and traditions,
Adaptation ensuring consistency across different allowing for adaptation to specific
regions and ecosystems. geographical and cultural contexts.
Role of Prohibits synthetic pesticides and Avoids all synthetic inputs entirely, including
Synthetic Inputs GMOs, but may permit specific fertilizers, pesticides, and GMOs, relying solely
authorized synthetics under certain on natural resources like cow dung manure
conditions and regulations. and crop wastes.
Financial While aiming for reduced reliance on Operates on a "zero-budget" approach, aiming
Considerations synthetic inputs, organic farming may to minimize financial burden on farmers by
still involve costs associated with utilizing locally available resources and
organic certification and reducing external input costs.
procurement of approved inputs.
Philosophy of Prioritizes sustainable agricultural Advocates a holistic approach to farming that
Farming practices and environmental integrates traditional wisdom and natural
responsibility, with a focus on processes, aiming for sustainability while
minimizing synthetic chemical usage. empowering farmers with knowledge and
skills.
Note-
The five-layer model, also known as zero budget natural farming (ZBNF), is a type of agroforestry model that
combines trees with various levels of plant canopies. Each layer is at an optimal level to harvest sunlight. The
model maximizes space horizontally and vertically, and integrates tree and crop species with varying degrees
of sunlight intensity. This enhances the soil biome, carbon sequestration, water retention capacity of soils,
nutrient availability and year-round income to farmers
The ZBNF model is based on four pillars:
1. Jeevamrutham: Provides nutrients for plant growth
2. Beejamrutham: A mix of cow dung, urine, lime, and water that protects seeds and roots from fungus
3. Acchadana: Mulching
4. Whapasa: Moisture
2. Conservation Agriculture:
Conservation agriculture practices, including minimal tillage, cover cropping, and mulching, aim to minimize
soil disturbance, erosion, and loss of organic matter.
By preserving soil structure and enhancing water infiltration, conservation agriculture promotes soil health,
moisture retention, and carbon sequestration, contributing to climate change mitigation.
3. Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
Integrated pest management integrates multiple pest control tactics, including biological control, cultural
practices, and judicious use of pesticides, to manage pest populations while minimizing environmental
impacts.
By promoting natural enemies and reducing reliance on chemical pesticides, IPM enhances ecosystem
resilience, reduces pesticide residues in food, and mitigates risks to human health and biodiversity.
4. Agroforestry and Silvopastoral Systems:
Agroforestry integrates trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes to enhance productivity, biodiversity,
and ecosystem services.
Silvopastoral systems combine livestock grazing with tree cultivation, providing shade, forage, and soil
fertility benefits while sequestering carbon, conserving water, and enhancing landscape diversity.
5. Drip Irrigation and Water-saving Technologies:
Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to plant roots with minimal losses, reducing water
consumption, soil erosion, and nutrient leaching.
Water-saving technologies such as soil moisture sensors, rainwater harvesting, and micro-irrigation
techniques optimize water use efficiency, conserve water resources, and mitigate drought risks in
agricultural regions.
6. Renewable Energy Integration:
Renewable energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, and biomass digesters can provide on-
farm energy generation and power agricultural operations.
By reducing dependence on fossil fuels, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting energy
independence, renewable energy integration contributes to sustainable agriculture and rural development.
7. Biological Nitrogen Fixation:
Biological nitrogen fixation harnesses symbiotic relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
leguminous crops to convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-available forms.
By reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and enhancing soil fertility, biological nitrogen fixation
promotes sustainable nutrient management and reduces environmental pollution.
8. Precision Agriculture:
Precision agriculture utilizes advanced technologies such as GPS, remote sensing, and data analytics to
optimize farm management practices.
By precisely mapping field variability and monitoring crop conditions in real-time, farmers can make
informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, reducing input use and minimizing
environmental impacts.
9. Hydroponics and Vertical Farming:
Hydroponic systems cultivate plants in nutrient-rich water solutions without soil, using controlled
environments to optimize growth conditions.
Vertical farming employs stacked layers or vertical structures to grow crops indoors or in urban settings,
maximizing space efficiency and minimizing resource use.
10. Agri-waste Management and Bioenergy Production:
Agri-waste management involves recycling agricultural residues, such as crop residues and animal manure,
to produce bioenergy through processes like anaerobic digestion and biomass conversion.
Bioenergy production from agri-waste reduces organic waste accumulation, generates renewable energy,
and provides alternative sources of fuel for agricultural operations.
11. Smart Sensors and IoT in Agriculture:
Smart sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies enable real-time monitoring of environmental
conditions, crop health, and equipment performance in agricultural systems.
By collecting and analyzing data on soil moisture, temperature, and crop growth, smart farming technologies
optimize resource allocation, automate farm tasks, and improve decision-making.
12. Biological Pest Control and Microbial Biocontrol Agents:
Biological pest control methods harness natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids, and pathogens to
manage pest populations and reduce reliance on chemical pesticides.
Microbial biocontrol agents, such as beneficial bacteria and fungi, suppress pests and diseases, enhance soil
health, and promote plant growth while minimizing environmental risks.
13. Agro-ecological Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure:
Agro-ecological engineering designs and implements sustainable infrastructure solutions, including water
management structures, soil conservation measures, and erosion control practices.
Sustainable infrastructure improves land use planning, minimizes environmental degradation, and enhances
ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes.
4.7 Bioremediation: Types and Scope in India

Bioremediation:
Bioremediation uses natural as well as recombinant microorganisms to break down toxic and hazardous
substances in a solid waste by aerobic and anaerobic means.
Types of Bio-remediation:
1. Phytoremediation:
Phytoremediation involves using plants to uptake, accumulate, and detoxify contaminants from soil or
water.
Common phytoremediation plants in India include Indian mustard (Brassica juncea), vetiver grass
(Chrysopogon zizanioides), and sunflower (Helianthus annuus), which can absorb heavy metals, organic
pollutants, and hydrocarbons.
2. Microbial Bioremediation:
Microbial bioremediation utilizes microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or algae, to degrade or transform
contaminants into less toxic or non-toxic substances.
Indigenous microbial consortia or genetically engineered microbes can be applied to remediate a wide range
of pollutants, including petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, and industrial chemicals.
3. Bioaugmentation:
Bioaugmentation involves introducing specialized microbial cultures or enzymes into contaminated
environments to enhance biodegradation processes.
In India, bioaugmentation strategies have been applied to remediate oil spills, industrial effluents, and
agricultural wastewater, using consortia of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria or enzyme formulations.
4. Rhizoremediation:
Rhizoremediation utilizes the root systems of plants to stimulate microbial activity and enhance the
degradation of contaminants in the rhizosphere, the soil zone influenced by root exudates.
Certain plant-microbe interactions, such as those between leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
can facilitate the remediation of organic pollutants and nutrient imbalances in contaminated soils.
Scope of Bioremediation in India:
1. Industrial Pollution:
India faces significant challenges related to industrial pollution, including contamination from heavy metals,
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and industrial chemicals.
Bioremediation offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution for treating industrial effluents,
contaminated soil, and groundwater, particularly in regions with high industrial activity such as the Ganga
and Yamuna River basins.
2. Agricultural Contamination:
Agricultural practices in India often involve the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, leading
to soil and water contamination.
Bioremediation technologies can help mitigate agricultural pollution by detoxifying pesticide residues,
reducing nutrient runoff, and restoring soil fertility through organic waste management and microbial
interventions.
3. Urban Waste Management:
Rapid urbanization and inadequate waste management infrastructure contribute to environmental pollution
in Indian cities, including contamination of soil and water bodies.
Bioremediation offers decentralized and environmentally friendly solutions for treating urban waste,
including sewage sludge, landfill leachate, and industrial runoff, through biological treatment processes and
green infrastructure.
4. Ecological Restoration:
India is home to diverse ecosystems and natural habitats that are threatened by pollution, habitat
degradation, and climate change.
Bioremediation can play a vital role in ecological restoration efforts by rehabilitating contaminated sites,
restoring biodiversity, and enhancing ecosystem resilience, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such
as wetlands, mangroves, and forests.
5. Policy and Regulation:
The Indian government has recognized the importance of bioremediation in addressing environmental
challenges and promoting sustainable development.
Policies and regulations, such as the National Bioremediation Policy and guidelines issued by the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), provide frameworks for implementing bioremediation projects, conducting
research, and monitoring environmental quality.
6. Mining Rehabilitation:
Mining operations in India often result in environmental degradation, soil erosion, and contamination of
land and water resources with heavy metals and toxic substances.
Bioremediation techniques, such as phytoremediation and microbial remediation, can be employed to
rehabilitate abandoned mines and contaminated mine sites, restoring ecosystem health and biodiversity.
7. Municipal Solid Waste Management:
Improper disposal of municipal solid waste poses environmental challenges in Indian cities, including soil and
groundwater contamination, leachate generation, and air pollution.
Bioremediation methods, such as composting, vermiculture, and anaerobic digestion, can help mitigate the
environmental impacts of solid waste disposal and promote sustainable waste management practices.
8. Remediation of Contaminated Water Bodies:
Bioremediation techniques, such as constructed wetlands, biofilters, and microbial consortia, are employed
to remediate contaminated water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and ponds.
In India, bioremediation projects target water pollution hotspots caused by industrial discharges, agricultural
runoff, and municipal sewage, aiming to restore aquatic ecosystems and safeguard public health.
9. Environmental Sustainability and Climate Resilience:
Bioremediation contributes to environmental sustainability and climate resilience by promoting natural
processes, conserving biodiversity, and mitigating the impacts of pollution on ecosystems.
As India faces increasing environmental challenges, bioremediation offers cost-effective, eco-friendly
solutions to safeguard natural resources, support sustainable development, and build resilience to climate
change impacts. `
Case Studies-
1. Bichhri (Udaipur) Mercury Contamination: Bichhri village in Udaipur district, Rajasthan, faced severe
mercury contamination due to unregulated discharge from a chlor-alkali plant. Bioremediation
techniques, including phytoremediation using hyperaccumulating plants like vetiver grass (Chrysopogon
zizanioides) and microbial remediation methods, were employed to mitigate soil and water
contamination.
2. Union Carbide Bhopal Gas Tragedy: After the tragic gas leak from the Union Carbide pesticide plant in
Bhopal in 1984, soil and groundwater in the vicinity were contaminated with toxic chemicals.
Bioremediation techniques, such as microbial degradation of contaminants and phytoremediation using
plants like sunflowers and Indian mustard, have been explored to remediate the affected areas.
3. Tannery Effluent Contamination in Kanpur: Kanpur, known for its leather industry, faced significant
pollution due to the discharge of tannery effluents containing heavy metals and organic pollutants.
Bioremediation methods, including the use of microbial consortia to degrade organic compounds and
constructed wetlands to treat wastewater, have been implemented to mitigate environmental pollution.
4. Oil Spills in Indian Coastal Regions: India's coastal regions have witnessed several oil spill incidents,
including the Mumbai oil spill in 2010 and the Chennai oil spill in 2017. Bioremediation techniques, such
as the application of oil-degrading microbes and nutrient additives to accelerate oil degradation, have
been utilized to clean up the contaminated shorelines and marine ecosystems.
5. Pesticide Contamination in Punjab: Pesticide contamination of soil and groundwater in Punjab, a major
agricultural region, posed serious environmental and public health concerns. Bioremediation
approaches, such as soil microbial degradation of pesticides and phytoremediation using plants like
poplar trees and marigolds, have been studied and applied to remediate contaminated agricultural lands.
6. Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010): After the Deepwater Horizon oil rig explosion in the Gulf of Mexico,
bioremediation strategies were used to mitigate the environmental impact. Bioaugmentation, involving
the introduction of oil-degrading microbes, and biostimulation, using nutrients to enhance microbial
activity, were applied to promote the degradation of oil.
7. Hanford Site (USA): The Hanford Site, a former nuclear production facility in Washington state, has been
the focus of extensive bioremediation efforts to address groundwater and soil contamination. Microbial
processes, such as biostimulation and bioaugmentation, have been employed to degrade contaminants
like uranium and chromium.
Biomining:
Biomining is the process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest from
rock ores or mine waste. Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted
with metals.
Differences between Bio-stimulation and Bioaugmentation-

Aspect Bio-stimulation Bioaugmentation
Definition Boosting the activity of existing microbes Introducing specialized microbes for
cleanup
Main goal Enhance natural degradation processes Accelerate and enhance pollutant
breakdown
Mechanism Provides nutrients and other growth factors Adds specific microbial strains
Approach Supports existing microbial community Supplements with external microbial
strains
Examples Adding nutrients like nitrogen and oxygen Introducing oil-eating bacteria to an oil
spill
Advantages Relatively low-cost, works with natural Targeted and effective for specific
processes pollutants
Disadvantages May take longer to see results, less control Requires careful selection of microbial
strains
Unit 5: Environment and Health

1. Environment Challenges: Global Warming, Climate Change, Acid Rain, Ozone Layer Depletion,
Ocean Acidification
2. Environmental Initiatives: Recent International Initiatives, Protocols,
Conventions to tackle Climate Change with special reference to India’s Participation and Role
3. Sustainable Development: Meaning, Nature, Scope, Components and Goals of Sustainable
Development
4. Health Issues: Recent Trends in Disease Burden and Epidemic and Pandemic
Challenges in India
5. Preparedness and Response: Healthcare Delivery and Outcomes in India
6. Recent Public Health Initiatives and Programmes.
5.1 Environment Challenges: Global Warming, Climate Change, Acid Rain, Ozone Layer Depletion,
Ocean Acidification
1. Global Warming
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's climate system observed since the pre-industrial
period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases
heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere.
Green House Effect
1. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface.
2. When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the
rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases
Green House Gases (GHGs)- Green House Gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading
to the greenhouse effect.
Major GHGs are:
1) Water Vapor
2) Carbon Dioxide
3) Methane
4) Nitrous Oxide
5) Sulfur Dioxide
6) Tropospheric or Ground Level Ozone
Fluorinated Gases-
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
2) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
3) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
4) Sulfur Hexafluoride
Global Warming Potential

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to allow comparisons of the global warming impacts
of different gases. Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will
absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Factors for Global Warming-

Natural Factors:
a) Continental Drift: Landmass movements over millions of years alter physical features and positions.
Impact climate by changing ocean currents and wind patterns.
b) Volcanism: Eruptions emit gases and particles, blocking sunlight and cooling the planet.
c) Changes in Earth's Orbit: Variations in eccentricity, tilt angle, and precession lead to Milankovitch
cycles. Influence climate patterns and trigger glacial and interglacial periods.
Anthropogenic Factors: (Man made reasons)
Causes Description
1. Greenhouse Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and transportation, as well as
Gas Emissions deforestation and industrial processes, release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere.
2. Deforestation Clearing forests for agriculture, urbanization, and other purposes reduces the number
and Land Use of trees that absorb carbon dioxide, contributing to higher atmospheric levels of CO2
Changes and other greenhouse gases.
3. Agricultural Livestock farming, rice cultivation, and the use of synthetic fertilizers release methane
Practices and nitrous oxide, potent greenhouse gases, into the atmosphere, contributing to
global warming.
4. Industrial Industrial activities such as cement production, chemical manufacturing, and waste
Processes incineration emit greenhouse gases and other pollutants, contributing to global
warming and climate change.
5. Combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, airplanes, ships, and other transportation modes
Transportation releases carbon dioxide and other pollutants, contributing significantly to global
greenhouse gas emissions.
6. Energy Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for electricity generation and heating
Production releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere,
contributing to global warming.
7. Waste Improper waste disposal methods, such as open burning of garbage and landfill
Management decomposition, release methane and other greenhouse gases, exacerbating global
warming.
8. Industrial Intensive farming practices, including monoculture, excessive use of chemical
Agriculture fertilizers, and deforestation for agriculture, contribute to greenhouse gas emissions,
soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity, impacting climate change.
9. Urbanization Urban sprawl, infrastructure development, and increased energy demand in cities
contribute to higher greenhouse gas emissions, as well as heat island effects, further
exacerbating climate change.
10. Landfill Decomposition of organic waste in landfills produces methane, a potent greenhouse
Methane gas, which is released into the atmosphere if not captured and utilized, contributing
to global warming.
Impact of Global Warming-

Impacts Description
Rise in Sea Level Melting ice caps and thermal expansion of seawater due to global warming lead to
rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems.
Changes in Climate change alters precipitation patterns, leading to more intense rainfall in some
Rainfall regions, causing floods, and droughts in others, impacting agriculture and water
Patterns resources.
Increased Global warming increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such
Likelihood of as heatwaves, hurricanes, and flooding, posing risks to human life and infrastructure.
Extreme Events
Melting of Warming temperatures cause the melting of polar ice caps, contributing to rising sea
Icecaps levels and loss of habitat for polar wildlife.
Melting of Glaciers around the world are melting at accelerated rates due to climate change,
Glaciers leading to water shortages, altered river flows, and impacts on downstream
communities.
Widespread Habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation, urbanization, and other human
Vanishing of activities threaten animal populations worldwide, leading to declines in biodiversity.
Animal
Populations
Spread of Climate change creates favorable conditions for the spread of certain diseases by
Diseases altering temperature and precipitation patterns, affecting human and animal health.
Bleaching of Rising sea temperatures cause coral bleaching, a phenomenon where corals expel the
Coral Reefs algae living in their tissues, leading to the decline of coral reefs and marine
biodiversity.
Loss of Plankton Warming seas disrupt marine ecosystems, leading to the loss of plankton, which serves
as the foundation of the marine food web, impacting fisheries and marine life.
Other Impacts-
Third Pole- Glacial Melt
When we think of the world's polar regions, only
two usually spring to mind – the North and South.
However, there is a region to the south of China
and the north of India that is known as the “Third
Pole”. That's because it is the third largest area of
frozen water on the planet.
Perma-frost Melting
Permafrost is any ground that remains completely
frozen—32°F (0°C) or colder—for at least two
years straight.
These permanently frozen grounds are most
common in regions with high mountains and in
Earth's higher latitudes—near the North and
South Poles. Permafrost covers large regions of
the Earth. Permafrost is made of a combination of
soil, rocks and sand that are held together by ice.
The soil and ice in permafrost stay frozen all year
long.
Environmental Change- Environmental change is usually defined as a change or disturbance of the

environment. It is most often caused by human influences and natural ecological processes.
2. Climate Change
Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature, precipitation,
winds, and other indicators. Climate change can involve both changes in average conditions and changes
frequency of occurring of extreme events.
Difference between Global Warming and Climate Change-

The terms “global warming” and “climate change” are sometimes used interchangeably, but "global
warming" is only one aspect of climate change.
“Global warming” refers to the long-term warming of the planet. Global temperature shows a well-
documented rise since the early 20th century and most notably since the late 1970s.
Worldwide since 1880, the average surface temperature has risen about 1°C (about 2°F), relative to the
mid-20th century baseline (of 1951-1980). This is on top of about an additional 0.15°C of warming from
between 1750 and 1880.
“Climate change” encompasses global warming, but refers to the broader range of changes that are
happening to our planet. These include rising sea levels; shrinking mountain glaciers; accelerating ice melt
in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic; and shifts in flower/plant blooming times. These are all
consequences of warming, which is caused mainly by people burning fossil fuels and putting out heat-
trapping gases into the air.
Causes:
Cause Description
Generating Burning fossil fuels for electricity and heat production releases significant greenhouse
Power gases like carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Renewable sources like wind and solar
power emit minimal greenhouse gases, making them more sustainable alternatives.
Manufacturing Industrial processes, including manufacturing, mining, and construction, heavily rely
Goods on fossil fuels for energy. This sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas
emissions due to the combustion of coal, oil, and gas, along with emissions from
various industrial processes and transportation.
Cutting Down Deforestation for agriculture, pasture, and other purposes releases stored carbon
Forests dioxide into the atmosphere. Forests act as carbon sinks, and their destruction limits
nature's ability to absorb carbon dioxide, contributing significantly to global
greenhouse gas emissions.
Using Transportation, particularly road vehicles, ships, and planes, relies heavily on fossil
Transportation fuels, mainly gasoline and diesel. This sector accounts for a significant portion of global
carbon dioxide emissions, with trends indicating further growth in emissions due to
increased energy consumption for transport.
Producing Food Food production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions through various activities,
including deforestation, livestock digestion, fertilizer use, and energy consumption for
farming and transportation. Packaging and distribution of food also contribute to
emissions, making food production a significant contributor to climate change.
Powering Residential and commercial buildings consume a substantial amount of electricity,
Buildings primarily derived from fossil fuels. Heating, cooling, and electricity usage in buildings
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, with rising energy demand exacerbating the
problem, particularly in regions with high air-conditioner usage.
Consuming Too Personal consumption habits, including energy usage, transportation, diet, and waste
Much generation, contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Excessive consumption of goods
and resources, especially by the wealthiest individuals, significantly impacts the
environment, making lifestyle choices crucial in addressing climate change.
Note:
a) Global temperatures rose about 1.8°F (1°C) from 1901 to 2020.
b) Sea level rise has accelerated from 1.7 mm/year throughout most of the twentieth century to 3.2
mm/year since 1993.
c) Glaciers are shrinking: average thickness of 30 well-studied glaciers has decreased more than 60 feet
since 1980.
d) The area covered by sea ice in the Arctic at the end of summer has shrunk by about 40% since 1979.
e) The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen by 25% since 1958, and by about 40%
since the Industrial Revolution.
f) Snow is melting earlier compared to long-term averages.
Impacts:
Impact Description
Extreme Heat India is experiencing more frequent and intense heatwaves as a result of climate change.
These extreme heat events have significant impacts on agriculture and human health.
Changing Climate change has led to a decline in monsoon rainfall since the 1950s, making India's
Rainfall summer monsoon highly unpredictable. Additionally, wet years are becoming wetter,
Patterns while dry years are becoming drier. This variability poses challenges for agriculture and
water resource management.
Droughts The frequency and severity of droughts in India have increased, leading to major
consequences for agriculture and water availability. Droughts have resulted in
significant crop losses and food insecurity, particularly in regions like north-western
India, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh.
Groundwater Falling water tables due to overexploitation of groundwater resources worsen water
Depletion scarcity issues in India. Increased demand for water from population growth,
industrialization, and agriculture exacerbates this problem.
Glacier Melt The retreat of Himalayan glaciers due to rising temperatures threatens the stability of
northern India's primarily glacier-fed rivers. Changes in river flows could impact
irrigation and livelihoods in the basins of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers.
Sea Level Rise a) IPCC predicts that sea levels could rise rapidly with accelerated ice sheet
disintegration.
b) Global temperature increases of 3-4 degrees could result in 330 million people being
permanently or temporarily displaced through flooding.
c) Warming seas will also result in more intense tropical storms
d) The coastal states Maharashtra, Goa and Gujarat face grave risk of flooding
displacing large number of people coasts and damaging infrastructure.
e) The states along coasts like Odisha will experience worse cyclones and the many
species along the coast line will also be threatened.
f) The coral will also pose of threat from the rising sea levels. People in Ganges Delta
also share the risk of floods because of rising sea levels
Food and Climate change poses challenges to food and energy security in India due to water
Energy scarcity, health hazards, and potential migration and political conflicts. Addressing these
Security concerns requires sustainable development strategies and climate-resilient policies.
Concerns
Climate change is accelerating species extinction rates, with one million species at risk
of extinction within the next few decades. Increased temperatures, forest fires, extreme
weather events, and invasive species are among the factors contributing to biodiversity
loss. While some species may adapt or migrate, many face challenges in coping with
Loss of changing environments, leading to profound ecological disruptions and loss of
Species ecosystem services.
Climate change poses significant health risks, including increased air pollution, spread of
diseases, extreme weather events, displacement, mental health issues, and food
insecurity. Environmental factors related to climate change contribute to millions of
deaths each year, with changing weather patterns expanding disease vectors and
More Health extreme weather events straining healthcare systems. Addressing climate-related
Risks health risks is crucial for safeguarding public health.
Climate change exacerbates poverty by increasing the frequency and severity of
weather-related disasters, displacing millions of people and undermining livelihoods.
Floods, heatwaves, and water scarcity impact urban and rural populations, with the
most vulnerable communities facing the greatest risks. Many refugees originate from
countries least equipped to adapt to climate change impacts, further exacerbating
Poverty and poverty and displacement. Addressing climate-induced poverty and displacement
Displacement requires urgent action and global cooperation.
Over the past 30 years, the Arctic has warmed at roughly twice the rate as the entire
Arctic globe, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification.
Amplification/ This means that global warming and climate change are impacting the Arctic more than
Polar the rest of the world.
Amplification Global temperatures from 2000–2009 were on average about 0.6°C higher than they
were from 1951–1980. The Arctic, however, was about 2°C warmer.
** Conventions and measures to address climate change and global warming will be covered in the next part
of this chapter. (arranged according to the syllabus copy)
Strategies to fight against Climate Change-
Climate Adaption Climate Mitigation
1. It is the strategy to adjust with the climatic 1. It is the strategy to reduce the impact of climate
change. change.
2. It is localised and region-specific 2. It is global and not localized
3. These are long term strategies 3. These are short term
4. It involves taking appropriate measures to 4. It involves the reduction of emission of
prevent the effects of climate change. greenhouse gases.
5. The measures such as building flood barriers, 5. The major measures include using new
effective utilization of water, development of technologies, clean energy resources, making
drought-resistant crops, etc. can be taken. older technologies more energy efficient.
3. Acid Rain
Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere.
Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting vegetation which
releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere.
1. Clean rain is slightly acidic naturally but when the pH of rain falls below 5.6, we call it acid rain.
2. Emissions of the two air pollutants, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are the main
reasons for acid rain formation.
3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are emitted during fossil fuel
combustion.
4. They undergo reactions with water in the air to form the nitric acid (HNO3) and the sulphuric acid
(H2SO4).
5. When rain occurs these substances also reach the earth surface in the form of Aid rain.
Causes for Acid Rain-

Cause Description Example
Industrial Industrial activities in India, such as coal-fired power The Singrauli region in Madhya
Emissions plants and steel production, emit sulfur dioxide (SO2) Pradesh, home to several coal-
and nitrogen oxides (NOx), contributing to acid rain. fired power plants and
One specific example is the coal-fired power plant in industries, has experienced acid
Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh, known for its high rain, impacting local ecosystems
emissions of sulfur dioxide, which have been linked to and communities.
acid rain in nearby regions.
Vehicle The high density of diesel-powered vehicles in Indian Delhi, one of the most polluted
Emissions cities contributes to nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur cities globally, experiences acid
dioxide (SO2) emissions, leading to acid rain. An rain due to vehicular emissions,
example is the city of Delhi, where vehicular emissions exacerbating air quality issues
have been identified as a significant source of air and affecting public health.
pollution, contributing to acid rain in the region.
Agricultural The intensive use of ammonia-based fertilizers in The agricultural region of Punjab
Activities Indian agriculture releases ammonia (NH3) into the experiences acid rain due to the
atmosphere, contributing to acid rain formation. In widespread use of ammonia-

Punjab, the excessive use of fertilizers has led to based fertilizers, impacting soil
ammonia emissions, contributing to the acidity of and water quality and
rainfall in the region. agricultural productivity.
Biomass Crop residue burning, a common practice in Indian The burning of crop residues in
Burning agriculture, releases pollutants into the atmosphere, Punjab and Haryana contributes
contributing to acid rain. In states like Punjab and to acid rain, exacerbating air
Haryana, the burning of crop residues after harvest pollution and affecting
season releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen agricultural lands and water
oxides (NOx), contributing to acid rain in the region. bodies in the region.
Natural The eruption of volcanoes like the Barren Island The eruption of the Barren Island
Sources volcano in the Andaman Sea can release sulfur dioxide volcano in 2017 released sulfur
(SO2) into the atmosphere, contributing to acid rain. dioxide into the atmosphere,
While not a frequent occurrence, volcanic eruptions in leading to localized acid rain in
India can temporarily increase sulfur dioxide levels in the Andaman and Nicobar
the atmosphere, leading to acid rain in nearby regions. Islands and nearby coastal areas.
Rotting Decomposition of organic matter in wetlands and Decomposition of organic matter
Vegetation forests releases methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3), in the Sundarbans mangrove
contributing to acid rain formation. The decay of forest releases methane and
vegetation in the Sundarbans mangrove forest in West ammonia, contributing to acid
Bengal releases methane and ammonia, which, when rain in the region and impacting
combined with other pollutants, contribute to acid rain the unique ecosystem of the
in the region. Sundarbans.
Oil Oil refining processes in India emit sulfur dioxide (SO2) The Mathura Oil Refinery in Uttar
Refineries and nitrogen oxides (NOx), contributing to acid rain. Pradesh emits sulfur dioxide and
The Mathura Oil Refinery in Uttar Pradesh is one nitrogen oxides, contributing to
example, where emissions from refining operations acid rain in nearby regions and
have been linked to acid rain in nearby areas. impacting local ecosystems and
communities.
The case study of Marble Cancer on Taj Mahal:

Marble cancer is the phenomenon occurring in the Taj Mahal. Polluted fumes coming from the Mathura
refinery were two times the normal level in Agra. This had a corrosive effect on the marble of the Taj
Mahal and thus this phenomenon has now been named the cancer of marble.
The Supreme Court in 1994 ordered the closure of the oil refineries and other industries implicated in
corroding the Taj Mahal with their acid emissions.
In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in 1974. Lowering of soil pH is reported in some
parts of India like the northeast, coastal regions of Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha and in Bihar and West
Bengal.
Taj Trapezium-
1. This plan aims at clearing the air in the ‘Taj Trapezium’– an area that includes the towns of Agra,
Firozabad, Mathura and Bharatpur.
2. Under this plan more than 2000 polluting industries lying inside the trapezium would switch over to
the use of natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas instead of coal or oil.
3. A new natural gas pipeline would bring more than half a million cubic metres of natural gas a day to
this area.
4. People living in the city will also be encouraged to use liquefied petroleum gas in place of coal,
kerosene or firewood.
5. Vehicles plying on highways in the vicinity of Taj would be encouraged to use low sulphur content
diesel.
Impact of Acid Rain-

1. Acid rain damages vegetation by corroding leaves and affecting plant growth, ultimately disrupting
ecosystem balance and biodiversity.
2. Soil acidity increases as acid rain seeps into the ground, leading to nutrient depletion and reduced soil
fertility, which can impair agricultural productivity.
3. Water bodies become contaminated as acid rain runoff enters rivers, lakes, and streams, posing a threat
to aquatic life and ecosystem health.
4. Infrastructure, including buildings, monuments, and bridges, corrodes over time due to the corrosive
nature of acid rain, resulting in structural damage and decay.
5. Acid rain contributes to air pollution by releasing harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, exacerbating
respiratory problems and posing health risks to humans and wildlife.
6. Economic losses occur as acid rain damages crops, forests, and cultural heritage sites, impacting local
economies and livelihoods.
7. Historical monuments and cultural heritage sites deteriorate faster due to acid rain, jeopardizing their
preservation and cultural significance.
8. Aquatic ecosystems suffer as water pH levels change, affecting aquatic organisms and disrupting food
chains and ecosystem dynamics.
9. Biodiversity declines as species are impacted by the adverse effects of acid rain, leading to habitat loss
and species extinction.
10. Acid rain damage affects tourism and local economies as natural and cultural attractions deteriorate,
reducing tourist interest and revenue generation in affected areas.
11. Acid rain runoff can contribute to ocean acidification, harming coral reefs by hindering coral growth and
increasing susceptibility to disease.
Measures to address acid rain-
1. Enforce emissions regulations for industries and power plants.
2. Enforcing BS norms
3. Promote cleaner energy sources and technologies.
4. Support reforestation and soil conservation efforts.
5. Encourage reduced fossil fuel usage in transportation and heating.
6. Facilitate international cooperation.
7. Educate the public on acid rain's impacts and solutions.
8. Invest in research and monitoring.
9. Back community-based initiatives for pollution prevention.
4. Ocean acidification-
Ocean acidification refers to the ongoing decrease in the pH of Earth's oceans, primarily caused by the
absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
Causes:
1. Increased CO2 emissions from human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
2. Nutrient runoff from agricultural and industrial sources.
3. Deforestation and land use changes leading to erosion and sedimentation.
4. Discharge of pollutants from industries, including heavy metals and chemicals, can contribute to
ocean acidification.
5. Intensive aquaculture practices, such as shrimp farming, can release organic matter and nutrients
into coastal waters, exacerbating acidification.
6. Rising ocean temperatures can exacerbate the effects of ocean acidification by altering chemical
processes and reducing the capacity of seawater to absorb CO2.
Impact:
1. Adversely affects marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, including corals, and
certain plankton species.
2. Threatens the health and biodiversity of coral reefs, vital marine ecosystems.
3. Disrupts marine food webs, impacting fish populations and commercial fisheries.
4. Leads to economic and societal consequences for coastal communities dependent on marine
resources.
5. Acidification affects shell-forming organisms like oysters and mussels, impacting shellfisheries and
seafood production.
6. Changes in ocean chemistry can lead to shifts in species distributions, affecting predator-prey
dynamics and ecosystem functioning.
7. Acidification, coupled with other stressors like ocean warming, can increase the frequency and
severity of coral bleaching events, endangering coral reefs.
8. Industries reliant on ocean resources, such as tourism and recreational activities, may suffer
economic losses due to declines in marine biodiversity and ecosystem services.
9. Vulnerable communities, particularly those in developing coastal regions, may face disproportionate
impacts from ocean acidification, exacerbating social inequities and livelihood challenges.
Coral Bleaching
1. Corals are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps. These polyps have microscopic
algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
2. When corals face stress by challenges in conditions such as temperature, light or nutrients, they
expel zooxanthellae living in their tissues causing them to turn completely white. This phenomenon
is called Coral Bleaching.
3. Corals can recover if the stress-caused bleaching is not severe.
4. Coral bleaching has occurred in the Carribean, Indian, and Pacific coasts on a regular basis.
Causes
Rise in sea temperature, Ocean acidification, Solar radiation and Ultra violet radiation, infectious diseases,
chemical pollution, Increased Sedimentation and human induced threats like over-fishing, pollution from
agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining etc.
Consequences
1. Affects fish and other membrates who depend for food.
2. Decline in genetic and species diversity.
3. Discourage tourism and affect coastal economy.
4. Large shifts in the fish communities.
5. Affects the coastlines. Because coral reefs protect them from erosion, flooding and storm damage.
Measures to address Ocean Acidification:

1. Reduce CO2 emissions through transitioning to renewable energy sources and improving energy
efficiency.
2. Protect coastal habitats like mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes to buffer against acidification.
3. Implement sustainable fisheries management practices to maintain healthy marine ecosystems.
4. Invest in monitoring programs and scientific research to better understand and manage ocean
acidification.
5. Support ocean restoration and conservation efforts, including coral reef restoration projects and
marine protected areas.
6. Raise public awareness and promote individual and collective actions to reduce CO2 emissions and
protect marine ecosystems.
5. Ozone Layer Depletion-

The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful
UV radiation.
1. Ozone layer depletion is gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
2. It is caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from
industry and other human activities.
3. The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica.
Note:
1. Acid Rain, Smog, Ozone acidification, etc. are due to tropospheric pollutants, but ozone layer
depletion is due to stratospheric pollutants.
2. The ultraviolet light (UV-B) from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer between 97% and 99%.
3. This is essential for protecting life on Earth’s surface from dangerous levels of radiation that can
disrupt and damage DNA.
4. Chlorine and bromine atoms in the stratosphere react with ozone molecules to destroy them. One
chlorine atom has the ability to destroy more than 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed
from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed faster than it is normally produced.
5. Stratospheric ozone depletion happens in both hemispheres of the Earth.
6. This is more apparent in the Southern Hemisphere (Antarctica) than in the Northern Hemisphere
(Arctic). This is because the creation of the ozone hole is closely related to the temperature of the
stratosphere.
Differences between Tropospheric Ozone vs Stratospheric Ozone-
Tropospheric Ozone Stratospheric Ozone
Forms closer to the Earth's surface, within the Occurs higher in the atmosphere, specifically in the
lower atmosphere known as the troposphere. stratosphere, located above the troposphere.
Mainly created through chemical reactions Primarily generated through natural processes, with
involving pollutants such as nitrogen oxides minor contributions from human-made chemicals like
and volatile organic compounds. chlorofluorocarbons.
Considered a harmful pollutant at ground level Functions as a protective layer that absorbs harmful
and contributes to smog formation and ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, safeguarding life
respiratory issues. on Earth.
Ground-level ozone is a key component of Ozone depletion in the stratosphere results in the
photochemical smog and can lead to health thinning of the ozone layer, leading to increased UV
problems, including respiratory diseases. radiation exposure.
Its concentration varies greatly depending on Stratospheric ozone levels are relatively stable, with
local emissions sources, weather conditions, variations influenced by natural factors such as solar
and geographical factors. activity and weather.
Regulations and policies aim to reduce International agreements, such as the Montreal
tropospheric ozone levels by controlling Protocol, target the reduction of ozone-depleting
emissions from vehicles, industries, and other substances to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.
sources.
Ozone Depleting Substances
Chemical compounds that cause ozone layer depletion are called Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs). The
indiscriminate use of these chemicals causes ozone layer depletion.
Examples of ODSs are:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
3. Carbon tetrachloride,
4. Methyl chloroform,
5. Hydrobromofluorocarbons,
6. Halons, etc.
7. Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ODSs.
Note:
Some of the ODS are Green House Gases too.
CFCs, HCFCs- These ODSs are also powerful greenhouse gases (GHGs) and have a long life as well.
Causes for Ozone depletion-

Causes Description
Natural Volcanic eruptions: Emit gases containing chlorine and bromine compounds, which contribute
to ozone depletion.
Natural emissions: Oceans and vegetation release small amounts of ozone-depleting
substances.
Due to sun spots or stratospheric wind also cause ozone layer depletion.
Man- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol propellants,
made CFCs release chlorine atoms when they reach the stratosphere, breaking down ozone
molecules.
Halons: Used in fire extinguishers, halons release bromine atoms that can also break down
ozone in the stratosphere.
Methyl chloroform: Industrial processes and solvent use release this chemical, which can
deplete ozone.
Carbon tetrachloride: Used as a solvent, carbon tetrachloride releases chlorine atoms,
contributing to ozone depletion.
Methyl bromide: An agricultural pesticide and fumigant, methyl bromide releases bromine
atoms that can deplete ozone.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Used as substitutes for CFCs, HCFCs also contain chlorine
and contribute to ozone depletion, although to a lesser extent than CFCs.
Rocket launches are also the major cause of ozone layer depletion. Research shows that this
is the major factor that causes ozone layer depletion more than chlorofluorocarbon.
Effect of Ozone Depletion-

Effects Description
Increased UV Ozone depletion allows more UVB radiation to reach Earth's surface, leading to
Radiation harmful effects on human health and the environment.
Increased Higher levels of surface UV radiation lead to increased tropospheric ozone, posing
Tropospheric health risks, especially for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
Ozone
Effects on Crops Increased UV radiation can harm crops, affecting plant species that rely on UV-
sensitive organisms for nitrogen retention.
Effect on Humans Direct exposure to UV rays can cause skin cancer, skin diseases, cataracts, and
genetic mutations in humans.
Effects on Animals exposed to UV rays may develop skin and eye cancer.
Animals
Effect on UV radiation can impact photosynthesis, growth, and flowering in plants, affecting
Environment the entire ecosystem.
Effect on Marine Plankton, crucial for the aquatic food chain, can be adversely affected by UV
Ecosystem radiation, disrupting marine ecosystems.
5.2 Environmental Initiatives: Recent International Initiatives, Protocols, Conventions to tackle Climate
Change with special reference to India’s Participation and Role
To understand international conventions on Climate Change, let us understand few terms.
Carbon Budget
A carbon budget is the cumulative amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions permitted over a period of
time to keep within a certain temperature threshold.
Carbon Footprint
1. Carbon footprints are essentially used to denote the full extent of direct or indirect carbon
emissions (along with other supplemental greenhouse gases) released into the environment,
which is relevant to climate change and is a result of human production and consumption activities.
2. A carbon footprint can be calculated or estimated for an individual, an organisation, or even an
entire nation.
3. The climate change impact resulting from each activity is estimated by calculating the carbon
footprint, which includes not just carbon dioxide but also methane and nitrous oxide.
Ecological Footprint
The ecological footprint (EF) estimates the biologically productive land and sea area needed to provide
the renewable resources that a population consumes and to absorb the wastes it generates—using
prevailing technology and resource-management practices—rather than trying to determine how many
people a given land area or the entire planet can support.
Simply, it is the amount of the environment necessary to produce the goods and services necessary to
support a particular lifestyle.
Emission Intensity
Emissions intensity is the level of GHG emissions per unit of economic activity, usually measured at the
national level as GDP.
Absolute carbon reduction refers to the total quantity of greenhouse gas emissions being emitted.
Whereas emission intensity compares the amount of emissions to some unit of economic output.
Carbon Sink
1. A carbon sink is any reservoir, natural or otherwise, that accumulates and stores some carbon-
containing chemical compound for an indefinite period.
2. It thereby lowers the concentration of CO2 from the atmosphere.
Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean
Carbon Neutrality
1. Carbon neutrality means having a balance between emitting carbon and absorbing carbon from the
atmosphere in carbon sinks. Removing carbon oxide from the atmosphere and then storing it is known
as carbon sequestration.
2. In order to achieve net zero emissions, all worldwide greenhouse gas emissions will have to be
counterbalanced by carbon sequestration.
Carbon Offsetting
A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases made in order to
compensate for emissions made elsewhere. Offsets are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalent
(CO2e).
Green Bonds
A green bond is like any other regular bond but with one key difference:
the money raised by the issuer are earmarked towards financing `green' projects, i.e. assets or business
activities that are environment-friendly.
Such projects could be in the areas of renewable energy , clean transportation and sustainable water
management.
Gia Hypothesis
The Gaia hypothesis, named after the ancient Greek goddess of Earth, posits that Earth and its biological
systems behave as a huge single entity.
This entity has closely controlled self-regulatory negative feedback loops that keep the conditions on the
planet within boundaries that are favorable to life.
Global Commons
Global commons have been traditionally defined as those parts of the planet that fall outside national
jurisdictions and to which all nations have access.
International law identifies four global commons, namely the High Seas, the Atmosphere, the Antarctica
and the Outer Space.
Inter and Intra Generational Equity

The intergenerational concept includes the inter-temporal utilization of natural resources.
The concept helps to uphold the balance between the utilizing and recycling of any resources.
On the other hand, intra-generational equity means the fair use of global natural resources by the present
generation.
Mauna Loa record
It is the record of measurement of atmospheric CO2 concentrations taken at Mauna Loa Observatory,
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, since March 1958. This record shows the continuing increase in average annual
atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
Urban Heat Island

It is the tendency for urban areas to have warmer air temperatures than the surrounding rural landscape,
due to the low albedo of streets, sidewalks, parking lots, and buildings. These surfaces absorb solar
radiation during the day and release it at night, resulting in higher night temperatures.
Carbon Tax
A carbon tax is a fee imposed on the burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, oil, gas.
A carbon tax is the core policy for reducing and eventually eliminating the use of fossil fuels whose
combustion is destabilizing and destroying our climate.
Carbon Fertilisation
Carbon fertilisation is the artificial enrichment of the atmosphere of greenhouses with carbon dioxide, an
essential nutrient for plants and vegetables. It is also known as Carbon Dioxide Fertilisation.
It is used to improve production levels, both from a qualitative and from a quantitative point of view. It is
particularly suitable for cold climates and can be used for growing practically all types of vegetables
(asparagus, celery, lettuce, tomatoes, aubergines etc.), greenhouse fruit (strawberries) and ornamental
plants.
Climate Justice
1. Climate justice is a term used to frame global warming as an ethical and political issue, rather than
one that is purely environmental or physical in nature.
2. This is done by relating the causes and effects of climate change to concepts of justice, particularly
environmental justice and social justice.
Geo Engineering
Geo-engineering – artificial efforts to mitigate global warming by manipulating weather patterns, oceans,
currents, soils and atmosphere to reduce the amount of greenhouses gases.
Carbon Credit- A carbon credit is a tradable permit or certificate that provides the holder of the credit the
right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or an equivalent of.
Carbon Offsetting - A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases made in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere. Offsets are measured in tonnes
of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e).
Carbon Neutrality- Carbon neutrality refers to achieving net-zero carbon dioxide emissions. This can be
done by balancing emissions of carbon dioxide with its removal (often through carbon offsetting) or by
eliminating emissions from society.
Carbon Sequestration- Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing
atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
with the goal of reducing global climate change.
Carbon Trading- Carbon trading is the process of buying and selling permits and credits that allow the
permit holder to emit carbon dioxide.
Major Environmental Conventions, Protocols:

Conference, Convention, Protocol
A Conference is consulting together formally; a type of negotiations, there is only broad theme. In a
conference the principal bodies are established for further deliberations if any required on the broad theme
for which the conference is called for.
A Convention is a meeting or gathering to formulate or deliberate on a generally accepted principle, a
framework in which the parties decide the basic guidelines.
A Protocol to the convention is an agreement that diplomatic negotiators formulate and sign as the basis for
a final convention where the parties set specific aims or legal obligations.
Sign and Ratification
Signing: agreement between national delegations
The negotiations that precede a treaty are conducted by delegations representing each of the states
involved, meeting at a conference or in another setting. Together they agree on the terms that will bind the
signatory states. Once they reach agreement, the treaty will be signed, usually by the relevant ministers. By
signing a treaty, a state expresses the intention to comply with the treaty. However, this expression of intent
in itself is not binding.
Ratification: approval of agreement by the state
Once the treaty has been signed, each state will deal with it according to its own national procedures. This
is called ratification. The treaty is now officially binding on the state.
Conference of Parties (CoP)
The COP is the supreme decision-making body of the Convention.
All States that are Parties to the Convention are represented at the COP, at which they review the
implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP adopts and take decisions
necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention, including institutional and
administrative arrangements.
1. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment-
It is also known as the Stockholm Conference, took place in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5–16, 1972.
1. It was the first major UN conference focused on the environment.
2. The conference adopted the Stockholm Declaration and Plan of Action.
3. The Stockholm Declaration contained 26 principles for sound environmental management.
4. Principles included the necessity of conservation, the avoidance of polluting the seas, and the
importance of environmental education.
5. The declaration placed environmental issues at the forefront of international concerns.
6. It marked the beginning of a dialogue between industrialized and developing countries on
environmental matters
2. UNCED – UN Convention on Environment and Development

Earth Summit 1992 is also known as The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED).
As a follow up summit, in 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held
in Rio and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
1. Rio Declaration: principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
2. Agenda 21: non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development.
3. Forest Principles: Non-legally binding document on Conservation and Sustainable Development of
All Types of Forests.
Agenda 21-
1. Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations
(UN) related to sustainable development.
2. It was an outcome of the Earth Summit 1992.
3. The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
4. Its aim is achieving global sustainable development.
5. Since 2015, Sustainable Development Goals are included in the
Agenda 2030.
Landmark Agreements
1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change- UNFCC- (Not Legally Binding)
2. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity- UNCBD (Legally Binding)
3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification- UNCCD- (Legally Binding)
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Or UN Environment
1. UNEP is an agency of the United Nations. It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment 1972.
2. It coordinates the UN’s environmental activities.
3. It assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices.
4. UNEP’s activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial
ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
Important Points to Remember:
1. The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
2. UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility
(GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
3. UNEP has registered several successes, such as the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the 2012 Minamata
Convention, a treaty to limit toxic mercury.
The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
1. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment to provide an objective source of scientific
information.
2. In 2013 the IPCC provided more clarity about the role of human activities in climate change when
it released its Fifth Assessment Report.
3. It is categorical in its conclusion: climate change is real and human activities are the main cause.
3. UNFCCC – UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

1. UNFCCC is negotiated at the Earth Summit 1992.
2. Signed in 1992, New York City.
3. As of March 2024, UNFCCC has 197 parties.
4. Role: UNFCCC provides a framework for negotiating specific
5. international treaties (called “protocols”) that aim to set binding limits on greenhouse gases.
6. Objective of UNFCCC: Stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous consequences.
7. Legal Effect: Treaty is considered legally non-binding.
8. The treaty itself sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries.
Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) is a principle within the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that acknowledges different capabilities
and differing responsibilities of individual countries in addressing climate change.
The principle of CBDR is enshrined in Earth Summit 1992, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
1. CBDR is based on two elements of responsibilities- one is the common responsibility of all the
states to cater to the concerns of environmental protection and sustainable development and the
other is of differentiated responsibility enabling the states to act, for environment protection, in
their national capacity and as per their national priority.
2. The principle recognizes historical differences in the contributions of developed and developing
States to global environmental problems and differences in their respective economic and
technical capacity to tackle these problems.
Kyoto Protocol
1. The Kyoto Protocol was established in 1997
2. The Kyoto Protocol primarily targeted industrialized nations as they were considered the primary
emitters of greenhouse gases. Developing nations were exempt from the Kyoto Protocol
3. The objective of the Kyoto Protocol was to reduce greenhouse gases to 5.2%, below pre-1990 levels
4. The Kyoto Protocol was aimed at 6 major greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, sulphur
hexafluoride, HFCs, PFCs and nitrous oxide
5. The first phase of the Kyoto Protocol lasted until 2012.
The Kyoto Protocol countries are divided into two main categories:
1. Annex I Countries (Developed Countries):
1. These are industrialized nations with historically higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions.
2. They have emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
3. Examples include the United States, Canada, Japan, members of the European Union, etc.
2. Non-Annex I Countries (Developing Countries):
1. Primarily consist of developing nations with lower levels of historical emissions.
2. They do not have specific emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
3. Many of these countries may receive financial and technological support from Annex I countries to
address climate change impacts.
4. Examples include India, China, Brazil, countries in Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Kyoto Protocol Flexible Mechanisms

1. Joint Implementation
(Emission Reduction Units)
2. Clean Development Mechanism
(Carbon Reduction Units)
3. Emission Trading
(Assigned Amount Units)
Flexible Meaning Process Advantages

Mechanism
Emissions Emissions trading allows Each country is allocated a - Provides flexibility for
Trading (ET) countries with emission certain number of emission countries to achieve their
reduction targets to buy allowances, which represent emission reduction
or sell emission credits. the maximum amount of targets. - Encourages cost-
Countries that exceed greenhouse gases they can effective emission
their targets can sell emit. Countries that emit reduction measures. -
their excess credits to less than their allowances Fosters international
countries that are can sell the surplus cooperation and
unable to meet their allowances as credits, while investment in emission

targets. those that emit more must reduction projects.
purchase additional credits
to comply.
Clean The Clean Development Developed countries can - Promotes sustainable
Development Mechanism allows earn Certified Emission development in
Mechanism industrialized countries Reduction (CER) credits by developing countries by
(CDM) to invest in emission investing in projects that attracting investment in
reduction projects in reduce emissions in clean energy and
developing countries as developing countries. These technology. - Provides
an alternative to projects must demonstrate developed countries with a
undertaking more that they contribute to cost-effective way to meet
expensive emission sustainable development in their emission reduction
reductions domestically. the host country. targets. - Facilitates
technology transfer and
knowledge sharing
between developed and
developing countries.
Joint Joint Implementation Similar to the Clean - Encourages collaboration
Implementation allows industrialized Development Mechanism, between industrialized
(JI) countries to earn Joint Implementation countries to achieve
emission reduction units involves investing in emission reductions. -
(ERUs) by investing in emission reduction projects. Provides additional
emission reduction However, these projects flexibility for countries to
projects in other take place in countries that meet their emission
industrialized countries have emission reduction reduction targets. -
with emission reduction commitments under the Promotes the exchange of
targets. Kyoto Protocol. best practices and
technologies among
industrialized countries.
Clean Development Mechanism-

Joint Implementation
Emission Trading
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty aimed at combating climate change.
The primary goal is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, aiming
for 1.5 degrees Celsius, to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Adopted on December 12, 2015, at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, France.
Key Features:
1. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each participating country submits its own NDC outlining
its climate actions and targets.
2. Global Stocktake: A process to assess collective progress towards the agreement's goals every five years.
3. Transparency and Accountability: Mechanisms for reporting and reviewing countries' progress in
meeting their commitments.
4. Climate Finance: A commitment to mobilize financial resources to support developing countries in their
mitigation and adaptation efforts.
5. Technology Transfer: Promotion of the transfer of climate-friendly technologies to developing countries.
6. Loss and Damage: Recognition of the need to address loss and damage associated with the adverse
effects of climate change.
7. Entry into Force: The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4, 2016, after ratification by
enough countries representing a significant portion of global greenhouse gas emissions.
8. Universal Participation: Signed by 196 parties (195 countries and the European Union), making it the
most widely embraced international environmental treaty in history.
Comparison Between Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement-

Aspect Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement
Adoption Year 1997 2015
COP Proposal COP3 COP21
Target Year Various commitment periods, last one Ongoing, with short term goal 2030, long-term
ending in 2020 goals set for 2050
Goals Quantified emission reduction targets Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
for Annex I countries, with a collective allow countries to set their own targets, which
goal to reduce greenhouse gas are reviewed periodically.
emissions.
Scope Focused primarily on emissions Encompasses all countries, with each setting
reduction commitments from its own emissions reduction targets
developed countries (Annex I parties). (Nationally Determined Contributions or
NDCs).
Legal Binding Legally binding for Annex I countries. Non-binding, with voluntary commitments for
all countries.
Targets Quantified emission reduction targets Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
for Annex I countries, with a collective allow countries to set their own targets, which
goal to reduce greenhouse gas are reviewed periodically.
emissions.
Flexibility Limited flexibility, with stringent Provides flexibility in setting and revising
targets and penalties for non- targets, with no punitive measures for non-
compliance. compliance.
Differentiation Differentiated responsibilities Recognizes common but differentiated
between developed and developing responsibilities, allowing for more equitable
countries. participation.
Adaptability Fixed commitment periods with Flexible and adaptable framework, allowing
periodic reviews and amendments. for continuous updates and enhancement of
commitments over time.
Financial Established financial mechanisms (e.g., Encourages developed countries to provide
Assistance Clean Development Mechanism, financial assistance to developing nations for
Adaptation Fund) to support climate mitigation and adaptation efforts, but
developing countries. contributions are voluntary.
Global Limited to Annex I parties and focused Involves all countries, fostering a more
Participation on a subset of countries. inclusive and collaborative approach to
addressing climate change.
28th Conference of Parties (COP28) –

The 28th Conference of Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Key Points-
1. Loss and Damage (L&D) Fund:
a. Agreement reached to operationalize the L&D fund for countries affected by climate change.
b. World Bank to serve as interim host for four years.
c. Eligibility for all developing countries with voluntary contributions from all countries.
2. Global Stocktake (GST) Text:
a. Released at COP28 with no objection, aiming to keep global temperature rise under 1.5°C.
b. Proposes steps including renewable energy expansion, coal phase-down, emissions reduction,
and fossil fuel subsidy phase-out.
c. India emphasizes coal use for development, supporting nationally determined contributions
(NDCs).
3. Global Renewables and Energy Efficiency Pledge:
a. Commitment to triple global renewable energy capacity by 2030 and double energy efficiency
improvements.
b. Aimed at accelerating climate action in the energy sector.
4. Global Cooling Pledge:
a. Involves 66 national government signatories to reduce cooling-related emissions by 68% by
2050.
b. Targeting reductions across all sectors relative to 2022 levels.
5. Climate Finance:
a. Developing countries claim USD 500 billion owed by developed nations under the New
Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG).
b. Calls for setting new quantified goals to support climate mitigation, adaptation, and loss and
damage.
6. Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA):
Draft text introduced to enhance climate adaptation efforts, focusing on water scarcity, agriculture,
and health impacts.
7. Nuclear Energy Declaration:
a. Aims to triple global nuclear energy capacity by 2050, endorsed by 22 national governments.
b. Calls for international financial support for nuclear energy incorporation.
8. Powering Past Coal Alliance (PPCA) and Coal Transition Accelerator:
a. PPCA welcomes new members and advocates for cleaner energy alternatives.
b. France introduces Coal Transition Accelerator for effective coal transition policies.
9. Coalition for High Ambition Multilevel Partnership (CHAMP) for Climate Action:
Signed by 65 national governments to enhance cooperation with subnational governments in climate
strategies.
India-Led Initiatives:
1. Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA): Led by India's NMCG, covering 275+ river-cities across 11 countries.
2. Green Credit Initiative: Launched to incentivize environmental activities like water conservation and
afforestation.
COP 29-
The 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference, or COP29, will take place in Baku, Azerbaijan
from November 11–22, 2024. The conference will include the 29th session of the Conference of the Parties
(COP), the 19th meeting of the COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP 19),
and the sixth meeting of the COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA
6). Mukhtar Babayev will preside over COP29.
COP Location Year Major Achievements

COP 1 Berlin, 1995 Adoption of the Berlin Mandate, which laid the groundwork for
Germany negotiating the Kyoto Protocol.
COP 2 Geneva, 1996 Formal adoption of the Kyoto Protocol.
Switzerland
COP 3 Kyoto, Japan 1997 Finalization of the Kyoto Protocol, establishing legally binding emission
reduction targets for developed countries.
COP 4 Buenos Aires, 1998 The Buenos Aires Plan of Action was agreed upon, outlining a timetable
Argentina for completing the Kyoto Protocol's details.
COP 5 Bonn, 1999 The Bonn Agreements resolved technical issues related to the Kyoto
Germany Protocol.
COP 6 The Hague, 2000 Negotiations on the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, which
Netherlands ultimately faltered.
COP 7 Marrakech, 2001 Adoption of the Marrakech Accords, resolving most issues left
Morocco unresolved from COP 6.
COP 8 New Delhi, 2002 Focus on implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and discussions on
India adaptation.
COP 9 Milan, Italy 2003 Further discussions on Kyoto Protocol implementation, particularly on
emissions trading.
COP 10 Buenos Aires, 2004 Negotiations on future climate actions, including discussions on the
Argentina post-Kyoto framework.
COP 11 Montreal, 2005 Adoption of the Montreal Action Plan, initiating negotiations on future
Canada commitments beyond the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period.
COP 12 Nairobi, Kenya 2006 The launch of the Nairobi work program on impacts, vulnerability, and
adaptation to climate change.
COP 13 Bali, Indonesia 2007 Adoption of the Bali Road Map, paving the way for negotiations on a
post-2012 climate regime, which led to the Copenhagen Accord.
COP 14 Poznań, 2008 Continued negotiations on the Bali Road Map, focusing on further
Poland commitments from developed countries and support for developing
countries.
COP 15 Copenhagen, 2009 Negotiations aimed at securing a comprehensive climate agreement,
Denmark leading to the Copenhagen Accord, though not formally adopted by
the COP.
COP 16 Cancún, 2010 Adoption of the Cancún Agreements, including commitments on
Mexico emissions reductions, finance, and adaptation.
COP 17 Durban, South 2011 Adoption of the Durban Platform, laying the foundation for a new
Africa legally binding agreement applicable to all countries, to be adopted by
2015 and implemented by 2020.
COP 18 Doha, Qatar 2012 Adoption of the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, extending its
commitments through 2020.
COP 19 Warsaw, 2013 Establishment of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Poland Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts (WIM), addressing
the impacts of climate change in developing countries.
COP 20 Lima, Peru 2014 Adoption of the Lima Call for Climate Action, outlining the structure
and schedule for preparing nationally determined contributions
(NDCs) towards the Paris Agreement.
COP 21 Paris, France 2015 Adoption of the Paris Agreement, aiming to limit global warming to
well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit it to
1.5°C.
COP 22 Marrakech, 2016 Launch of the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action,
Morocco emphasizing the role of non-state actors in achieving the goals of the
Paris Agreement.
COP 23 Bonn, 2017 Advancement of the Paris Agreement Work Programme, focusing on
Germany guidelines and modalities for its implementation.
COP 24 Katowice, 2018 Adoption of the Katowice Climate Package, providing guidelines for the
Poland implementation of the Paris Agreement and enhancing international
cooperation on climate action.
COP 25 Madrid, Spain 2019 Discussions on Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, concerning market
mechanisms for emission reductions, though no agreement was
reached.
COP 26 Glasgow, 2021 Agreement on the Glasgow Climate Pact, aiming to enhance climate
Scotland action and strengthen the implementation of the Paris Agreement.
COP 27 Sharm El 2022 Progress on implementing the Glasgow Climate Pact and discussions
Sheikh, Egypt on enhancing climate finance and adaptation efforts.
COP 28 Dubai, United 2023 Operationalization of the Loss and Damage (L&D) fund, advancement
Arab Emirates of the Global Stocktake (GST), and commitments to tripling renewable
energy capacity and doubling energy efficiency improvements.
'Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD)' Program-

1. It is a multilateral collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
2. It was created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13.
3. The objective of the REDD initiative was to mitigate climate change by reducing the net emission of
greenhouse gases from forests (through their degradation) by the means of better forest management,
particularly in the developing countries.
4. REDD involves a provision of incentives to the developing countries to encourage them to "protect,
better manage, and save their forest resources".
5. REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation. It aims to incentivize developing
countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks,
sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks.
Important Funds related to Climate Change-

1. Global Climate Fund
1. It is established under Kyoto Protocol.
2. The GCF was set up in 2010, during Cancun Summit, under the UNFCCC’s financial mechanism to
channel funding from developed countries to developing countries to allow them to mitigate
climate change and also adapt to disruptions arising from a changing climate.
3. Developed countries have agreed to pay $100bn per year for climate mitigation under this fund.
2. Climate Adaptation Fund
1. Adaptation Fund (AF) was established under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001 and has committed US$
532 million to climate adaptation and resilience activities.
2. It finances projects and programmes that help vulnerable communities in developing countries
adapt to climate change.
3. Initiatives are based on country needs, views and priorities.
3. Global Environmental Fund
1. GEF has served as an operating entity of the financial mechanism since the Convention came into
force in 1994.
2. It is a private equity fund focused on seeking long term financial returns by investments in clean
energy under climate change.
3. The GEF is jointly managed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World
Bank, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
India’s Response to Climate Change-

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): It outlines existing and future policies and programs
addressing climate mitigation and adaptation.
It has advocated 8 missions to combat climate change by Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate
Change in 2008.
1. The National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Water Mission
4. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
6. National Mission for a Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
National Clean Energy Fund: The Government of India created the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in
2010 for financing and promoting clean energy initiatives and funding research in the area of clean energy
in the country. The corpus of the fund is built by levying a cess of INR 50 (subsequently increased to INR 100
in 2014) per tonne of coal produced domestically or imported.
Paris Agreement: Under the Paris Agreement, India has made three major commitments. These are called
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions.
India’s INDCs:
1. India’s greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP will be reduced by 33-35% below 2005 levels by 2030.
2. 40% of India’s power capacity would be based on non-fossil fuel sources.
3. India will create an additional ‘carbon sink’ of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Co2 equivalent through additional
forest and tree cover by 2030.
Achievements as of October 31, 2023:
Emissions Intensity Reduction: India has reduced the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33% between 2005
and 2019, surpassing the target set in its first NDC.
Non-Fossil Fuel-Based Energy Capacity: The cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil
fuel-based energy resources has reached 186.46 MW, constituting 43.81% of the total cumulative electric
power installed capacity.
Updated Nationally Determined Contribution Targets (August 2022):
Emissions Intensity Reduction: India has enhanced its target to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP
to 45% by 2030 from the 2005 level, indicating a more ambitious commitment to decarbonization.
Non-Fossil Fuel-Based Energy Capacity: The target for cumulative electric power installed capacity from
non-fossil fuel-based energy resources has been increased to 50% by 2030, reflecting India's commitment
to scaling up renewable energy deployment.
Net Zero Emissions-

Net zero emissions, or carbon neutrality, is when the amount of carbon dioxide emitted is balanced out
by the amount removed from the atmosphere. The Paris Agreement states that to keep global warming
to no more than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, emissions need to be reduced by 45% by 2030 and reach
net zero by 2050.
India aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2070, as announced at COP26 in 2021. This target aligns with
the long-term low-carbon development strategy submitted to the UNFCCC, emphasizing principles of
equity and climate justice.
The strategy is based on seven key transitions to low-carbon development pathways:
1. Low-carbon development of electricity systems
2. Integrated, efficient, and inclusive transport system
3. Adaptation in urban design, energy efficiency in buildings, and sustainable urbanization
4. Economy-wide decoupling of growth from emissions and development of low emission industrial
system
5. Development of carbon dioxide removal and related engineering solutions
6. Enhancing forest and vegetation cover
7. Economic and financial needs of low-carbon development
To address environmental challenges, India has implemented various initiatives, including:
1. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) to improve air quality in cities
2. Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Area (CAQM) to curb air pollution
3. Leap from BS-IV to BS-VI norms for fuel and vehicles
4. Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative for Compressed Bio-
Gas (CBG) production
5. Installation of Vapour Recovery System (VRS) in petrol pumps
6. Conservation efforts for rivers through Namami Gange and National River Conservation Plan
(NRCP)
7. Addition of wetlands to the Ramsar Sites list
8. Ban on single-use plastics
9. Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India to assess land degradation
10. Circular Economy initiatives
11. Afforestation and tree plantation schemes under National Mission for a Green India (GIM), Nagar
van Yojana, and other programs
12. Trees Outside Forests in India (TOFI) program to expand tree planting outside forests for ecosystem
services and livelihoods.
Panchamrit Plan-
India is set to achieve its short term and long-term climate targets under the Panchamrit action plan,
1. Reaching a non-fossil fuel energy capacity of 500 GW by 2030;
2. Fulfilling at least half of its energy requirements via renewable energy by 2030;
3. Reducing CO2 emissions by 1 billion tons by 2030;
4. Reducing carbon intensity below 45 percent by 2030;
5. Pave the way for achieving a Net-Zero emission target by 2070.
International Solar Alliance (ISA): The ISA was established in 2015 by India and France at the 21st United
Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris. As of November 2023, 116 countries are
signatories to the ISA, with 94 having completed the ratification process to become full members.
ISA's objectives include:
a) Mobilizing more than $1,000 billion in investment by 2030 for the deployment of solar energy
b) Reducing the cost of solar power generation
c) Promoting the use of solar energy in agriculture, health, transport, and power generation
d) Ensuring energy security
e) Facilitating the energy transition
f) Reducing dependence on non-renewable energy sources
Note- India hosted the 6th Session of the International Solar Alliance Assembly in New Delhi in 2023
The Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) –
It is a voluntary intergovernmental alliance that was launched at COP27 in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt on
November 8, 2022. The alliance is led by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Indonesia, with India, Sri Lanka,
Australia, Japan, and Spain later joining. The MAC's goal is to promote mangroves as a nature-based solution
to climate change.
Mangroves are dense coastal forests that cover less than 1% of the Earth's surface but can store up to 10
times more carbon per hectare than terrestrial forests. They can store carbon up to 400% faster than land-
based tropical rainforests. Mangroves also act as natural barriers against rising tides and storm surges, and
provide breeding grounds for marine biodiversity. 80% of global fish populations depend on healthy
mangrove ecosystems.
Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Norms: Emissions from vehicles are one of the top contributors to air pollution,
which led the government at the time to introduce the BS 2000 (Bharat Stage 1) vehicle emission norms
from April 2000, followed by BS-II in 2005. BS-III was implemented nationwide in 2010. However, in 2016,
the government decided to meet the global best practices and leapfrog to BS-VI norms by skipping BS V
altogether.
4. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)-

1. The Convention stemmed from a direct recommendation of the Rio Conference’s Agenda 21 in 1994.
2. It was adopted in Paris, France in 1994 and entered into force in 1996.
3. It has 196 parties, making it truly global in reach.
4. UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through
National Action Programs (NAP).
5. National action programs (NAP) incorporate long-term strategies supported by international
cooperation.
6. It is the only internationally legally binding framework set up to address desertification.
7. UNCCD collaborates closely with Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Note: Convention on Biodiversity, Convention on Migratory Species, CITES are discussed in Unit 3. So, only
a brief note is mentioned here.
India’s Measures to deal with Desertification-
1. Afforestation Initiatives: The Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change implements various
afforestation schemes to increase and improve forest and tree cover. These include the National
Mission for a Green India (GIM), Forest Fire Protection & Management Scheme (FFPM), and
compensatory afforestation under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning
Authority (CAMPA). State governments also undertake tree plantation and afforestation activities.
2. Conservation of Mangroves and Coral Reefs: Under the National Coastal Mission Programme, annual
Management Action Plans (MAPs) are formulated and implemented for the conservation and
management of mangroves in coastal states and union territories.
3. Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas: The Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India
provides data on the extent of land degradation and desertification, aiding in planning and
implementing restoration schemes.
4. Online Portal for Visualizing Degraded Land: An online portal has been developed for visualizing
degraded land areas and understanding the processes causing degradation, facilitating better planning
and monitoring of restoration efforts.
5. Centre of Excellence at ICFRE: A Centre of Excellence at the Indian Council for Forestry Research and
Education (ICFRE) promotes South-South Cooperation by sharing knowledge, best practices, and
sustainable land management strategies.
6. Bonn Challenge Pledge: India has pledged to restore degraded and deforested land under the Bonn
Challenge, aiming to restore 26 million hectares of land by 2030. This initiative involves international
cooperation and collaboration to combat desertification.
7. Afforestation Achievements: The area covered through afforestation efforts is reported under the
Twenty Point Programme. Approximately 18.94 million hectares of land have been afforested from
2011-12 to 2021-22, including efforts by both central and state governments.
8. Coastal Habitat Rehabilitation: Tamil Nadu is implementing the Rehabilitation of Coastal Habitat
scheme, focusing on bio-shield formation in coastal districts. This involves eco-restoration of existing
mangrove ecosystems and planting new mangroves, along with raising other tree species for
afforestation.
9. Cross-sectoral Collaboration: While the Ministry hasn't signed any MoUs with NGOs specifically for
tackling land degradation, afforestation and tree plantation activities involve collaboration among
various stakeholders, including government departments, NGOs, civil society, and corporate bodies.
5. UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Discussed in detailed in chapter 3)

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (a multilateral treaty) was opened for signature at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into effect in 1993.
2. The Convention is legally binding; countries that join it (‘Parties’) are obliged to implement its
provisions.
3. 195 UN states and the European Union are parties to the convention.
4. All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has three main objectives:
1. the conservation of biological diversity,
2. the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and
3. the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
It has two protocols under it- Nagoya Protocol and Cartegena Protocol.
6. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)

1. The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, is an
environmental treaty of the United Nations that provides a global platform for the conservation and
sustainable use of terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory animals and their habitats.
2. Enforcement Year: The Convention came into force on November 1, 1983.
3. Convention has two Appendices:
4. Appendix I - lists migratory species that are endangered or threatened with extinction.
5. Appendix II- lists migratory species which have an unfavorable conservation status and which require
international agreements for their conservation and management.
7. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

1. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is
an international agreement to which States and regional economic integration organizations adhere
voluntarily. CITES adopted in 1963.
2. CITES entered into force in July 1975. Currently there are 183 Parties (include countries or regional
economic integration organizations).
3. Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival.
4. The CITES Secretariat is administered by UNEP (The United Nations Environment Programme) and
is located at Geneva, Switzerland.
8. Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer are international agreements aimed at addressing the depletion of the Earth's
ozone layer.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer:
1. The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 and entered into force in 1988.
2. It is a framework agreement that provides a foundation for international cooperation in protecting the
ozone layer.
3. The Convention sets out general principles and commitments for addressing ozone layer depletion.
4. Its objective is to protect human health and the environment from harmful effects resulting from the
depletion of the ozone layer.
5. The Convention establishes mechanisms for scientific research, information exchange, and technical
cooperation among countries.
6. It serves as the basis for subsequent agreements, including the Montreal Protocol.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer:
1. The Montreal Protocol was adopted in September 1987 and entered into force in 1989.
2. It is a legally binding international treaty designed to phase out the production and consumption of
ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
3. ODS include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among
others.
4. The Protocol aims to protect the ozone layer by controlling, reducing, and eventually eliminating the
production and use of ODS.
5. The Protocol has been amended several times to strengthen its provisions and address emerging ozone-
depleting substances.
6. The most recent amendment is the Kigali Amendment, adopted in 2016, which focuses on phasing down
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), powerful greenhouse gases used as substitutes for ODS.
7. The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as one of the most successful international environmental
agreements, having achieved significant reductions in ODS and contributing to the recovery of the ozone
layer.
India became Party to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on 18th March, 1991 and 19th June
1992 respectively.
Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol-

1. The Kigali Amendment is an addition to the Montreal Protocol, focusing on hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs).
2. Adopted in October 2016, it entered into force on January 1, 2019, after ratification by a significant
number of parties.
3. It aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs due to their high global
warming potential.
4. Developed countries started phasing down HFCs from 2019, while developing countries have a
later starting point.
5. Reduction targets are set, with flexibility mechanisms to support developing countries in
transitioning away from HFCs.
6. Expected to avoid up to 0.5°C of global warming by the end of the century, making it a crucial
climate action initiative.
9. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

It is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs.
It was opened for signature in 2001 in Stockholm (Sweden) and became effective in 2004.
POPs are listed in various Annexes to the Stockholm Convention after thorough scientific research,
deliberations and negotiations among member countries.
Objectives:
1. Support the transition to safer alternatives.
2. Target additional POPs for action.
3. Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs.
4. Work together for a POPs-free future.
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
POPs are identified chemical substances that are characterized by:
Persistence in the environment.
1. Bio-accumulation in the fatty acids in living organisms.
2. Less soluble in water.
Adverse effect on human health/ environment.
Exposure to POPs can lead to cancer, damage to central & peripheral nervous systems, diseases of the
immune system, reproductive disorders and interference with normal infant and child development.
The property of long-range environmental transport (LRET) makes them spread widely in the atmosphere.
Dirty Dozen
The convention listed twelve distinct chemicals in three categories:
Eight pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene)
1. Two industrial chemicals (poly chlorinated biphenyls and hexachlorobenzene)
2. Two unintended by-products of many industrial processes involving chlorine such as waste
incineration, chemical and pesticide manufacturing and pulp and paper bleaching (poly chlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, commonly referred to as dioxins and furans).
10. Basel Convention - on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous waste and their disposal
1. It came into force in 1992.
2. It applies Prior Consent Approval procedure to regulate the transboundary movement of the hazardous
and other wastes.
3. Non-parties cannot transport hazardous waste to and from each other unless specially agreed. Basel
Convention states such transportation, illegal.
4. The member nations to the convention are required to have domestic legislation for both prevention and
the punishment of the illegal trafficking of such hazardous wastes.
5. It ensures that the member nations control the generation, storage, transportation, treatment, reuse,
recycling, recovery and final disposal of hazardous wastes.
11. Rotterdam Convention on Hazardous Chemicals- Prior Informed Consent

Rotterdam Convention is a name for the Convention that was adopted by the Conference of
Plenipotentiaries (COP) in 1998 in Rotterdam (Netherlands) that aims to promote shared responsibilities in
relation to the international trade of hazardous chemicals.
The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent
(PIC) procedure. It built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 and ceased on
24 February 2006.
Prior Informed Consent
It states that states that parties that are importing the chemicals as listed in Annex III of the Convention
have to formally obtain and disseminate the decision of receiving future shipments of such chemicals.
The importing pirates have to ensure that decisions related to their import are well in compliance by the
exporting parties.
12. Minamata Convention – On Mercury Pollution

1. The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury and its compounds.
2. It was agreed at the fifth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva,
Switzerland 2013.
3. Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle is one of the key obligations
under the Convention.
4. The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste,
sites contaminated by mercury as well as health issues.
5. More than 140 countries including India have ratified the Convention.
13. Madrid Protocol

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the Antarctic-
Environmental Protocol, or the Madrid Protocol. It is part of the Antarctic Treaty System.
It provides for comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated
ecosystems.
Measures for the protection and conservation of ecosystems mentioned in India:

1. Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC): India has revised its NDC in 2022, aiming to increase
electric power generation from non-fossil fuel sources to 50% by 2030. Additionally, it targets a 45%
reduction in emission intensity of GDP compared to 2005 levels and aims to create a carbon sink of 2.5
– 3 billion tons by 2030. The inclusion of LiFE - 'Lifestyle for Environment' emphasizes the importance of
individual actions in combating climate change.
2. Long Term Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS): India has submitted its LT-LEDS in COP 27,
aiming to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070. This strategy outlines long-term goals and pathways for
transitioning to a low-carbon economy.
3. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): NAPCC comprises missions focusing on specific areas
such as solar energy, energy efficiency, water, agriculture, Himalayan eco-system, sustainable habitat,
green India, human health, and strategic knowledge on climate change. These missions aim to address
both mitigation and adaptation to climate change impacts.
4. National Mission for a Green India (GIM): GIM aims to protect, restore, and enhance India's forest cover
and respond to climate change by undertaking afforestation and reforestation activities in forest and
non-forest areas. It contributes to carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation.
5. Urban Missions and Schemes: Various flagship urban missions and schemes incorporate climate change
mitigation and adaptation strategies. These include Swachh Bharat Mission - Urban, Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation, Smart Cities Mission, and others, which focus on improving
urban infrastructure, waste management, and resilience to climate impacts.
6. Namami Gange Programme: Launched in 2014-15, this programme aims to rejuvenate the river Ganga
and its tributaries by addressing pollution and improving water quality to meet prescribed standards for
outdoor bathing.
7. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): NCAP, launched in January 2019, aims to reduce air pollution
levels by 20-30% by 2024 in cities with high particulate matter concentrations. It includes city-specific
clean air action plans and measures to improve air quality monitoring and management.
8. Land Degradation Neutrality: India aims to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land and achieve land
degradation neutrality through sustainable land management practices. This contributes to forest
conservation, biodiversity protection, and carbon sequestration.
9. Biodiversity Conservation: Various initiatives and schemes focus on biodiversity conservation, including
the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. Institutional mechanisms such as the National Biodiversity Authority
and Biodiversity Management Committees are responsible for conserving biodiversity and recording
local biodiversity and associated knowledge.
5.3 Sustainable Development: Meaning, Nature, Scope, Components and Goals of Sustainable
Development
Sustainable Development – Meaning

1. ‘Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs’.
2. This most widely accepted definition of Sustainable Development was given by the Brundtland
Commission in its report Our Common Future (1987).
3. Sustainable development (SD) calls for concerted efforts towards building an inclusive, sustainable and
resilient future for people and planet.
4. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 highlighted the importance
of sustainable development.
5. Environmental issues like climate change, ozone depletion, and species loss affect both developed and
developing nations.
6. Excessive energy use and population growth contribute to environmental challenges and the emergence
of environmental refugees. Other challenges include population growth, environmental degradation,
and unsustainable economic practices.
7. Advocating for inclusive green growth as a means to balance economic growth with environmental
conservation and poverty alleviation, while prioritizing sustainable development, is essential for securing
a better future amidst global environmental challenges and pressures.
Nature of Sustainable Development-
The nature of sustainable development revolves around the concept of achieving a balance between
economic growth, social equity, and environmental conservation to ensure long-term prosperity and well-
being for current and future generations.
Key aspects of its nature include:
1. Integration: Sustainable development integrates economic, social, and environmental goals into
development strategies, recognizing their interdependence.
2. Long-term Perspective: It emphasizes meeting present needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs, ensuring sustainability over time.
3. Holistic Approach: Solutions to sustainable development issues consider the root causes of
environmental degradation, social inequality, and economic instability, addressing them
comprehensively.
4. Interconnectedness: Sustainable development recognizes the interconnectedness of economic,
social, and environmental systems, understanding that actions in one area can have ripple effects
across others.
5. Adaptive: Sustainable development requires continuous assessment and adjustment to changing

social, economic, and environmental conditions, reflecting its dynamic nature.
Scope of Sustainable Development-
The scope of sustainable development include:
1. Social Dimension: Focus on creating a strong, healthy, and just society with initiatives like zero
hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, population control, and gender equality.
2. Economic Dimension: Emphasis on economic well-being, poverty eradication, sustainable economy,
employment opportunities (especially for women), decent work and economic growth, natural
resource management, and responsible consumption and production.
3. Environmental Dimension: Promoting environment-friendly products, ensuring clean water and
sanitation, promoting affordable and clean energy, reducing emissions from industry, transport, and
energy sources, encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, taking climate action, and
preserving natural resources and habitats.
4. Institutional Dimension: Involves industry, innovation, and infrastructure development, ensuring
sound financial resources, promoting peace, justice, and strong institutions, building sustainable
cities and communities, fostering partnerships for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
and promoting international cooperation.
Components of Sustainable Development:
1. Environmental Sustainability:
It prevents nature from being used as an inexhaustible source of resources and ensures its protection
and rational use.
2. Social Sustainability:
It can foster gender equality, development of people, communities and cultures to help achieve a
reasonable and fairly-distributed quality of life, healthcare and education across the Globe.
3. Economic Sustainability:
Focuses on equal economic growth that generates wealth for all, without harming the environment.
Investment and equal distribution of economic resources.
Features of Sustainable Development:
To fulfil the scope and objectives of sustainable development, these features need to be implemented while
planning for economic development, some of these steps are:
1. Minimising the release of Greenhouse Gases, which directly contribute towards global warming and
air pollution;
2. Emphasising on eco-friendly practices such as building green architecture;
3. Focusing on and implementing projects using renewable energy sources like the sun, wind, water etc;
4. Preservation of natural resources, while respecting and protecting natural habitats of life forms and
organisms;
5. Containing the rate of consumption from surpassing the production of renewable sources.
Strategies for Sustainable Development-

1. Renewable Energy: Transitioning to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and
geothermal power to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate climate change.
2. Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, industries, and appliances to
reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions.
3. Sustainable Agriculture: Adopting farming practices that promote soil health, biodiversity conservation,
water conservation, and minimize the use of chemical inputs.
4. Waste Management: Implementing waste reduction, reuse, recycling, and composting practices to
minimize waste generation and promote resource conservation.
5. Conservation of Natural Resources: Protecting and conserving natural resources such as forests, water
bodies, biodiversity, and ecosystems to maintain ecological balance and support sustainable
development.
6. Sustainable Urban Planning: Designing cities and communities that prioritize walkability, public
transportation, green spaces, energy-efficient buildings, and sustainable infrastructure to enhance
quality of life and reduce environmental impact.
7. Education and Awareness: Promoting education, awareness, and capacity-building initiatives to
empower individuals, communities, and businesses to adopt sustainable practices and lifestyles.
8. Policy and Governance: Developing and implementing policies, regulations, and governance mechanisms
at local, national, and international levels to support sustainable development goals and initiatives.
9. Circular Economy: Promoting the transition from a linear "take-make-dispose" economy to a circular
economy model, where resources are reused, recycled, and regenerated to minimize waste and
maximize resource efficiency.
10. Sustainable Transport: Encouraging the use of public transportation, cycling, walking, and electric
vehicles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and congestion associated with traditional
transportation systems.
11. Access to Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensuring universal access to safe drinking water, adequate
sanitation facilities, and proper wastewater treatment to improve public health, hygiene, and
environmental quality.
12. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture: Implementing measures to prevent overfishing, protect marine
ecosystems, promote sustainable fishing practices, and support responsible aquaculture to ensure the
long-term health and viability of marine resources.
13. Green Finance and Investment: Mobilizing private and public investment towards environmentally
sustainable projects, businesses, and initiatives through mechanisms such as green bonds, impact
investing, and sustainable banking practices.
14. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion: Promoting gender equality, social inclusion, and empowerment of
marginalized communities to ensure that sustainable development efforts benefit all segments of society
and address root causes of inequality and discrimination.
15. Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience Building: Strengthening resilience to natural and man-made
disasters through measures such as early warning systems, infrastructure upgrades, community
preparedness, and ecosystem-based approaches to disaster risk management.
16. Sustainable Tourism: Promoting responsible tourism practices that minimize environmental impact,
preserve cultural heritage, support local economies, and enhance community engagement and
participation.
17. Green Building and Infrastructure: Encouraging the design, construction, and operation of buildings and
infrastructure that are energy-efficient, water-efficient, and environmentally friendly, reducing resource
consumption and carbon emissions.
18. Technology Innovation and Collaboration: Fostering innovation, research, and development of clean and
sustainable technologies, as well as fostering international collaboration and knowledge-sharing to
accelerate progress towards sustainable development goals.
Historical Context of Sustainable Development Goals-

1. At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Agenda 21 was adopted by over 178 countries as a plan
of action for sustainable development.
2. The Millennium Summit in September 2000 led to the adoption of the Millennium Declaration and the
formulation of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to alleviate extreme poverty by 2015.
3. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa in 2002 reaffirmed global
commitments to poverty eradication and environmental protection, emphasizing multilateral
partnerships.
4. The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in 2012 resulted in the adoption
of "The Future We Want," launching the process to develop SDGs to build upon the MDGs.
5. In 2013, the General Assembly established an Open Working Group to propose the SDGs.
6. The negotiation process on the post-2015 development agenda began in January 2015, leading to the
adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs in September 2015.
7. 2015 saw the adoption of significant agreements including the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction, Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development, the Paris Agreement on Climate
Change, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
8. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015,
outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at addressing poverty, improving health and
education, reducing inequality, and combating climate change.
Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030)

1. To bring sustainable development in the mainstream United Nations (UN) launched the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development and SDGs.
2. This universal, integrated and transformative agenda aims to spur actions that will end poverty and build
a more sustainable world over the next 15 years.
3. There are 17 goals and 169 targets specific targets to be achieved by 2030. Reaching the goals requires
action on all fronts – governments, businesses, civil society and people everywhere all have a role to
play.
4. SDGs are not legally binding.
5. SDGs are adopted as part of- “Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development” at UN Sustainable Development Summit in 2015.
6. India adopted SDG in its socio-economic planning and policy making.
7. The six key elements of sustainable development include the following: People, Planet, Justice,
Prosperity, Partnership, and Dignity. Together these elements become the foundation on which
sustainable development goals are founded.
The 17 SDGs are: i) No poverty, ii) Zero Hunger, iii) Good Health and Wellbeing, iv) Quality Education, v)
Gender Equality, vi) Clean Water and Sanitation, vii) Affordable and Clean Energy, viii) Decent Work and
Economic Growth, ix) Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, x) Reducing Inequality, xi) Sustainable
Cities and Communities, xii) Responsible Consumption and Production, xiii) Climate Action, xiv) Life
Below Water, xv) Life on Land, xvi) Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions; and xvii) Partnerships for the
Goals.
Sustainable Development Goal Summit 2023:

1. Leaders from around the world gathered on September 18, 2023, in New York, for the High-level
annual Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Summit and agreed to intensify their efforts to
deliver SDGs by 2030.
2. They reiterated that the Addis Ababa Action Agenda is a crucial component of the 2030
Agenda and called for swift action to implement the UN Secretary-General’s proposal for
a Sustainable Development Goal stimulus, which would significantly increase funding for SDG
implementation by $500 billion annually.
The Addis Ababa Action Agenda:
1. It is a global framework for financing sustainable development.
2. It was adopted at the Third International Conference on Financing for Development in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia in July 2015.
3. The agenda is a comprehensive document that covers a wide range of issues, including domestic
resource mobilization, international development cooperation, trade, debt, and technology
transfer.
UN SDG Index-
1. The Global Indicator Framework (GIF) for SDGs, as the title implies, is a framework of indicators
that facilitates the global monitoring of the 169 targets of the 17 SDGs and allows guiding actions
towards the achievement of the goals by 2030.
2. SDG Index is published as part of Sustainable Development Report.
3. It is a global assessment of countries' progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals.
4. It is published by a group of independent experts at the Sustainable Development Solutions
Network (SDSN).
5. India has been ranked 112th among 166 countries for its performance in 2023 towards achieving
United Nations-mandated Sustainable Development Goals.
6. In India, recognizing the significance of monitoring & tracking the progress of SDGs, and the need
for reliable data for the same, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI),
Government of India developed a National Indicator Framework (NIF).
NITI Aayog’s SDG India Index-
1. Based on National Indicator Framework -NIF of MoSPI, NITI Aayog developed SDG India Index. The
index measures the progress at the national and sub-national level in the country’s journey
towards meeting the Global Goals and targets.
2. It has been successful as an advocacy tool to propagate the messages of sustainability, resilience,
and partnerships, as well.
3. From covering 13 Goals, 39 targets, and 62 indicators in the first edition in 2018-19 to 17 Goals, 54
targets and 100 indicators in the second; the third edition (2021 edition- released in 2023) of the
index covers 17 Goals, 70 targets, and 115 indicators.
Aims and objectives
1. The construction of the index and the ensuing methodology embodies the central objectives of
measuring the performance of States and UTs on the SDGs and ranking them.
2. It aims at supporting States and UTs in identifying areas which require more attention; and
promoting healthy competition among them.
Measures taken to promote Sustainable Development in India

Swachh Bharat mission, Beti Bacho Beti Padhao, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, Smart Cities, Pradhan
Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gram Jyoti Yojana, Namami Gange, National Air Pollution
Control Program, and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, among others.
Differences between MDGs and SDGs-

Aspect Millennium Development Goals Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
(MDGs)
Initiated 2000 by the United Nations 2015 by the United Nations
Number of Goals 8 17
Focus Primarily focused on poverty Broader focus on sustainable development
reduction and basic human covering economic, social, and environmental
needs aspects
Target Date 2015 2030
Global Reach Mainly targeted developing Applicable to all countries, both developed and
countries developing
Ownership Driven by international
Involvement of various stakeholders including
organizations and governments governments, NGOs, and civil society
Indicators Lacked specific indicators at the
Each goal has specific targets and indicators for
outset, later developed monitoring progress
Approach Top-down approach with set More inclusive approach involving
targets consultations and input from various
stakeholders
Comprehensive Limited coverage, primarily Comprehensive coverage addressing broader
Coverage focused on basic needs aspects of sustainable development
Integration Not fully integrated across Emphasizes integration across sectors and
sectors and themes themes to address interconnected challenges
Accountability Less accountability mechanisms Stronger accountability mechanisms including
in place regular reporting and review
5.4 Health Issues: Recent Trends in Disease Burden and Epidemic and Pandemic
Challenges in India
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being". It also states that health is not just the absence of disease or infirmity.
Disease-
A disease is an abnormal condition and negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an
organism, and that is not due to any immediate external injury.
A disease is characterised by various signs and symptoms.
Types of Diseases-
Diseases are primarily categorised into Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases.
Characteristics Infectious Diseases Non-Infectious diseases

Definition Diseases caused by infectious agents (e.g.,
bacteria, viruses, parasites) that can be Diseases that cannot be transmitted from
transmitted from one person to another or person to person or from animals to
from animals to humans. humans;
Transmission Airborne droplets, direct contact with
infected individuals, ingestion of Primarily caused by factors such as
contaminated food or water, or through genetics, lifestyle choices, environmental
vectors like mosquitoes or ticks. factors, and aging.
Agent causing Virus, bacteria, fungus, etc. No agents
infection
Inheritance Cannot be inherited from one generation Can be inherited
factor to another
Example AIDS, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Malaria, Allergies, cancer, heart diseases, diabetes
Cholera
Type of As it can develop almost immediately, it is As it develops over a period of time and
disease acute lasts for long, it is chronic
Laboratory tests (e.g., blood tests, cultures, Medical history, physical examination,
molecular tests), imaging studies, physical diagnostic tests (e.g., blood tests, imaging
Diagnosis examination studies), symptom evaluation
Antibiotics, antiviral drugs, antifungal Medication management, lifestyle
medications, antiparasitic drugs, changes, surgery, physical therapy,
Treatment supportive care rehabilitation
Vaccination, proper hygiene practices, Lifestyle modifications (e.g., healthy diet,
avoiding exposure to infected individuals, exercise), regular screenings, avoiding
Prevention vector control known risk factors, medication adherence
Note: Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens and can spread directly or indirectly (They can be
transmitted through various means, such as contaminated water or food, contact with infected individuals,
or exposure to infected surfaces) , while communicable diseases specifically refer to those that can be
transmitted between individuals (contagious or transmissible between individuals and can spread through
airborne droplets, direct contact, ingestion of contaminated substances, or through vectors like mosquitoes
or ticks).
Microbes and Pathogens-

Microbes are tiny living things that are found all around us and are too small to be seen by the naked eye.
1. A few harmful microbes, for example less than 1% of bacteria, can invade our body (the host) and
make us ill. Microbes cause infectious diseases such as flu and measles.
2. Microbes that cause disease are called pathogens.
3. Most pathogens cause harm to the host by living in (or on) them.
4. The pathogens can enter our body by various means, multiply and interfere with normal vital
activities, resulting in morphological and functional damage. Pathogens have to adapt to life within
the environment of the host. For example, the pathogens that enter the gut must know a way of
surviving in the stomach at low pH and resisting the various digestive enzymes.
Types of Pathogens-
There are 5 types of pathogens that cause disease;
1. Viruses
2. Bacteria
3. Fungi
4. Protozoa (also known as Protoctista).
5. Helminths (Parasitic Worms)
Pathogen/ Bacteria Virus Fungus Protozoa Parasitic
Characteri Worms
stics
Cellular Prokaryotic cells Non-living entities Eukaryotic Unicellular Multicellular
Structure with cell walls composed of cells with cell eukaryotic eukaryotic
made of genetic material walls made of organisms. organisms with
peptidoglycan (DNA or RNA) chitin. complex body
and various surrounded by a structures.
shapes protein coat
(spherical, rod- (capsid).
shaped, spiral).
Mode of Asexual Replicate by Asexual and Asexual (binary
Sexual
Reproduct reproduction by hijacking host cell sexual fission) and
reproduction,
ion binary fission. machinery. (Cannot reproduction sexualoften involving
carry out metabolic through reproduction.
intermediate
processes spores. (Protozoa are
hosts.
independently.) (They obtain larger(They and have
nutrients more complex
specialized
through than bacteria
organs for
absorption and and viruses.)
feeding,
reproduce via reproduction,
spores.) and
movement.)
Methods Airborne Direct contact, Direct contact, Ingestion of Ingestion of
of droplets, direct airborne droplets, inhalation of contaminated contaminated
Transmissi contact, bodily fluids, spores, food or water, food or water,
on contaminated contaminated contaminated insect vectors penetration of
food or water. surfaces. food or water. (e.g., skin (e.g.,
mosquitoes, through contact
flies). with
contaminated
soil), insect
vectors.
Method of Viruses invade Bacteria can Fungi produce Protozoa can Helminths can
Infection host cells and produce toxins that enzymes and invade host physically
hijack their damage host toxins that cells and damage host
cellular tissues or interfere damage host tissues, where tissues through
machinery to with normal tissues and they replicate their feeding
replicate. cellular functions. disrupt normal and cause activities or by
They can cause Some bacteria cellular damage. migrating
damage to host invade host cells functions. Some protozoa through tissues.
cells directly or directly, while They can also produce toxins They can also
trigger an others remain invade host or enzymes produce toxins
immune extracellular and tissues directly that contribute or
response that multiply in tissues through the to tissue immunomodula
leads to tissue or body fluids. production of damage and tory molecules
damage. specialized immune that affect host
structures like evasion. immune
hyphae or responses and
spores. tissue integrity.
Diseases 1. Tuberculosis - 1. Influenza - 1. Athlete's 1. Malaria - 1. Intestinal

Caused Mycobacterium Influenza virus Foot - Plasmodium Worm
tuberculosis 2. COVID-19 - SARS- Trichophyton species Infections -
2. Pneumonia - CoV-2 species Various
2. Amoebiasis -
Streptococcus 3. HIV/AIDS - 2. Candidiasis - roundworms,
Entamoeba
pneumoniae Human Candida hookworms,
histolytica
3. Cholera - Immunodeficiency albicans and tapeworms
Vibrio cholerae Virus 3. Aspergillosis 3. Giardiasis -
2.
4. Lyme Disease 4. Measles - - Aspergillus Giardia lamblia
Schistosomiasis
- Borrelia Measles virus species 4.
- Blood flukes
burgdorferi 5. Hepatitis - 4. Ringworm - Toxoplasmosis
5. Syphilis - Hepatitis viruses (A, Tinea species - Toxoplasma 3. Filariasis -
Treponema B, C, D, E) 5. gondii Filarial worms
pallidum 6. Dengue Fever - Cryptococcosis 5. 4. Ascariasis -
6. Anthrax - Dengue virus - Cryptococcus Trypanosomias Ascaris
Bacillus 7. Ebola Virus species is (African lumbricoides
anthracis Disease - Ebola 6. Sleeping 5. Trichuriasis
7. Tetanus - virus Histoplasmosis Sickness) - (whipworm
Clostridium 8. Herpes - Herpes - Histoplasma Trypanosoma infection) -
tetani simplex virus species brucei Trichuris
8. Whooping 9. Rabies - Rabies 6. trichiura
Cough - virus Leishmaniasis -
Bordetella 10. Poliomyelitis Leishmania

pertussis (Polio) - Poliovirus species
9. Typhoid Fever 7.
- Salmonella Cryptosporidio
typhi sis -
Cryptosporidiu
m species
8. Chagas
Disease -
Trypanosoma
cruzi
Diagnosis PCR tests, Bacterial cultures, Microscopic Microscopic Microscopic
antigen tests, Gram staining, examination, examination of examination of
antibody tests, molecular tests, fungal bodily fluids or stool samples,
and viral and antigen tests. cultures, tissues, blood tests, or
cultures. antigen/antibo serological imaging studies.
dy tests, and tests, and
molecular molecular
tests. tests.
Treatment Antiviral Antibiotics, Antifungal Antiprotozoal Anthelmintic
medications, sometimes medications, medications, medications,
supportive care, combined with often sometimes sometimes
and sometimes supportive care or administered combined with combined with
vaccines for surgery. orally or supportive supportive care
prevention. topically. care. or surgery.
Vaccines Available for Available for No widely Limited Limited vaccines
diseases like diseases like available vaccines available for
influenza, tetanus, vaccines for available for certain
measles, diphtheria, fungal diseases like helminthic
mumps, rubella, pertussis, diseases. malaria. diseases, such
hepatitis, polio, pneumococcal as
and COVID-19. infections, schistosomiasis.
meningococcal
infections, and
certain types of
bacterial
pneumonia.
Parasitic Diseases-
Parasitic diseases are illnesses caused by parasites. Parasites are organisms that live on or inside another
organism (host) and derive nourishment and protection at the host's expense.
Parasites can be carnivorous if living with animals or herbivorous if living with plants.
They are of two types based on where they live:
1. Ectoparasite- Mosquitoes (Malaria, Dengue), leeches (Leech infestation), ticks (Lyme disease)
2. Endoparasite- Tapeworms (Taeniasis), protozoans (Malaria)
National Deworming Day 2024 (Feb 10th 2024)

1. To deworm all pre-school and school-age children between 1 and 19 years old. It aims to optimize
overall health, nutritional status, access to education, and life quality of young children by providing
them with deworming medication. It is done once in 6 months (Twice a year);
2. The initiative started in February 2015, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare leading its
implementation. Activities -administering Albendazole tablets to children in government and
government-aided schools and anganwadi centres, followed by a Mop-Up Day for those who missed
the dose.
3. Deworming helps reduce malnutrition address anaemia, supports physical and mental growth, and
spreads awareness about health and the eradication of Soil Transmitted Helminths (STH). Globally,
24% of the population is infected with STH worms, with around 241 million children in India at risk.
Major Viral Diseases-

Viral Disease Causative Transmission Common Treatment Vaccine
Agent(s) Symptoms
Influenza Influenza viruses Airborne Fever, cough, sore Antiviral Influenza
(Flu) (types A, B, C) droplets, contact throat, fatigue medications vaccine
(e.g.,
oseltamivir)
HIV/AIDS Human Sexual contact, Fever, fatigue, Antiretroviral No vaccine
Immunodeficiency blood weight loss, therapy (ART), available
Virus (HIV) transfusion, opportunistic management
perinatal infections of
transmission opportunistic
infections
COVID-19 Severe Acute Respiratory Fever, cough, Symptomatic COVID-19
Respiratory droplets, contact shortness of treatment, vaccine
Syndrome breath, loss of supportive
Coronavirus 2 taste or smell care,
(SARS-CoV-2) vaccination
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Fecal-oral route Jaundice, fatigue, Vaccination, Hepatitis A
abdominal pain, supportive vaccine
nausea care
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B virus Blood, sexual Jaundice, fatigue, Vaccination, Hepatitis B
contact abdominal pain, antiviral vaccine
nausea therapy,
supportive
care
Hepatitis C Hepatitis C virus Blood, sexual Jaundice, fatigue, Antiviral No vaccine

contact abdominal pain, therapy, available
nausea supportive
care
Measles Measles virus Airborne droplets High fever, cough, Vaccination, MMR
runny nose, rash supportive vaccine
care
Mumps Mumps virus Airborne droplets Swollen salivary Vaccination, MMR
glands, fever, supportive vaccine
headache care
Rubella Rubella virus Airborne droplets Rash, fever, joint Vaccination, MMR
pain, swollen supportive vaccine
glands care
Varicella Varicella-zoster Airborne Itchy rash, fever, Vaccination, Varicella
(Chickenpox) virus droplets, contact fatigue, headache antiviral vaccine
medications
(in severe
cases)
Dengue Dengue virus (four Mosquito bite High fever, severe Symptomatic No specific
Fever serotypes) headache, joint treatment, vaccine
and muscle pain fluid
management
Yellow Fever Yellow fever virus Mosquito bite Fever, headache, Vaccination, Yellow fever
muscle pain, supportive vaccine
jaundice care
Rabies Rabies virus Animal bites Fever, headache, Vaccination, Rabies
muscle weakness, post-exposure vaccine
paralysis prophylaxis,
supportive
care
Polio Poliovirus (types Fecal-oral route Fever, paralysis, Vaccination, Polio
1, 2, 3) muscle weakness supportive vaccine
care
Rotavirus Rotavirus Fecal-oral route Severe diarrhea, Vaccination, Rotavirus
vomiting, fever supportive vaccine
care
Japanese Japanese Mosquito bite Fever, headache, Vaccination, Japanese
Encephalitis encephalitis virus confusion, supportive encephalitis
seizures care vaccine
Major Bacterial Diseases-

Disease Causative Transmission Common Treatment Vaccine
Agent(s) Symptoms
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Airborne Persistent Antibiotics (e.g., BCG
tuberculosis droplets cough, fever, Rifampicin)
weight loss
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Respiratory Sore throat, Antitoxin, DTP
diphtheriae droplets fever, neck Antibiotics
swelling
Pertussis Bordetella Respiratory Severe Antibiotics (e.g., DTP
pertussis droplets coughing fits, Azithromycin)
"whooping"
sound
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Contaminated Muscle Tetanus DTaP,
wounds stiffness, Immunoglobulin, Tdap
spasms Antibiotics
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Contaminated Diarrhea, Oral rehydration, Oral
food or water vomiting Antibiotics cholera
vaccine
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Contaminated High fever, Antibiotics Typhoid
fever food or water abdominal vaccine
pain
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Contact with Skin sores, Antibiotics (e.g., Anthrax
infected fever Ciprofloxacin) vaccine
animals
Leprosy Mycobacterium Prolonged close Skin lesions, Multidrug Therapy No
leprae contact nerve damage (e.g., Dapsone) widely
used
vaccine
Major fungal diseases-
Disease Causative Transmission Common Treatment

Agent(s) Symptoms
Candidiasis Candida albicans Opportunistic, Oral thrush,Antifungal
often from vaginal yeastmedications (e.g.,
infections Fluconazole)
Aspergillosis Aspergillus Inhalation of Lung infections, Antifungal
species spores allergic reactions medications (e.g.,
Voriconazole)
Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus Inhalation of Meningitis, lung Antifungal
neoformans spores infections medications (e.g.,
Amphotericin B)
Histoplasmosis Histoplasma Inhalation of Fever, cough, Antifungal

capsulatum spores chest pain, joint medications (e.g.,
pain Itraconazole)
Blastomycosis Blastomyces Inhalation of Lung infections, Antifungal
dermatitidis spores skin lesions medications (e.g.,
Amphotericin B)
Coccidioidomycosi Coccidioides Inhalation of Fever, cough, Antifungal
s species spores chest pain, joint medications (e.g.,
pain Fluconazole)
Mucormycosis Mucorales fungi Inhalation of Sinusitis, Antifungal
spores pneumonia, black medications (e.g.,
discharge Amphotericin B)
Ringworm Dermatophyte Direct contact Red, itchy, Antifungal
fungi with infected circular rash on medications (e.g.,
the skin Clotrimazole)
Major Parasitic Diseases-

Disease Causative Transmission Common Treatment
Agent(s) Symptoms
Malaria Plasmodium Anopheles Fever, chills, Antimalarial medications
(RTS, S Vaccine) falciparum, P. mosquito bite headache, (e.g., Artemisinin-based
vivax nausea, vomiting combination therapies)
Schistosomiasis Schistosoma Contact with Abdominal pain, Antiparasitic medications

species contaminated diarrhea, blood in (e.g., Praziquantel)
water urine
Leishmaniasis Leishmania Sandfly bite Skin sores, fever, Antiparasitic medications
species enlarged spleen (e.g., Miltefosine)
and liver
Chagas Disease Trypanosoma Triatomine bug Fever, fatigue, Antiparasitic medications
cruzi bite body aches, rash (e.g., Benznidazole)
Guinea Worm Dracunculus Ingestion of Painful blister, Extraction of the worm

Disease medinensis contaminated worm emerging from the body
water from the skin
Onchocerciasis Onchocerca Blackfly bite Skin itching, skin Antiparasitic medications
volvulus nodules, vision (e.g., Ivermectin)
impairment
Lymphatic Wuchereria Mosquito bite Swelling of limbs, Antiparasitic medications
Filariasis bancrofti, Brugia fever, skin (e.g., Albendazole,
malayi thickening Ivermectin)
Sleeping Trypanosoma Tsetse fly bite Fever, headaches, Antiparasitic medications

Sickness brucei joint pain, (e.g., Suramin,
confusion Melarsoprol)
Major Worm related Diseases

Disease Causative Transmission Common Symptoms Treatment
Agent(s)
Ascariasis Ascaris Ingestion of Abdominal pain, Anthelmintic medications
lumbricoides contaminated diarrhea, vomiting, (e.g., Albendazole,
food or water intestinal blockage Mebendazole)
Trichuriasis Trichuris Ingestion of Abdominal pain, Anthelmintic medications
trichiura contaminated diarrhea, bloody stool, (e.g., Albendazole,
food or water anemia Mebendazole)
Hookworm Ancylostoma Penetration of Anemia, fatigue, Anthelmintic medications
infection duodenale, skin by larvae abdominal pain, (e.g., Albendazole,
Necator in diarrhea Mebendazole)
americanus contaminated
soil
Tapeworm Taenia Consumption Abdominal pain, weight Anthelmintic medications
infection solium, of loss, nausea, diarrhea (e.g., Praziquantel)
Taenia contaminated,
saginata undercooked
meat
Filariasis Wuchereria Mosquito bite Swelling of limbs, fever, Antiparasitic medications
(Wuchereriasis) bancrofti, skin thickening (e.g., Albendazole,
Brugia Ivermectin)
malayi
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria and are used to treat bacterial infections.
E.g: Penicillin, Tetracycline etc.
How do antibiotics work?
1. Antibiotics take advantage of the difference between the structure of the bacterial cell and the host’s
cell.
2. They prevent the bacterial cells from multiplying so that the bacterial population remains the same,
allowing the host’s defence mechanism to fight the infection. Or/and
3. They kill the bacteria, for example stopping the mechanism responsible for building their cell walls.
Anti-Virals
1. Antivirals are used to treat viral infections.
2. Most viral infections resolve spontaneously in immunocompetent individuals.
3. The aim of antiviral therapy is to minimize symptoms and infectivity as well as to shorten the duration
of illness.
4. These drugs act by arresting the viral replication cycle at various stages.
5. Currently, antiviral therapy is available only for a limited number of infections.
6. Most of the antiviral drugs currently available are used to treat infections caused by HIV, herpes
viruses, hepatitis B and C viruses, and influenza A and B viruses.
7. Unlike other antimicrobials, antiviral drugs do not deactivate or destroy the virus. They act by
inhibiting replication.
8. In this way, they prevent the viral load from increasing to a point where it could cause pathogenesis.
It allows the body's innate immune mechanisms to neutralize the virus.
Aspect Antivirals Antibiotics

Definition Medications used to treat viral Medications used to treat bacterial infections
infections
Target Viruses Bacteria
Mode of Target specific steps in the viral life Inhibit bacterial growth or kill bacteria by targeting
action cycle to inhibit viral replication specific bacterial structures or processes
Examples Acyclovir, Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), Penicillin, Cephalexin, Azithromycin
Remdesivir
Spectrum Narrow spectrum (target specific Broad spectrum (effective against a wide range of
viruses) bacteria)
Resistance Viruses can develop resistance to Bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics
antiviral drugs
Side effects Can cause nausea, vomiting, Can cause allergic reactions, gastrointestinal
diarrhea, headaches issues, and disruption of the microbiome
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)-

WHO Definition- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability of a microorganism (like bacteria, viruses, and
some parasites) to stop an antimicrobial (such as antibiotics, antivirals and antimalarials) from working
against it. As a result, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist and may spread to others.
When the microorganisms become resistant to most antimicrobials they are often referred to as
“superbugs”.
Fig: Anti-biotic resistance

Antimicrobial resistance is a broader term, encompassing resistance to drugs that treat infections caused by
all microbes, such as bacteria (e.g., Tuberculosis), parasites (e.g., malaria or helminths), viruses (e.g., HIV)
and fungi (e.g., Candida).
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of antibiotics used to treat bacterial
infections (such as urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections) making them ineffective.
It is a subset of antimicrobial resistance.
Global Action:
1. One Health Approach: Requires coordinated efforts across human health, animal health, food
production, and environmental sectors to address AMR effectively.
2. Global Action Plan (GAP) on AMR: Countries have committed to developing and implementing national
action plans with a One Health approach to tackle AMR.
3. Quadripartite Collaboration: WHO works closely with FAO, UNEP, and WOAH to drive multi-stakeholder
engagement and address AMR.
4. High-level Meetings and Conferences: Various high-level meetings and conferences aim to address AMR
globally, set ambitious targets, and garner commitments from countries.
5. World AMR Awareness Week (WAAW): An annual campaign to raise awareness and promote best
practices in combating AMR, WAAW is celebrated from 18 to 24 November every year.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STD):

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are caused by wide range of bacterial, protozoan and fungal agents, viral
agents and ectoparasites.
Major sexually transmitted diseases are Syphilis and Gonorrhoea. Protozoal- Trichosominiasis
Disease (Type) Causative Agent Symptoms Transmission Treatment
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Sores (chancre), Sexual contact, Antibiotics (e.g.,

(Bacterial) rash, fever, congenital penicillin)
fatigue transmission
Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Painful urination, Sexual contact Antibiotics (e.g.,
(Bacterial) abnormal ceftriaxone,
discharge azithromycin)
Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis Painful urination, Sexual contact Antibiotics (e.g.,
(Bacterial) abnormal azithromycin,
discharge doxycycline)
Cancroid Haemophilus ducreyi Painful ulcers, Sexual contact Antibiotics (e.g.,
(Bacterial) swollen lymph azithromycin,
nodes ceftriaxone)
Bacterial Bacterial overgrowth Vaginal discharge, Sexual contact Antibiotics (e.g.,
Vaginosis (BV) odor, itching metronidazole,
clindamycin)
Pelvic Bacterial infection Abdominal pain, Sexual contact Antibiotics (e.g.,

Inflammatory abnormal vaginal ceftriaxone,
Disease (PID) discharge doxycycline)
(Bacterial)
Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis Itching, burning, Sexual contact
Antibiotics (e.g.,
(Protozoal) discharge, urinary metronidazole,
symptoms tinidazole)
Genital herpes Herpes simplex virus Painful sores, Sexual contact, Antiviral
(Viral) itching, flu-likeskin-to-skin medications (e.g.,
symptoms contact acyclovir,
valacyclovir)
Condyloma Human papillomavirus Genital warts, Sexual contact, Removal (e.g.,
acuminatum itching, skin-to-skin cryotherapy, laser
(Viral) discomfort contact therapy)
Molluscum Molluscum Flesh-colored Skin-to-skin Cryotherapy,
contagiosum contagiosum virus bumps, itching contact topical treatments
(Viral)
HIV/AIDS Human Flu-like Sexual contact, Antiretroviral
(Viral) Immunodeficiency symptoms, blood contact, therapy (ART)
Virus fatigue, vertical
opportunistic transmission
infections
Contaminants and Health Impacts-
S.No Pollutant Disease

1 Cadmium Black foot disease
2 Nitrate Blue baby Syndrome
3 Arsenic Itai-Itai disease
4 Mercury Minamata disease
5 Fluoride Skeletal fluorosis
6 Manganese Impairs the intellectual development
7 Uranium Chemical damage to the kidneys
Occupational diseases:
Occupational diseases encompass a range of health conditions resulting from workplace exposure to various
hazards.
Occupational Disease Affected Organ Source
Name
Asbestosis Lungs Inhalation of asbestos fibers
Silicosis Lungs Inhalation of crystalline silica dust
Lead poisoning Nervous system, Exposure to lead dust, fumes, or lead-containing
kidneys, blood products
Mesothelioma Mesothelium (lining of Inhalation of asbestos fibers

lungs, heart, abdomen)
Hand-arm vibration Hands, arms Regular use of vibrating hand tools or machinery
syndrome
Dermatitis Skin Exposure to irritants or allergens in workplace
environments
Byssinosis Lungs Inhalation of cotton, flax, or hemp dust in textile
industry
Black lung disease Lungs Inhalation of coal dust
(Coal workers' pneumoconiosis)
Occupational asthma Lungs Exposure to workplace allergens or irritants
Berylliosis Lungs Inhalation of beryllium dust or fumes
Talc pneumoconiosis Lungs Inhalation of talc dust
Baritosis Lungs Inhalation of barium sulfate dust
Cobalt lung Lungs Inhalation of cobalt dust
Vitamins and Deficiencies:

Vitamins are essential organic compounds required in small amounts for various physiological functions in
the body. They are classified into two main types based on their solubility:
1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
1. Vitamin A (retinol)
2. Vitamin D (calciferol)
3. Vitamin E (tocopherol)
4. Vitamin K (phylloquinone, menaquinone)
Characteristics:
1. Absorbed along with fats in the diet and stored in the body's fatty tissues and liver.
2. Require bile acids for absorption.
3. Excess amounts can accumulate in the body, leading to toxicity.
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins:
1. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
2. Vitamin B complex (includes B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12)
Characteristics:
1. Dissolve in water and are easily absorbed into the bloodstream.
2. Excess amounts are excreted in urine, reducing the risk of toxicity.
3. Not stored in the body for long periods, so regular intake is necessary.
Vitamin Technical Found In Characteristics Deficiency Symptoms

Name
Vitamin A Retinol Liver, fish oil, Fat-soluble, important for vision, Night blindness, dry
dairy products, immune function, and skin skin, impaired immune
carrots health. Acts as an antioxidant. function
Vitamin Thiamine Whole grains, Water-soluble, essential for Beriberi (nerve

B1 pork, legumes, energy metabolism, nerve damage, muscle
nuts function, and carbohydrate weakness), Wernicke-
metabolism. Korsakoff syndrome
(in severe cases)
Vitamin Riboflavin Dairy Water-soluble, essential for Cracks in the corners of
B2 products, eggs, energy production, metabolism the mouth, skin
lean meats, of fats, drugs, and steroids. inflammation, sore
spinach throat
Vitamin Niacin Meat, fish,
Water-soluble, important for Pellagra (skin rash,
B3 poultry, energy metabolism, DNA repair, diarrhea, dementia)
legumes, and cell signaling. Can be
peanuts synthesized from the amino acid
tryptophan.
Vitamin Pyridoxine Meat, fish, Water-soluble, involved in amino Anemia, dermatitis,
B6 poultry, acid metabolism, convulsions,
bananas, neurotransmitter synthesis, and depression
potatoes red blood cell production.
Vitamin Cobalamin Meat, fish, Water-soluble, vital for nerve Anemia, neurological
B12 dairy products, function, DNA synthesis, and red issues (tingling,
fortified foods blood cell formation. numbness), weakness,
fatigue
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid Citrus fruits, Water-soluble, acts as an Scurvy (bleeding gums,
strawberries, antioxidant, essential for fatigue, joint pain),
bell peppers collagen synthesis, wound impaired wound
healing, and immune function. healing
Vitamin D Cholecalciferol Fatty fish, Fat-soluble, synthesized in the Rickets (soft, weak
fortified foods, skin upon sunlight exposure, bones), osteomalacia
sunlight essential for calcium absorption, (bone pain, muscle
bone health, and immune weakness), increased
function. risk of fractures
Vitamin E Tocopherol Nuts, seeds, Fat-soluble, acts as an Nerve damage, muscle
vegetable oils, antioxidant, protects cell weakness, vision
spinach membranes from damage, problems
supports immune function and
skin health.
Vitamin K Phylloquinone Leafy greens, Fat-soluble, essential for blood Excessive bleeding,
broccoli, liver clotting, bone metabolism, and easy bruising,
vascular health. weakened bones
Mineral Deficiency
Minerals are inorganic substances essential for various physiological functions in the human body. They play
crucial roles in maintaining overall health and well-being.
Mineral Food Sources Function Deficiency Symptoms
Iron Red meat, poultry, fish, Haemoglobin production, Anaemia (fatigue, weakness, pale
beans, spinach oxygen transport skin)
Calcium Dairy products, leafy Bone and teeth health, Osteoporosis, muscle cramps,
greens, fortified foods muscle function brittle nails
Magnesium Nuts, seeds, whole Energy metabolism, Muscle weakness, fatigue,
grains, leafy greens muscle function irregular heartbeat
Potassium Bananas, potatoes, Fluid balance, nerve Muscle weakness, irregular
citrus fruits, beans function heartbeat, high blood pressure
Sodium Table salt, processed Fluid balance, nerve Hyponatremia (fatigue,
foods function confusion), high blood pressure
Zinc Meat, shellfish, Immune function, wound Impaired immune function,
legumes, seeds healing delayed wound healing, hair loss
Selenium Brazil nuts, fish, eggs, Antioxidant activity, Weakness, hair loss, cognitive
whole grains thyroid function decline
Iodine Seafood, iodized salt, Thyroid hormone Goiter (enlarged thyroid),
dairy products production hypothyroidism
Phosphorus Dairy products, meat, Bone and teeth health, Weak bones, muscle weakness,
fish, nuts energy metabolism fatigue
Potassium Bananas, potatoes, Fluid balance, nerve Muscle weakness, irregular
citrus fruits, beans function heartbeat, high blood pressure
Copper Shellfish, nuts, seeds, Iron metabolism, Anemia, bone abnormalities,
whole grains antioxidant function frequent infections
Manganese Nuts, seeds, whole Bone health, Impaired growth, bone
grains, leafy greens carbohydrate abnormalities, seizures
metabolism
Fluoride Fluoridated water, Dental health Tooth decay, weakened enamel
seafood
Chromium Broccoli, whole grains, Insulin function Glucose intolerance, high blood
meats sugar levels
Molybdenum Legumes, nuts, whole Enzyme function Fatigue, rapid heart rate, sulfite
grains sensitivity
Cobalt Seafood, meat, dairy Component of vitamin Anemia, neurological symptoms,
products B12 fatigue
Chloride Table salt, processed Fluid balance, acid-base Dehydration, muscle cramps, low
foods balance blood pressure
Zoonotic Diseases-
The term 'Zoonosis' was introduced by Rudolf Virchow in 1880 and later defined by WHO in 1959 as diseases
naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans, impacting global economy and health.
Zoonoses have historical significance in human evolution and pose a major international health challenge.
Disease Causative Transmission Symptoms Prevention Diagnostics

Agent
Rabies Rabies Bite of Flu-like Vaccination of pets, Direct fluorescent
virus infected symptoms, post-exposure antibody (DFA)
animals (e.g., neurological prophylaxis test on skin biopsy
dogs, bats) symptoms (Vaccine for pre- or saliva, PCR
exposure and post- assay, serological
exposure) tests
Hantavirus Hanta Inhalation of Flu-like Rodent control, Serological tests,

Pulmonary viruses virus from symptoms, severe avoiding rodent PCR assay
Syndrome rodent respiratory excreta
(HPS) excreta distress (No vaccine)
Lyme Borrelia
Bite of Bullseye rash, flu- Avoid tick-infested Serological tests
Disease burgdorfe
infected ticks like symptoms, areas, use insect (ELISA), PCR assay
ri joint pain repellents
(No vaccine)
Avian Influenza Contact with Respiratory Avoid contact with Viral culture, PCR
Influenza A viruses infected birds symptoms, fever, sick birds, proper assay, serological
(Bird Flu) pneumonia hygiene tests
(Vaccine is
available)
Mosquito Mosquito control,
bites (Culex personal
species). Fever, headache, protection
West Nile West Nile (neurological body aches, (Vaccine is not
Virus virus ) infection. encephalitis available) Blood tests, PCR
Anthrax Bacillus Contact with Flu-like Vaccination of Microscopy,
anthracis infected symptoms, skin livestock, proper culture,
animals or lesions, severe carcass disposal serological tests
their respiratory (Vaccine is
products distress available)
Plague Yersinia Bite of Fever, chills, Flea control, Microscopy,
pestis infected fleas swollen and avoiding contact culture, PCR assay
or contact painful lymph with infected
with infected nodes animals
animals (Vaccine is
available)
Fruit bat Avoid contact with

exposure, bats, personal
human-to- Fever, headache, protection
Nipah virus Nipah human vomiting, (Vaccine is not PCR, serology,
infection virus contact encephalitis available) imaging
Ebola Virus Ebola virus Contact with Fever, severe Infection control PCR assay, virus
Disease bodily fluids headache, muscle measures, avoiding isolation,
of infected pain, vomiting, contact with serological tests
individuals, diarrhea infected individuals
contact with or animals
infected (Vaccine is
animals available)
Direct
contact with
infected
animals (civet Isolation, infection
cats for SARS, Fever, cough, control, personal
SARS-CoV & Coronavir camels for difficulty protection
MERS-CoV uses MERS) breathing (No vaccine) PCR, imaging
Human-to-
human Isolation, infection
respiratory control, personal
Coronavirus droplets, protection PCR, rapid antigen
disease SARS-CoV- possibly from Fever, cough, loss (Vaccine is tests, antibody
(COVID-19) 2 virus animals of taste/smell available) tests, imaging
Fever, headache,
muscle pain,
hemorrhage
(acute febrile
haemorrhagic
Kyasanur illness in humans Avoid tick bites,
Kyasanur forest Tick bites and monkeys, vaccination
forest disease (Haemaphysa especially in (Vaccine is
disease virus lis spinigera) Karnataka) available) Blood tests, PCR
Mosquito
bites (Aedes
&
Haemagogus
species) An Mosquito control,
acute viral Fever, headache, vaccination
Yellow haemorrhagi muscle pain, (Vaccine is
Yellow fever fever virus c disease. jaundice available) Blood tests, PCR
Mosquito control,
personal
Mosquito protection.
bites (Aedes (Vaccine not is
mosquitoes) available)
Zika can also (Zika infection
be during pregnancy
transmitted Fever, rash, joint can cause
through pain, microcephaly and
Zika virus Zika virus sexual conjunctivitis (red other congenital
contact. eyes) abnormalities.) Blood tests, PCR
Animal-to-
human
transmission
(rodents, Fever, chills, rash, Avoid contact with
monkeys), respiratory animals, personal
Monkeypo human-to- symptoms, protection
(MPox) x virus human swollen lymph (Vaccine is
Monkey pox contact nodes available) PCR, serology
Fever, rash,
Orientia myalgia, necrotic Vaccination
Scrub tsutsugam eschar, cough, (Vaccine is Serological tests,
typhus ushi Rodents headache available) PCR assay
Vector Borne Diseases-

Vectors are living organisms, often bloodsucking insects, capable of transmitting infectious pathogens
between humans or from animals to humans. Once a vector becomes infected, it can transmit the pathogen
for the rest of its life during subsequent blood meals.
Vector-borne diseases:
1. These are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses, and bacteria transmitted by vectors.
2. Examples include malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, Chagas disease, and yellow fever.
3. Major outbreaks of vector-borne diseases like dengue, malaria, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika
have occurred since 2014, leading to significant loss of lives and straining healthcare systems. Other
diseases like Chikungunya, leishmaniasis, and lymphatic filariasis cause chronic suffering, disabilities,
and occasional stigmatization.
4. The distribution of vector-borne diseases is influenced by demographic, environmental, and social
factors. Global travel and trade, unplanned urbanization, and environmental changes play significant
roles in disease spread.
Vector Disease caused Type of pathogen

Mosquito Aedes Chikungunya Virus
Dengue Virus
Lymphatic filariasis Parasite
Rift Valley fever Virus
Yellow Fever Virus
Zika Virus
Anopheles Lymphatic filariasis Parasite
Malaria Parasite
Culex Japanese encephalitis Virus
Lymphatic filariasis Parasite
West Nile fever Virus
Aquatic snails Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) Parasite
Blackflies Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Parasite
Fleas Plague (transmitted from rats to humans) Bacteria
Tungiasis Ectoparasite
Lice Typhus Bacteria
Louse-borne relapsing fever Bacteria
Sandflies Leishmaniasis Parasite
Sandfly fever (phlebotomus fever) Virus
Ticks Lyme disease Bacteria
Rickettsial diseases (eg: spotted fever and Q fever) Bacteria
Tick-borne encephalitis Virus
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)-

NCDs, also known as chronic diseases, result from a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental,
and behavioral factors. The main types include cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases,
and diabetes.
1. Risk Factors: Modifiable behavioral risk factors such as tobacco use, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet,
and alcohol consumption increase the risk of NCDs. Metabolic risk factors like raised blood pressure,
overweight/obesity, high blood glucose, and high blood lipids also contribute to NCD development.
2. Environmental Factors: Environmental risk factors such as air pollution contribute significantly to NCDs,
including stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.
3. Socioeconomic Impact: NCDs threaten progress towards the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals,
particularly in low-income countries, where they increase household costs associated with healthcare
and push people into poverty due to treatment expenses and loss of income.
4. Prevention and Control: Strategies to control NCDs focus on reducing modifiable risk factors and require
collaboration across various sectors. Investing in better management, early detection, and treatment of
NCDs is crucial, particularly through primary healthcare approaches.
Non-Communicable Diseases-
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, are a group of conditions that are not
mainly caused by an acute infection and can result in long-term health consequences. NCDs include:
Parkinson's disease, Autoimmune diseases, Strokes, Heart diseases, Cancers, Diabetes, Chronic kidney
disease, Osteoarthritis, Osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Cataracts, etc.
NCD Causes Impact Prevention and Control

Cardiovascular - Poor diet - Lack of - Leading cause of - Promoting healthy lifestyles -
Diseases physical activity - Tobacco death globally - High Encouraging regular exercise -
use - Excessive alcohol morbidity and Tobacco control measures -
consumption - Genetic mortality rates - Managing risk factors like
factors Significant economic hypertension and hyperlipidemia
burden
Cancer - Environmental factors - - Major cause of - Tobacco cessation programs -
Genetic predisposition - morbidity and Encouraging healthy diets -
Tobacco use - Alcohol mortality - Increasing cancer screenings -
consumption - Poor diet - Significant economic Early detection and treatment
Lack of physical activity burden
Chronic - Smoking - Air pollution - - Reduced quality of - Smoking cessation programs -
Respiratory Occupational exposures - life - High morbidity Reducing exposure to indoor and
Diseases Genetic factors and mortality rates outdoor air pollution -
Occupational safety measures
Diabetes - Genetic factors - Obesity - High morbidity and - Promoting healthy diets -
- Sedentary lifestyle - mortality rates - Encouraging regular exercise -
Unhealthy diet Complications like Screening and early diagnosis -
kidney failure, Managing blood sugar levels
blindness, and
amputation
Neurological - Genetic factors - - Reduced quality of - Promoting brain health -
Disorders Environmental factors - life - Cognitive Preventing head injuries - Early
Aging - Traumatic brain impairment - High diagnosis and management -
injury healthcare costs Supportive care and rehabilitation
Mental Health - Genetic predisposition - - Impaired - Promoting mental health
Disorders Environmental stressors - functioning - awareness - Access to mental
Trauma - Substance Reduced quality of health services - Psychotherapy
abuse - Social isolation life - Increased risk of and medication - Supportive
suicide - High environments
healthcare costs
Musculoskeletal - Aging - Injury - Overuse - - Pain and disability - - Promoting physical activity -
Disorders Poor posture - Obesity Reduced mobility Ergonomic workplace design -
and function - High Weight management -
healthcare costs Rehabilitation and physical
therapy
Note:
Metastasis: Metastasis in cancer is the spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor to distant organs or
tissues. It is also known as Stage 4 cancer. It involves invasion, circulation through the bloodstream or
lymphatic system, and colonization at new sites. Metastasis contributes to cancer-related morbidity and
mortality, complicating treatment and prognosis. Diagnosis relies on imaging, and treatment often involves
systemic therapies.
Substance abuse (Drug and Alcohol Abuse)–

Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and
illicit drugs.
Drug Abuse-
Drug abuse refers to the excessive use of drugs that tends to activate the brain reward system that reinforces
behaviours and the production of memories.
Opioids, cannabinoids, and coca alkaloids are frequently abused substances. These drugs are often derived
from flowering plants or fungi.
Specific Drugs and Effects:
Opioids: Examples include heroin, derived from morphine, and often lead to respiratory depression and
slowed body functions.
Cannabinoids: Obtained from the cannabis plant, they affect the cardiovascular system and are commonly
used in various forms like marijuana and hashish.
Coca Alkaloids (Cocaine): Derived from the coca plant, cocaine is a potent stimulant affecting the central
nervous system, causing euphoria, increased energy, and hallucinations.
Other Drug Types: Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, LSD, and similar drugs are also abused,
often for their psychoactive effects.
Injecting drugs carries a high risk of infection with bloodborne viruses such as HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis
C, and the sharing of contaminated needles and syringes is an important mode of transmission for those
viruses.
Alcohol Abuse-
Alcohol is a psychoactive substance with dependence-producing properties that has been widely used in
many cultures for centuries.
Alcohol-related harm is determined by the volume of alcohol consumed, the pattern of drinking, and, on
rare occasions, the quality of alcohol consumed. The harmful use of alcohol is a component cause of more
than 200 disease and injury conditions in individuals, most notably alcohol dependence, liver cirrhosis,
cancers and injuries.
Effects of Abuse: Drug and alcohol abuse can result in reckless behavior, violence, coma, and death. Chronic
abuse can lead to mental and physical health problems, addiction, and social issues.
Prevention and Control:
Education and counselling play a crucial role in preventing substance abuse, especially among adolescents.
Parents, teachers, and peers should be vigilant for warning signs and provide support to those at risk.
Seeking professional help from psychologists, psychiatrists, and addiction rehabilitation programs is
essential for individuals struggling with substance abuse.
Genetic disorders-
A genetic disorder is a condition caused by abnormalities or mutations in an individual's DNA sequence.
These disorders can be inherited from one or both parents or may occur as a result of spontaneous
mutations. Genetic disorders can affect various aspects of health, including physical traits, metabolism,
organ function, and susceptibility to certain diseases. They can manifest in infancy, childhood, or adulthood,
and their severity can range from mild to severe. Examples of genetic disorders include cystic fibrosis, sickle
cell anemia, Huntington's disease, and Down syndrome.
Genetic Disorder Symptoms Characteristics

Down Syndrome Intellectual disability, characteristic Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome 21), mild
facial features (such as almond-shaped to moderate intellectual impairment,
eyes, flat face), heart defects, increased risk of certain health
developmental delays conditions
Cystic Fibrosis Chronic cough, recurrent lung infections, Autosomal recessive inheritance,
difficulty breathing, digestive problems defective CFTR gene, thick and sticky
(malabsorption, pancreatic mucus production, affects lungs,
insufficiency) pancreas, liver, intestines
Huntington's Involuntary movements (chorea), Autosomal dominant inheritance,
Disease cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms progressive neurodegenerative disorder,
(depression, irritability), impaired caused by CAG repeat expansion in HTT
coordination gene
Duchenne Progressive muscle weakness, difficulty X-linked recessive inheritance,
Muscular walking, delayed motor milestones, mutations in DMD gene, absence of
Dystrophy enlarged calves (pseudohypertrophy) dystrophin protein, affects skeletal and
cardiac muscles
Hemophilia Prolonged bleeding, easy bruising, joint X-linked recessive inheritance, deficiency
pain/swelling (hemarthrosis), frequent of clotting factors VIII (hemophilia A) or
nosebleeds IX (hemophilia B), bleeding disorder
Fragile X Intellectual disability, developmental X-linked dominant inheritance, CGG
Syndrome delays, behavioral problems repeat expansion in FMR1 gene, most
(hyperactivity, anxiety), distinctive common inherited cause of intellectual

physical features (long face, large ears) disability
Turner Syndrome Short stature, webbed neck, low Monosomy X (missing one X
hairline, infertility, heart defects, chromosome in females), affects
delayed puberty females, various physical and
developmental features
Williams Developmental delays, intellectual Microdeletion on chromosome 7,
Syndrome disability, distinctive facial features hypersociability, friendly demeanor,
(elfin-like appearance), cardiovascular musicality
abnormalities
Neurofibromatosis Café-au-lait spots (light brown skin Autosomal dominant inheritance,
type 1 patches), neurofibromas (benign tumors mutation in NF1 gene, variable
on nerves), learning disabilities, skeletal expressivity, affects nervous system and
abnormalities skin
Phenylketonuria Intellectual disability, developmental Autosomal recessive inheritance,
(PKU) delays, seizures, musty odor in urine, fair deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase
skin and hair enzyme, inability to metabolize
phenylalanine
Marfan Syndrome Tall stature, long limbs, joint Autosomal dominant inheritance,
hypermobility, lens dislocation (ectopia mutation in FBN1 gene, affects
lentis), aortic root dilation connective tissue, skeletal, ocular, and
cardiovascular systems
Sickle Cell Anemia Fatigue, anemia, pain crises (due to Autosomal recessive inheritance,
vaso-occlusion), jaundice, increased mutation in HBB gene, abnormal
susceptibility to infections hemoglobin (hemoglobin S), affects red
blood cells and oxygen transport
Prader-Willi Poor muscle tone (hypotonia), Genetic imprinting disorder, deletion or
Syndrome hyperphagia (excessive eating), loss of function in chromosome 15q11-
intellectual disability, short stature, 13 region, characteristic features and
behavioral problems behavioral phenotype
Rare Diseases-
Rare diseases, also known as orphan diseases, are medical conditions that affect a small percentage of the
population. In most countries, a disease is considered rare when it affects fewer than 1 in 2,000 individuals.
These diseases often pose significant challenges for diagnosis, treatment, and research due to their limited
prevalence and the resulting lack of awareness and resources.
Rare diseases encompass a wide range of conditions, including genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases,
infectious diseases, and certain types of cancer. Examples of rare diseases include cystic fibrosis,
Huntington's disease, muscular dystrophy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
Rare Symptoms Characteristics

Disorder
Duchenne Progressive muscle weakness, difficulty X-linked recessive inheritance, mutations in
Muscular walking, delayed motor milestones, DMD gene, absence of dystrophin protein,
Dystrophy enlarged calves (pseudohypertrophy) affects skeletal and cardiac muscles
Thalassemia Fatigue, weakness, pale skin, jaundice, Autosomal recessive inheritance, abnormal
bone deformities hemoglobin production, leads to anemia
Wilson's Liver dysfunction (jaundice, abdominal Autosomal recessive inheritance, impaired
Disease pain), neurological symptoms (tremors, copper metabolism, accumulation of copper in
difficulty walking), Kayser-Fleischer liver and other organs
rings
Gaucher Enlarged liver and spleen, skeletal Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
Disease abnormalities, anemia, easy bruising glucocerebrosidase enzyme, accumulation of
glucocerebroside in cells
Osteogenesis Bone fractures with minimal trauma, Autosomal dominant inheritance (most cases),
Imperfecta blue sclera, short stature mutations in COL1A1 or COL1A2 genes, brittle
bones, often called "brittle bone disease"
Spinal Muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, Autosomal recessive inheritance,
Muscular poor muscle tone degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal
Atrophy cord
Alkaptonuria Dark urine, arthritis, pigmentation of Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
connective tissues homogentisic acid oxidase, accumulation of
homogentisic acid in tissues
Pompe Muscle weakness (especially in legs), Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
Disease respiratory problems, enlarged heart acid alpha-glucosidase enzyme, glycogen
(cardiomyopathy) accumulation in tissues
Congenital Ambiguous genitalia in females, early Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
Adrenal puberty in males, salt-wasting crisis in enzymes involved in cortisol production,
Hyperplasia infancy disruption of adrenal gland function
Hemophilia Prolonged bleeding, easy bruising, joint X-linked recessive inheritance, deficiency of
pain/swelling (hemarthrosis), frequent clotting factors VIII (hemophilia A) or IX
nosebleeds (hemophilia B), bleeding disorder
Fabry Disease Pain and burning sensations in hands X-linked recessive inheritance, deficiency of
and feet (acroparesthesia), alpha-galactosidase A enzyme, accumulation
angiokeratomas, kidney problems of glycolipids in cells
Mucopoly- Skeletal abnormalities, coarse facial Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
saccharidoses features, organ enlargement, enzymes involved in glycosaminoglycan
developmental delays metabolism, accumulation of
mucopolysaccharides in tissues
Phenyl- Intellectual disability, developmental Autosomal recessive inheritance, deficiency of
ketonuria delays, seizures, musty odor in urine, phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme, inability
(PKU) fair skin and hair to metabolize phenylalanine
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) -

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a group of infectious diseases that primarily affect populations in
tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in low-income and marginalized communities.
These diseases are often endemic in areas with poor sanitation, limited access to clean water, and
inadequate healthcare infrastructure. NTDs tend to thrive in conditions of poverty, contributing to a cycle of
disease and poverty in affected regions.
Examples-
Buruli ulcer, Chagas disease, cysticercosis, dengue, dracunculiasis, echinococcosis, endemic
treponematoses, foodborne trematode infections, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, leprosy,
lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, rabies, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiases, and trachoma,
Noma (Added in Dec 2023).
Epidemics and Pandemics-

Terms Definition Characteristics Examples
Outbreak An outbreak refers to - Typically localized to a specific area or community. - Nipah virus
the occurrence of cases - Can be triggered by various factors such as changes outbreak in
of a particular disease in weather, introduction of a new pathogen, or Kerala
in a population or breakdowns in sanitation. (2018)
geographical area that - Response measures may include increased - Dengue
is greater than what is surveillance, public health education, and targeted outbreak in
normally expected. interventions to control the spread. Delhi (2015)
Endemic Endemic refers to the - Represents the baseline level of disease - - Malaria in
constant presence or occurrence within a defined population or area. parts of
usual prevalence of a - Occurs regularly and predictably within the India -
disease within a population. Tuberculosis
specific population, - May be influenced by factors such as in certain
geographical area, or environmental conditions, host immunity, and the regions of
region. presence of disease reservoirs. India
- Endemic diseases often have established control
measures in place, and the population may develop
some level of immunity over time.
Epidemic An epidemic is the - Involves a sudden increase in the number of cases -- Cholera
occurrence of cases of of a disease beyond what is typically seen in a given epidemic in
a particular disease in a population or area. Kolkata
community or region - Can affect a single community, multiple (1817)
that is clearly in excess communities, or an entire region. - H1N1
of normal expectancy. - Often associated with the introduction of a new influenza
pathogen, breakdowns in public health measures, outbreak in
or changes in social behaviors. India (2015)
- Requires heightened surveillance, rapid response
efforts, and implementation of control measures to
prevent further spread.
Pandemic A pandemic is an - Spreads rapidly across multiple countries and -COVID-19

epidemic occurring continents, affecting diverse populations. pandemic
worldwide, or over a - Represents the highest level of disease outbreak, (ongoing)
very wide area, often leading to widespread illness, significant - H1N1
crossing international societal disruption, and strain on healthcare influenza
boundaries, and systems. pandemic
usually affecting a large - Declared by international health authorities such (2009)
number of people. as the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Requires coordinated global response efforts,
including travel restrictions, quarantine measures,
vaccination campaigns, and international
collaboration to control transmission and mitigate
impact.
Major pandemics and epidemics in India-

Year Disease Description Location
1915- Encephalitis An acute contagious disease affecting the central nervous system, Worldwide
1926 Lethargica characterized by symptoms such as lethargy, drowsiness, and
apathy. Spread globally but sporadic in India.
1918- Spanish Flu Caused by a deadly strain of avian influenza, spread due to World Global
1920 War I. Indian soldiers returning from the war were carriers.
1961- Cholera Vibrio Cholerae caused a global cholera pandemic, spreading Asia, India
1975 Pandemic rapidly through Asia, reaching Bangladesh and India. Kolkata was a
major epicenter due to poor water sanitation.
1968- Flu Caused by the H3N2 strain of influenza A virus, originating in Hong Hong Kong
1969 Pandemic Kong and spreading rapidly worldwide, including to India.
1974 Smallpox Smallpox outbreak with 60% of cases reported in India. National India
Epidemic Smallpox Eradication Program (NSEP) launched to combat the
disease.
1994 Plague in Pneumonic plague outbreak in Surat, exacerbated by poor Surat, India
Surat sanitation. Mass migration spread the disease across India.
2002- SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) caused by SARS-CoV Global
2004 virus, transmissible through coughing and sneezing. Rapidly spread
globally, including to India.
2006 Dengue and Mosquito-borne diseases with outbreaks across India due to India
Chikungunya stagnant water providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
2009 Gujarat Hepatitis B outbreak in Gujarat attributed to contaminated Gujarat,
Hepatitis syringes used by local doctors. India
Outbreak
2014- Odisha Outbreak of jaundice in Odisha due to contaminated water supply, Odisha,
2015 Jaundice leading to widespread illness. India
Outbreak
2014- Swine Flu H1N1 virus outbreak affecting several states in India, resulting in Multiple
2015 Outbreak numerous cases and deaths. states in
India
2017 Encephalitis Increase in deaths of children in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, due to Gorakhpur,
Outbreak Japanese encephalitis and acute encephalitis syndrome. Uttar
Pradesh
2018 Nipah Virus Infection caused by fruit bats reported in Kerala, leading to rapid Kerala, India
Outbreak implementation of preventive measures to contain the outbreak.
2019 Coronavirus New strain of coronavirus discovered in 2019, leading to a global Global
(COVID-19) pandemic. Causes respiratory illness with symptoms such as fever,
cough, and difficulty breathing. First identified in Wuhan, China,
but rapidly spread worldwide, including to India.
5.5 Preparedness and Response: Healthcare Delivery and Outcomes in India
Indian Health Care System-

The healthcare system in India operates on a three-tier structure, consisting of primary, secondary, and
tertiary care facilities:
1. Primary Healthcare System: This comprises Sub Health Centres, Primary Health Centres, and
Community Health Centres, serving both urban and rural areas. These facilities form the backbone of
India's primary healthcare system and are essential for providing basic healthcare services to the
population.
2. Secondary Care Facilities: District Hospitals, Sub-District Hospitals, and First Referral Units
(Community Health Centres) provide secondary care services. These facilities are equipped to handle
more complex medical cases and provide specialized medical services.
3. Tertiary Care Facilities: Medical Colleges and State-level Institutions offer tertiary care services,
catering to advanced medical treatment, specialized surgeries, and medical education and research.
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, extends technical and financial support to
states and union territories (UTs) to strengthen public healthcare facilities.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR):

1. ICMR, under the Department of Health Research, is responsible for formulating, coordinating, and
promoting biomedical research in India.
2. Research priorities align with national health priorities, covering communicable and non-
communicable diseases, maternal and child health, environmental health, mental health, and drug
research.
3. ICMR conducts professional development training, capacity building programs, research fellowships,
and offers positions like Emeritus Scientist to support medical research.
4. ICMR collaborates globally through MoUs with leading universities, focusing on health issues such as
cancer, diabetes, infectious diseases, and vaccine development.
5. Intramural research is carried out through a network of 27 institutes/centers, covering various
disease areas and basic medical sciences. Extramural research is promoted through centers for
advanced research and task force studies, along with open-ended research grants.
COVID-19 Pandemic:
1. Significant expansion of COVID-19 testing capacity, with RT-PCR testing available across the country.
2. Development and rollout of indigenous COVID-19 vaccines Covaxin and Covishield.
3. Studies demonstrating vaccine effectiveness against variants and in real-world settings.
4. Launch of i-Drone initiative for drone-based delivery of COVID-19 vaccines.
5. Conducting the third and fourth National Serosurveys to assess seroprevalence.
Other Communicable Diseases:

1. National TB Prevalence survey to assess the burden of TB and identify hotspots.
2. Funding 32 projects under the Malaria Elimination Research Alliance (MERA) India initiative.
3. Impact evaluation of Antiretroviral Treatment under the National AIDS Control Programme.
Non-Communicable Diseases & Nutrition:
1. Release of reports on the clinico-pathological profile of cancers in India and the Northeast region.
2. Development of MUDRA Toolbox for dementia and mild cognitive impairment research.
3. First comprehensive estimates of disease burden from neurological disorders in every state of India.
Other Achievements:
1. Establishment of new infrastructure including Regional Medical Research Centre in Gorakhpur and
BSL-3 facility at ICMR-National JALMA Institute of Leprosy.
2. Launch of "ICMR at IITs" initiative for medical device and diagnostics sector.
3. Release of National Guidelines for Data Quality in Surveys.
4. Collaboration with UNEP on the environmental dimension of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR).
5. Selection of candidates for various fellowship programs and financial support schemes.
6. International cooperation through MoUs with NHRC Nepal, FIND Switzerland, GARDP Foundation,
and others.
7. Processing of fellowships and ad-hoc projects to support health research in medical colleges,
institutes, and universities.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) –

FSSAI plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and standards of food products consumed by the Indian
population.
1. Establishment and Objective: FSSAI was established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006,
with the goal of ensuring safe and wholesome food for human consumption by laying down science-
based standards and regulating food manufacture, storage, distribution, sale, and import.
2. Scientific Panels and Committees: FSSAI has set up scientific panels and committees comprising
independent experts to assess risks and provide scientific opinions on food safety matters.
3. Standard Development: FSSAI continually works on developing and revising science-based standards
for various food products. Several final and draft notifications were issued in 2021 regarding food
standards and regulations.
4. Amendments Proposed: FSSAI has proposed amendments to the Food Safety and Standards Act,
2006, to address concerns of food business operators, enhance consumer safety, and expedite
regulatory processes.
5. Network of Scientific Cooperation: FSSAI established the Network of Scientific Cooperation for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition (NetSCoFAN) to promote scientific cooperation and exchange of
information among research and academic institutions.
6. Licensing and Registration: All food business operators in India are required to be registered or
licensed under the Food Safety and Standards Act. FSSAI has issued a significant number of licenses
and registrations to date.
7. Enforcement: Enforcement of food safety regulations primarily rests with the State Governments and
Union Territories, with FSSAI providing coordination and support.
8. Food Safety Index: FSSAI developed a State Food Safety Index to measure the performance of
states/UTs in ensuring food safety. Gujarat, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu ranked highest among larger
states.
9. Mobile Application: FSSAI launched the "Food Safety Connect" mobile application for consumers and
food business operators to access important information and resources.
10. Food Safety on Wheels: FSSAI sanctioned additional Food Safety on Wheels (FSW) units to enhance
food testing capabilities, especially in remote areas.
11. Import Regulations: FSSAI regulates food imports into India through its Import Regulations. The
process involves integration with the Customs' ICE-GATE for clearance.
12. Training Programs: FSSAI conducts various training programs under the Food Safety Training and
Certification (FoSTaC) Programme to educate food handlers and regulatory personnel.
13. Eat Right India Movement: FSSAI launched the Eat Right India movement to promote healthy and
sustainable food practices among consumers and food businesses.
National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC):

Objective: Headquarters in Delhi with branches across India, NCDC focuses on disease surveillance, outbreak
investigations, and public health capacity building.
Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) of NCDC:
1. Covers all states and UTs to strengthen laboratory-based IT-enabled disease surveillance systems.
2. Detected and responded to outbreaks of various epidemic-prone diseases, including COVID-19.
3. Rolled out the Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP) to facilitate real-time health information
exchange.
4. Conducts public health capacity building, outbreak investigations, and disaster management
activities.
5. Administers the India Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) Programme to train officers and support
disease surveillance efforts.
6. Provides technical support for the National Programme for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance
and Consumption (AMR).
INSACOG (Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium):
1. Established to monitor genomic variations in SARS-CoV-2 and aid public health response.
2. Conducts whole-genome sequencing of virus samples from sentinel sites and surge surveillance for
districts with COVID-19 clusters.
3. Conducts screening at Points of Entry (POE) to identify new variants, including the recent threat of
the Omicron variant.
AYUSH-
The Ministry of AYUSH has been actively promoting traditional medicine systems and addressing the
challenges posed by emerging health challenges through various initiatives:
1. National AYUSH Mission (NAM): Implemented to provide cost-effective AYUSH services by upgrading
hospitals, dispensaries, educational institutions, and establishing new healthcare centers. The
scheme has been extended until 2026 with a significant financial implication.
2. Facilitating Licensing Process: State authorities have been directed to expedite the licensing process
for AYUSH healthcare products to meet the increased demand for immunity-boosting and sanitizer
manufacturing.
3. Champion Services Sector Scheme for Medical Value Travel: Aimed at promoting medical tourism in
traditional medicine, with sub-schemes focusing on establishing super-specialty hospitals/day care
centres, skill development, and establishing the AYUSH Grid for digitization of data.
4. AYUSH Oushadhi Gunvatta Evam Uttpadan Samvardhan Yojana (AOGUSY): A central sector scheme
aimed at enhancing manufacturing capabilities and exports of traditional medicines and health
promotion products. It also aims to strengthen regulatory frameworks and encourage collaborations
for promoting standards and quality of AYUSH drugs and materials.
5. Export Promotion Council (EPC) for AYUSH Products: Approved by the Ministry of Commerce and
Industry to facilitate the promotion of exports of AYUSH products and services, along with
harmonization and standardization of regulatory practices.
6. Ayurveda Ahar with FSSAI: Collaboration with FSSAI to promote the Ayurveda-based food industry,
aimed at developing standards and guidelines.
7. Skill Development: Formation of a Sub Council on AYUSH in Healthcare Sector Skill Council (HSSC) to
develop skilled manpower in the AYUSH sector.
Mainstreaming of AYUSH:
1. AYUSH services have been integrated into various levels of the healthcare system, including PHCs,
CHCs, DHs, and other health facilities.
2. Allocation of AYUSH services in 7,452 PHCs, 2,811 CHCs, 487 DHs, 4,022 health facilities above SC but
below blocks level, and 456 health facilities other than CHC at or above block level but below district
level.
3. Infrastructure Development:
4. Up to 33% of NHM funds in High Focus states can be used for infrastructure development.
5. Construction and renovation/upgradation of various healthcare facilities under NHM, including SCs,
PHCs, CHCs, SDHs, and DHs.
National Health Policy 2017-

The National Health Policy of 1983 and the National Health Policy of 2002 have effectively guided the health
sector approach in Five-Year Plans.
However, the current context presents significant changes, notably in health priorities.
1. While maternal and child mortality rates have decreased, there's a growing burden from non-
communicable diseases and certain infectious diseases.
2. Another significant change is the emergence of a robust healthcare industry, estimated to grow at
double-digit rates.
3. Additionally, there's a rise in catastrophic expenditure due to healthcare costs, contributing
significantly to poverty.
4. Furthermore, economic growth has led to enhanced fiscal capacity, prompting the need for a new
health policy to address these changes.
The National Health Policy, 2017 (NHP, 2017), aims to ensure comprehensive wellness and achieve universal
health coverage. It seeks to provide quality healthcare services to all segments of the population at an
affordable cost.
Objectives:
Improve health status through concerted policy action across all sectors.
Expand preventive, promotive, curative, palliative, and rehabilitative services with a focus on quality.
Specific Quantitative Goals and Objectives:

1. Increase Life Expectancy at birth to 70 by 2025.
2. Reduce Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to 2.1 by 2025.
3. Reduce Under Five Mortality to 23 by 2025.
4. Reduce Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to 100 by 2020.
5. Achieve and maintain elimination status of certain diseases by specific years.
6. Increase utilization of public health facilities by 50% by 2025.
7. Ensure antenatal care coverage and skilled attendance at birth above 90% by 2025.
8. Maintain >90% family planning need satisfaction by 2025.
9. Decrease tobacco use prevalence by 15% by 2020 and 30% by 2025.
10. Reduce stunting of under-five children by 40% by 2025.
11. Ensure access to safe water and sanitation for all by 2020.
12. Decrease occupational injury by half by 2020.
Health Systems Strengthening:
1. Increase health expenditure by Government to 2.5% of GDP by 2025.
2. Increase State sector health spending to >8% of their budget by 2020.
3. Decrease proportion of households facing catastrophic health expenditure by 25% by 2025.
4. Ensure availability of paramedics and doctors as per norms in high priority districts by 2020.
5. Strengthen health information systems and establish registries for diseases by 2020.
6. Establish federated integrated health information architecture by 2025.
Universal health coverage (UHC) means that all people have access to the full range of quality health
services they need, when and where they need them, without financial hardship. It covers the full
continuum of essential health services, from health promotion to prevention, treatment, rehabilitation,
and palliative care across the life course.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS) -5

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) conducts the National Family Health Survey (NFHS)
once in every three years, and five rounds of surveys have been completed thus far.
1. NFHS-1: 1992-1993
2. NFHS-2: 1998-1999
3. NFHS-3: 2005-2006
4. NFHS-4: 2015-2016
5. NFHS-5: 2019-2020
NFHS serves as a vital tool for gathering high-quality, reliable, and comparable data on population dynamics,
health indicators, emerging health and family welfare issues, and related domains.
According to the fifth round of NFHS conducted by MoHFW during 2019-21, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has
decreased to 2.0 children per woman from 2.2 children per woman recorded in the fourth round of NFHS
conducted during 2015-16. This decline has led to the achievement of the replacement level of fertility,
which is 2.1 children per woman.
Key Metrics-
NFHS-5 NFHS-4
S.No
Indicator (2019-21) (2015-16)
Fertility and Family Planning
1 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 2.0 2.2
Women age 15-19 years who were already mothers or
2 6.8 7.9
pregnant at the time of the survey (%)
3 Current Use of Family Planning Methods-Any method (%) 66.7 53.5
Current Use of Family Planning Methods-Any modern

4 56.4 47.8
method (%)
5 Total unmet need for Family Planning (%) 9.4 12.9
Maternity and Delivery Care
Mothers who had an antenatal check-up in the first
6 70.0 58.6
trimester (%)
7 Mothers who had at least 4 antenatal care visits (%) 58.5 51.2
Mothers who received postnatal care from a
8 doctor/nurse/LHV/ANM/midwife/other health personnel 78.0 62.4
within 2 days of delivery (%)
9 Institutional births (%) 88.6 78.9
Child Vaccination and Child Feeding Practices
Children age 12-23 months fully vaccinated based on
10 information from either vaccination card or mother's recall 76.6 62.0
(%)
11 Children under age 6 months exclusively breastfed (%) 63.7 54.9
Infant and Child Mortality Rates (per 1000 live births)

12 Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR) 24.9 29.5
13 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 35.2 40.7
14 Under-five Mortality Rate (U5MR) 41.9 49.7
Other Important Findings of NFHS 5:

Indicator Findings
Sex Ratio 1,020 women per 1,000 men
Total Fertility 2.0 children per woman
Rate (TFR)
Children's - Stunting: 36% - Wasting: 19% - Underweight: 32% - Overweight: 3.4%

Nutrition
Anaemia - Under-5 children: 67% - Women: 57% - Men: 25%
Immunization - Full immunization: 76%
Institutional 89% of births take place in health facilities
Births
Family Planning - Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR): 67% - Unmet need for family planning: 9%
Breastfeeding Exclusive breastfeeding to children under six months: 64%
Women's - Women operating bank accounts: 79%
Empowerment
Let us understand the terms mentioned in the above table-

1. Sex Ratio:
It refers to the number of females per 1,000 males in a population.
A sex ratio of 1,020 women per 1,000 men means that there are more women than men in the
population.
2. Total Fertility Rate (TFR):
TFR indicates the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive years
(usually defined as ages 15-49).
A TFR of 2.0 children per woman means that, on average, each woman is expected to have two children
in her lifetime.
A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, where each generation exactly replaces itself without
adding to or reducing the population.
3. Children's Nutrition:
Stunting: Refers to impaired growth and development in children due to chronic undernutrition,
indicated by low height-for-age.
Wasting: Indicates recent and severe weight loss in children, often associated with acute malnutrition,
indicated by low weight-for-height.
Underweight: Refers to children whose weight is below the standard for their age.
Overweight: Indicates excess weight in children relative to their height and age.
4. Anaemia:
It is a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or of hemoglobin in the blood, resulting
in pallor and weariness.
High rates of anaemia are concerning, particularly among children and women, as it can lead to various
health complications.
5. Immunization:
Refers to the percentage of children who have received the recommended vaccinations for their age.
Full immunization coverage indicates that children have received all vaccines according to the national
immunization schedule.
6. Institutional Births:
Refers to the percentage of births that occur in health facilities, such as hospitals or clinics, under the
care of trained medical professionals.
7. Family Planning:
Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR): Indicates the percentage of women who are currently using
contraception.
Unmet need for family planning: Refers to the percentage of women who want to avoid or delay
pregnancy but are not using any contraception method.
8. Breastfeeding:
Exclusive breastfeeding: Refers to feeding an infant only breast milk for the first six months of life,
without any additional food or drink.
9. Women's Empowerment:
Refers to various indicators of women's economic, social, and political empowerment, such as their
ability to operate bank accounts.
5.6 Recent Public Health Initiatives and Programmes.
Public Health is a state subject; hence, the responsibility of providing medical assistance to patients of all
income group is of respective State/ UT Governments.
However, National Health Mission (NHM) – a flagship programme of the Ministry with its two Sub-Missions,
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and National Urban Health Mission (NUHM), supports States /UTs to
strengthen their health care systems so as to provide universal access to equitable, affordable and quality
health care services.
The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)

It was launched in 2005 with the aim of improving healthcare services, especially in rural areas.
NRHM has been integrated as a Sub Mission within the broader framework of the National Health Mission
(NHM), along with the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM).
NHM provides support to States and Union Territories (UTs) for five main components:
1. Health Systems Strengthening, which includes enhancing infrastructure, human resources, provision
of drugs and equipment, ambulances, Mobile Medical Units (MMUs), and Accredited Social Health
Activists (ASHAs), among others, under both NRHM and NUHM.
2. Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child, and Adolescent Health Services (RMNCH + A).
3. Communicable Disease Control Programmes.
4. Non-Communicable Diseases Control Programme interventions up to the district hospital level.
5. Infrastructure Maintenance, which supports the salary of Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) and Lady
Health Visitors (LHVs), among others.
Since public health is a state subject, support under NHM is provided to States and UTs based on their
requirements outlined in their Programme Implementation Plans (PIPs).
Core Strategy of NRHM-
The core strategies of NRHM include, decentralized village and district level health planning and
management, appointment of Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) to facilitate access to health services,
strengthening the public health service delivery infrastructure, particularly at village, primary and secondary
levels, mainstreaming AYUSH, improved management capacity 2 to organize health systems and services in
public health, emphasizing evidence based planning and implementation through improved capacity and
infrastructure, promoting the non-profit sector to increase social participation and community
empowerment, promoting healthy behaviours and improving intersectoral convergence.
ASHA - ASHA will be a health activist in the community who will create awareness on health and its social
determinants and mobilize the community towards local health planning and increased utilization and
accountability of the existing health services.
Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS)- These are a set of standards envisaged to improve the quality of
health care delivery in the country under the National Rural Health Mission.
National Urban Health Mission (NUHM):

1. Approved as a sub-mission under the National Health Mission (NHM) in 2013.
2. Aims to strengthen primary healthcare delivery in urban areas, focusing on slum dwellers and
vulnerable populations.
3. Implemented in 35 States/UTs, covering 1,162 cities/towns.
4. Focus on infrastructure augmentation and human resource deployment in urban areas.
5. Funds allocated and released to states/UTs for implementation of NUHM activities.
NUHM's progress includes:
1. Medical officers, specialists, nurses, pharmacists, and other staff in position.
2. Engagement of ASHAs and formation of Mahila Arogaya Samiti.
3. Construction and approval of new urban primary healthcare centers (U-PHCs) and community health
centers (U-CHCs).
4. Approval of mobile health units and health kiosks.
5. Integration of Kayakalp and Swachh Swasth Sarvatra (SSS) initiatives in urban areas.
6. Operationalization of Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs) in urban areas.
Healthcare Programs Under National Health Mission-
A. Reproductive, Maternal, Neonatal, Child and Adolescent health
1. Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK)

2. Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram(RKSK)
3. Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK)
4. Universal Immunisation Programme- Mission Indradhanush (MI)
5. Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)
6. Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA)
7. Navjaat Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (NSSK)
8. National Programme for Family planning
9. LaQshya’ programme (Labour Room Quality Improvement Initiative)
B. National Nutritional Programmes
1. National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme

2. MAA (Mothers’ Absolute Affection) Programme for Infant and Young Child Feeding
3. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF)
4. National Iron Plus Initiative for Anaemia Control
C. Communicable diseases
1. Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP)

2. Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP)
3. National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP)
4. National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP)
5. National AIDS Control Programme (NACP)
6. Pulse Polio Programme
7. National Viral Hepatitis Control Program (NVHCP)
8. National Rabies Control Programme
9. National Programme on Containment of Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR)
D. non-communicable diseases
1. National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP)

2. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases &
Stroke (NPCDCS)
3. National Programme for Control Treatment of Occupational Diseases
4. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness (NPPCD)
5. National Mental Health Programme
6. National Programme for Control of Blindness & Visual Impairment (NPCB&VI)
7. Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Programme (PMNDP)
8. National Programme for the Health Care for the Elderly (NPHCE)
9. National Programme for Prevention & Management of Burn Injuries (NPPMBI)
10. National Oral Health programme
A. Reproductive, Maternal, Neonatal, Child and Adolescent Health:

1. Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK)
1. The Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) was launched by the Government of India on June 1,
2011, to provide benefits to pregnant women accessing Government health facilities for delivery.
2. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) initiated JSSK to provide completely free and
cashless services to pregnant women and sick newborns (up to 30 days after birth) in Government
health institutions across rural and urban areas.
3. This initiative aims to eliminate financial barriers to accessing healthcare services during pregnancy
and childbirth.
4. The aim is to encourage institutional deliveries and reduce maternal and neonatal mortality rates.
Free Entitlements for Pregnant Women:
a) Free and cashless delivery
b) Free C-section
c) Free drugs and consumables
d) Free diagnostics
e) Free diet during the stay in health institutions
f) Free provision of blood
g) Exemption from user charges
h) Free transport from home to health institutions

i) Free transport between facilities in case of referral
j) Free drop back home after 48 hours of stay
Free Entitlements for Sick Newborns (up to 30 days after birth):
a) Free treatment
b) Free drugs and consumables
c) Free diagnostics
d) Free provision of blood
e) Exemption from user charges
f) Free transport from home to health institutions
g) Free transport between facilities in case of referral
h) Free drop back home after treatment
Key Features of the Scheme:
1. Completely free and no-expense delivery for pregnant women in public health institutions, including
caesarean sections
2. Entitlements include free drugs, consumables, diagnostics, and blood whenever required
3. Free diet during the stay in health institutions
4. Free transport from home to institution, between facilities in case of referral, and drop back home
5. Aim to eliminate out-of-pocket expenses for pregnant women and sick newborns accessing Government
health facilities
6. Estimated to benefit more than 12 million pregnant women and motivate more institutional deliveries
7. All States and Union Territories have initiated the implementation of the JSSK scheme to ensure its
widespread coverage and impact.
2. Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK)
Launch Year: 2014
Objectives:
1. Ensure holistic development of the adolescent population
2. Provide comprehensive healthcare services
3. Address specific health needs and challenges of adolescents
4. Promote adolescent-friendly health services
5. Create awareness about nutrition, sexual reproductive health, substance misuse, non-communicable
diseases, mental health, and injuries and violence
Key Points:
1. Defines adolescents as individuals aged 10-19 years, encompassing both girls and boys, married and
unmarried, from urban and rural areas, and across socioeconomic backgrounds
2. Focuses on inclusivity, including LGBTQ individuals
3. Developed a National Adolescent Health Strategy in collaboration with the United Nations Population
Fund (UNFPA)
4. Six thematic areas include nutrition, sexual reproductive health, substance misuse, non-communicable
diseases, mental health, and injuries and violence
5. Emphasizes promotion and prevention, aiming to reach adolescents in their own environments such as
schools, families, and communities
6. Prime elements include Adolescent Friendly Health Clinics (AFHCs), Weekly Iron Folic Acid
Supplementation (WIFS) Programme, Peer Educator Programme, and Menstrual Hygiene Scheme
Recent Measures-
a) Adolescent Friendly Health Clinics (AFHCs) have provided counseling and clinical services to millions of
adolescents.
b) Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) has been provided to millions of adolescents, along with
peer educator programs and Adolescent Health Days (AHDs) to raise awareness about adolescent health
issues.
c) Ayushman Bharat School Health and Wellness program aims to promote health and wellness among
school children through designated Health and Wellness Ambassadors (HWAs) and school-based
activities.
3. Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK)

Launch Year: 2013
Objective:
1. Early identification and intervention for children from birth to 18 years
2. Covering 4 'D's: Defects at birth, Deficiencies, Diseases, Development delays including disabilities
Key Components:
Screening Mechanism:
1. First-level screening at all delivery points, including existing Medical Officers, Staff Nurses, and ANMs
2. Home-based screening for newborns by ASHAs from 48 hours to 6 weeks
3. Outreach screening by mobile block-level teams for 6 weeks to 6 years at anganwadi centers and 6-18
years at schools
Service Delivery:
1. District Early Intervention Centers (DEIC) for 0-6 years age group
2. Existing public health facilities for 6-18 years age group
3. Free treatment/intervention for referred children
Target Age Groups and Coverage:
a) Birth to 6 weeks: 2 crores
b) 6 weeks to 6 years: 8 crores
c) 6 years to 18 years: 17 crores
Health Conditions Screened:
1. Defects at Birth: Neural tube defect, Down's Syndrome, Cleft Lip & Palate, etc.
2. Deficiencies: Anaemia, Vitamin A deficiency, Severe Acute Malnutrition, etc.
3. Diseases: Skin conditions, Otitis Media, Rheumatic heart disease, Dental conditions, etc.
4. Developmental Delays and Disabilities: Vision Impairment, Neuro-motor Impairment, Autism, etc.
4. Universal Immunisation Program (UPI):

1. Launched in 1978, expanded beyond urban areas in 1985, renamed as Universal Immunization
Programme (UIP).
2. Became part of Child Survival and Safe Motherhood Programme in 1992 and National Reproductive and
Child Health Programme in 1997.
3. Integral part of National Rural Health Mission since 2005.
UIP Overview:
a) Targets close to 2.67 crore newborns and 2.9 crore pregnant women annually.
b) Provides free vaccination against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases, including Diphtheria, Pertussis,

Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Rubella, Hepatitis B, Pneumonia, etc.
Major Milestones:
a) Polio elimination achieved in 2014.
b) Maternal and neonatal tetanus elimination achieved in 2015.
New Vaccines Introduced:
1. Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) introduced in November 2015.
2. Rotavirus vaccine (RVV) introduced in March 2016.
3. Measles Rubella (MR) vaccine introduced in phased manner in 2017.
4. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) launched in May 2017.
5. Tetanus and adult diphtheria (Td) vaccine replaces TT vaccine.
6. Nationwide expansion of the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) has been completed, making it
available across all States/UTs.
7. Full Immunization Coverage (FIC) increased by 14.4 percentage points as per NFHS-5 survey.
Mission Indradhanush (MI):
1. Launched in December 2014 to increase full immunization coverage to 90%.
2. Focus on low coverage areas and hard-to-reach populations.
3. Six phases completed covering 554 districts.
4. Flagship scheme under Gram Swaraj Abhiyan and Extended Gram Swaraj Abhiyan.
5. Resulted in significant increase in full immunization coverage.
IMI 5.0-
1. Fifth phase of Mission Indradhanush launched by the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
2. Covers all districts in the country.
3. Includes children up to 5 years of age.
4. Aims to achieve full immunization coverage for all children and pregnant women.
5. Targets enhancing coverage for vaccines provided under the Universal Immunization Programme
(UIP).
6. Special emphasis on improving Measles and Rubella vaccine coverage.
7. Utilizes the U-WIN digital platform for Routine Immunization.
8. Facilitates online booking, tracking, and monitoring of immunization services.
New Initiatives in Vaccine Logistics & Cold Chain Management:

1. Capacity building through National Cold Chain Training Centre (NCCTE) and National Cold Chain &
Vaccine Management Resource Centre (NCCVMRC).
2. Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN) rollout to digitize vaccine stock management and logistics.
3. eVIN system completed in 12 states and ongoing in 9 states, to be scaled up nationwide.
4. National Cold Chain Management Information System (NCCMIS) to track cold chain equipment inventory
and functionality.
5. Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY):

1. JSY is a safe motherhood intervention under the National Rural Health Mission (NHM).
2. Launched in April 2005 by modifying the National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS).
3. NMBS, a component of the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), began in August 1995 under
the Ministry of Rural Development.
4. Transferred to the Department of Health & Family Welfare during 2001-02.

5. Initially provided Rs. 500/- per birth up to two live births to BPL pregnant women aged 19 or above.
Graded Scale of Assistance:
1. Replaced uniform assistance with graded scale based on state categorization and rural/urban beneficiary
status.
2. States classified into Low Performing States (LPS) and High Performing States (HPS) based on institutional
delivery rates.
3. LPS: States with institutional delivery rates 25% or less, including erstwhile EAG states and Assam &
Jammu & Kashmir.
4. HPS: States with institutional delivery rates above 25%.
Target Group and Benefits:
Target Group: Poor pregnant women, with special focus on LPS states: Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Rajasthan, Orissa, and Jammu and Kashmir.
Benefits:
a) Performance-based incentives to ASHA workers for promoting institutional delivery.
b) Eligible pregnant women receive JSY benefits directly into their bank accounts.
6. Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA) Programme:

1. Launched by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW), Government of India.
2. Aims to provide assured, comprehensive, and quality antenatal care, free of cost, universally to all
pregnant women on the 9th of every month.
3. Guarantees a minimum package of antenatal care services to women in their 2nd / 3rd trimesters at
designated government health facilities.
4. Engages with the private sector systematically, motivating private practitioners to volunteer and appeal
to them to participate in the campaign at government health facilities.
5. Aims to improve the quality and coverage of Antenatal Care (ANC) as part of the Reproductive Maternal
Neonatal Child and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) Strategy.
Objectives:
1. Ensure at least one antenatal checkup for all pregnant women in their second or third trimester by a
physician/specialist.
2. Improve the quality of care during ante-natal visits, including:
a. Provision of diagnostic services.
b. Screening for clinical conditions.
c. Management of existing clinical conditions like Anaemia, Pregnancy-induced hypertension,
Gestational Diabetes, etc.
3. Appropriate counselling services and proper documentation.
4. Additional service opportunity for pregnant women who missed antenatal visits.
5. Identification and line-listing of high-risk pregnancies based on obstetric/medical history and existing
clinical conditions.
6. Birth planning and complication readiness for each pregnant woman, especially those with risk
factors or comorbid conditions.
7. Special emphasis on early diagnosis and management of women with malnutrition.
8. Focus on adolescent and early pregnancies, requiring extra and specialized care.
9. Identification and follow-up of high-risk pregnancies is a critical component.
Sticker System:
A sticker indicating the condition and risk factor of the pregnant women is added onto the MCP card for each
visit:
a) Green Sticker: No detected risk factor.
b) Red Sticker: High-risk pregnancy.
Comprehensive Abortion Care (CAC) trainings were conducted for Medical Officers, and the Medical
Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act & Rules 2021 were introduced to enhance access to safe
abortion services and strengthen women's rights and privacy.
Surakshit Matritva Aashwasan (SUMAN) aims to provide dignified and quality healthcare for women and
newborns, with 10,010 facilities notified under the scheme.
7. Navjaat Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (NSSK):

1. Part of the National Health Mission (NHM), aiming to provide accessible, affordable, and quality
healthcare services to all, with a focus on vulnerable populations.
2. Launched in September 2009 under the leadership of Union Health Minister Gulam Nabi Azad to reduce
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR).
3. Designed to equip paramedical staff with skills to save newborns and mothers.
4. Focuses on enhancing the capacity of doctors and nurses to provide essential newborn care during and
after birth.
Goal:
1. Reduce infant mortality rates and improve the health outcomes of newborns and infants in India.
2. Achieved through interventions targeting the well-being of newborns, especially from marginalised
backgrounds.
Components and Interventions:
1. Skilled birth attendance, essential newborn care, sick newborn care units, newborn screening, home-
based newborn care, and capacity building for healthcare professionals.
2. Aims to provide comprehensive care and early healthcare interventions for newborns.
Training:
1. Medical personnel receive training to address emergency issues related to newborns, targeting doctors,
nurses, and ANMs in low-resource settings.
2. Equips healthcare staff with necessary knowledge and skills to enhance service delivery, focusing on
evidence-based practices.
3. Training conducted at district hospitals, community health centres, and primary health centres.
Eligibility:
1. Designed to provide emergency services to newborns meeting eligibility criteria.
2. Targets economically vulnerable and disadvantaged backgrounds, prioritising low-income or
marginalised communities.
3. Eligibility determined based on factors like age, socioeconomic status, geographical coverage, and
referrals.
Benefits:
1. Ensures skilled birth attendance, enhances newborn care practices, provides care for sick newborns,
promotes home-based care, implements newborn screening, and offers capacity building and training.
2. Aims to improve newborn health, decrease infant mortality, and enhance healthcare services.
Recent Achievements in Child Health Care-

a) The Infant Mortality Ratio (IMR) of India has decreased from 32 to 30 per 1000 live births for the year
2019, with several states achieving the National Health Policy Target.
b) The Facility Based Newborn Care (FBNC) program operates 914 Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs) and
2,579 Newborn Stabilization Units (NBSUs), providing care to sick and small newborns.
c) National Newborn Week, observed from 15th to 21st November, aims to emphasize newborn health.
d) The MusQan initiative focuses on improving the quality of child health services in public health facilities.
e) The Home-Based Newborn Care (HBNC) program and Home-Based Care of Young Child (HBYC) program
aim to provide essential healthcare services to newborns and young children at home.
f) Intensified Diarrhoea Control Fortnight (IDCF) and National Deworming Day (NDD) target children under
five years, providing them with essential treatments and preventive measures.
g) Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres (NRCs) offer treatment to Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) children
with medical complications.
h) The Anemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) program provides iron and folic acid supplementation to children and
adolescents, as well as pregnant and lactating women.
i) Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK) conducts community-level screening activities for children,
although they were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
j) Social Awareness and Actions to Neutralize Pneumonia Successfully (SAANS) campaign aims to raise
awareness and enhance care-seeking behaviors for childhood pneumonia.
k) India COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health Systems Preparedness Package (Phase II) focuses on
strengthening pediatric care facilities and providing guidelines for managing COVID-19 in children.
8. National Family Planning Programme (1952):

1. Initiated with objectives to lower fertility rates and slow population growth to stimulate economic
growth. Integrated into the Five-Year Plans of the government.
2. The program has evolved from a clinical approach to a focus on reproductive health, and reducing
maternal and infant mortality rates.
3. In 2000, the National Population Policy (NPP) introduced a target-free and holistic approach that
helped reduce fertility.
4. The program is voluntary and target-free, and clients can choose the family planning method that
best suits them.
5. The objectives of the National Family Welfare Program are to: stabilize the population, avoid
unwanted births, regulate intervals between pregnancies, and increase the use of contraceptives
among eligible couples.
Shift in Birth Control Methods:
Initially, reliance on the rhythm method; later shifted to sterilisation and IUDs.
Forced Sterilisation Programme (1970s):
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's controversial forced sterilisation programme in the 1970s led to public
aversion to sterilisation.
Achievements of Family Planning Programme:
1. Successfully averted an estimated 16.8 crore births by 1996.
2. Decline in fertility rate from 5.7 births per woman in 1966 to 2.3 births per woman in 2014.
3. Increased awareness and usage of modern contraceptive methods.
4. Contraceptive services include oral contraceptive pills, condoms (free brand 'Nirodh' available at
government facilities), intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs), female sterilisation, male
sterilisation, and emergency contraceptive pills (ECP).
Mission Parivar Vikas (MPV) has been expanded to include all districts of seven high-focus states and six
northeastern states, showing substantial improvements in access to contraceptives.
9. LaQshya Programme:
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India launched an ambitious program
LaQshyaon 11th December 2017 with following objectives: Reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and
mortality.
To ensure Quality of Care during intrapartum and immediate post-partum periods in Labour Room and
Maternity Operation Theatre.
Coverage: Encompasses all Government Medical College Hospitals, District Hospitals & equivalent health
facilities, designated FRUs, as well as high case load CHCs.
Goal: Reduce preventable maternal and newborn mortality, morbidity, and stillbirths associated with the
care around delivery in the Labour room and Maternity OT. Ensure respectful maternity care.
Facility-Level Targets: Achieve a 5% or less Surgical Site Infection Rate in Maternity OT, or at least a reduction
of 30% from the baseline.
Certification Process: Compliance with the above target is verified by independent empanelled NQAS
assessors at the time of LaQshya certification.
S.No. Program Launch Objectives and Features
Year
1 Janani Shishu 2011 - Provides free and cashless services to pregnant women and sick
Suraksha newborns in government health facilities - Aims to eliminate financial
Karyakram barriers to accessing healthcare during pregnancy and childbirth -
(JSSK) Encourages institutional deliveries to reduce maternal and neonatal
mortality - Includes free delivery, diagnostics, transport, and postnatal
care
2 Rashtriya 2014 - Focuses on holistic development and healthcare for adolescents aged
Kishor 10-19 years - Addresses health needs including nutrition, sexual health,
Swasthya substance misuse, and mental health - Promotes adolescent-friendly
Karyakram health services and inclusivity - Features Adolescent Friendly Health
(RKSK) Clinics (AFHCs), Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS), and
awareness programs
3 Rashtriya Bal 2013 - Aims for early identification and intervention for children from birth to
Swasthya 18 years covering defects, deficiencies, diseases, and developmental
Karyakram delays - Includes screening at various points from birth and interventions
(RBSK) through District Early Intervention Centers (DEICs) - Focuses on
comprehensive healthcare for children across India, integrating services
with the public health system
4 Universal 1978 - Provides free vaccines against 12 preventable diseases to children and
Immunisation pregnant women - Achieved milestones like polio elimination and
Program (UIP) introduction of new vaccines like IPV, RVV, MR, and PCV - Part of broader
health missions to increase immunization coverage through initiatives

like Mission Indradhanush
5 Janani 2005 - Encourages institutional delivery among poor pregnant women to
Suraksha reduce neonatal and maternal mortality - Provides cash assistance and
Yojana (JSY) incentives for delivery in government facilities, especially in Low
Performing States (LPS) - Aims to enhance safe motherhood under the
National Rural Health Mission
6 Pradhan 2016 - Provides free and quality antenatal care on the 9th of every month to
Mantri pregnant women - Offers services like screenings, diagnostics, and
Surakshit necessary treatments during pregnancy - Focuses on reducing
Matritva pregnancy-related risks and ensuring safe childbirth
Abhiyan
(PMSMA)
7 Navjaat Shishu 2009 - Ensures health services to newborns and mothers immediately after
Suraksha birth - Focuses on training healthcare providers to manage neonatal and
Karyakram maternal emergencies - Aims to reduce infant mortality and enhance the
(NSSK) quality of care at birth
8 National 1952 - Aims to reduce fertility rates and manage population growth through
Family voluntary family planning services - Offers a range of contraceptive
Planning options and has evolved to focus on comprehensive reproductive health
Programme - Introduced the Mission Parivar Vikas to improve access to
contraceptives and family planning services in high-focus areas
9 LaQshya 2017 - Focuses on improving the quality of care in labour rooms and maternity
Programme operation theatres - Aims to reduce maternal and newborn mortality and
morbidity associated with childbirth - Includes targets for reducing
infection rates and ensuring respectful maternity care
National Nutritional Programmes

1. National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (NIDDCP)
The National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (NIDDCP) was launched in 1992 by the
Government of India to address the wide range of iodine deficiency disorders. The program's goals are to:
a) Reduce the prevalence of iodine deficiency disorders to less than 5% in the country
b) Ensure that households consume 100% adequately iodated salt (15ppm)
Objectives:
1. Conduct surveys to assess the magnitude of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDDs).
2. Ensure the supply of Iodated salt instead of common salt.
3. Resurvey every 5 years to evaluate the extent of IDDs and the impact of Iodated salt.
4. Monitor the iodine content of salt and urinary iodine excretion in laboratories.
5. Conduct health education and publicity campaigns.
Activities under this program-
1. Conduct household iodine surveys across the state using Salt Testing Kits distributed by ASHA
workers.
2. Screen children for goitre across the state.
3. Observe Global IDD Prevention Day on October 21st.

4. Carry out awareness programs at the community level, integrated with Village Health and Nutrition
Days.
5. Conduct awareness programs in different schools with the assistance of the State Education
Department.
6. Provide training to District ASHA Programme Managers and ASHAs on the utilization of salt testing
kits at the community level.
7. Hold monthly review meetings during ASHA Bharosha Diwas.
8. Disseminate Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials through electronic, print,
and folk media.
Iodine- Impact on Health:
1. Iodine is an essential micronutrient required at 100-150 micrograms daily for normal human growth
and development.
2. Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDDs) result from a lack of iodine in the diet, leading to goitre and various
health issues.
3. IDD affects people of all ages, sexes, and socioeconomic statuses, causing physical and mental
retardation, stillbirth, deaf-mutism, cretinism, neuromotor defects, etc.
4. Iodine deficiency during pregnancy can lead to decreased thyroxine synthesis, affecting the normal
development of the fetus' brain and body.
5. Permanent brain damage and intellectual limitations can result from fetal brain damage caused by
iodine deficiency.
2. Mother's Absolute Affection (MAA)
The Mothers' Absolute Affection (MAA) Programme for Infant and Young Child Feeding was launched in India
on August 5, 2016.
The goal of the MAA Programme is to rejuvenate efforts towards promoting, protecting, and supporting
breastfeeding practices through health systems to achieve higher breastfeeding rates.
The objectives of the Programme are:
1. Build an enabling environment for breastfeeding through awareness generation activities targeting
pregnant and lactating mothers, family members, and society to promote optimal breastfeeding
practices.
2. Reinforce lactation support services at public health facilities through trained healthcare providers
and skilled community health workers.
3. Incentivize and recognize health facilities showing high rates of breastfeeding with processes in place
for lactation management.
Components of MAA:
1. Enabling Environment and demand generation through mass media, mid-media, and community.
2. Community level activities including orientation of ASHAs/AWWs, interpersonal communication, and
community dialogue through mothers' meetings.
3. Training of ANMs at sub-centers to provide skilled care in communities.
4. Capacity building of healthcare providers at all delivery points, including ANMs, nurses, and doctors,
regarding lactation support services.
5. Awards and recognition for best-performing baby-friendly facilities.
Benefits of Breastfeeding to the baby and mother as below:
Benefits for the baby
a) Early skin-to-skin contact keeps the baby warm.

b) It helps in early secretion of breastmilk.
c) Feeding first milk (colostrum) protects the baby from diseases.
d) Helps mother and baby to develop a close and loving relationship.
e) Decreased risk of illness such as diarrhoea, pneumonia, ear and throat infections. • Improved
intelligence.
f) Ensures development and growth.
Benefits for the mother
a) Helps womb to contract and the placenta is expelled easily.
b) Reduce the risk of excessive bleeding after delivery
c) Reduces the risk of breast cancer, uterine cancer and ovarian cancer
d) Lessens osteoporosis
e) Benefits child spacing
f) Promotes post-partum weight loss
g) Costs less to feed the child
3. National Programme for Prevention & Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF)
Fluorosis, a significant public health concern, occurs due to excessive intake of fluoride through water, food,
or industrial pollutants over time.
It leads to various health disorders, including dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, and non-skeletal fluorosis.
1. Dental Fluorosis: Affects children, causing discoloration and disfigurement of teeth.
2. Skeletal Fluorosis: Affects bones and major joints, causing severe pain and stiffness.
3. Non-Skeletal Fluorosis: Manifests as gastrointestinal complaints and overlaps with other diseases,
leading to misdiagnosis.
Fluoride prevalence was reported in 230 districts of 19 states. As of recent data, 14,132 habitations across
19 states lack safe drinking water, posing a risk to 11.7 million people.
Initiated during the 11th Five Year Plan, NPPCF aims to prevent and control fluorosis cases nationwide.
Goal: Prevent and control fluorosis cases in the country.
Strategy:
1. Surveillance of fluorosis in communities.
2. Capacity building through training and manpower support.
3. Establish diagnostic facilities in medical hospitals.
4. Management of fluorosis cases including treatment, surgery, and rehabilitation.
5. Health education for prevention and control of fluorosis cases.
4. National Iron Plus Initiative for Anaemia Control
1. Anaemia, primarily caused by iron deficiency, is a significant public health issue in India, affecting
various age groups.
2. Iron deficiency in young children is attributed to increased iron requirements during rapid growth
phases and poor diets lacking bio-available iron post-weaning.
3. Anaemic children face delayed psychomotor development, impaired performance, and a deficit in
intelligence quotient.
4. Iron deficiency can also cause significant central nervous system damage, particularly between 9 and
18 months of age.
The prevalence of anaemia among six groups as per the National Family Health Survey 5 (2019-21), is 25.0
percent in men (15-49 years) and 57.0 percent in women (15-49 years). 31.1 percent in adolescent boys (15-
19 yrs), 59.1 percent in adolescent girls,52.2 percent in pregnant women (15-49 years) and 67.1percent in
children (6-59 months)
In response to this pressing public health challenge, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare launched the
"National Iron Plus Initiative" in 2013. This initiative aims to combat iron deficiency anaemia across all age
groups through age-specific interventions:
Age Groups and Interventions:
1. Preschool Children (6-59 months):
Bi-weekly supplementation of 20 mg elemental iron and 100 micrograms (mcg) folic acid.
Age-appropriate de-worming.
2. Children (1st to 5th Grade in Govt. & Govt. Aided Schools, 6 to 10 years):
Weekly supplementation of 45 mg elemental iron and 400 mcg folic acid.
Weekly supplementation provided at schools and Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) for out-of-school children.
3. Adolescents (10–19 years):
Biannual de-worming.
4. Pregnant and Lactating Women:
Daily supplementation of 100 mg elemental iron and 500 mcg folic acid for 180 days.
Initiated after the first trimester and continued post-partum.
5. Women in Reproductive Age Group (20 – 49 years):
Service Delivery:
1. Delivery of interventions through Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs), Auxiliary Nurse Midwives
(ANMs), and Frontline Health Workers (FHWs).
2. Integration of supplementation details into Mother and Child Protection (MCP) Cards.
3. Supervised administration of iron-folic acid (IFA) syrup for children aged 6–60 months by ANMs/ASHAs.
4. Weekly supplementation provided at schools and AWCs for children and adolescents.
5. ANC/ANM/ASHA engagement for pregnant and lactating women.
6. FHWs providing supplementation for women in the reproductive age group during house visits for
contraceptive distribution.
S.No. Program Launch Objectives and Key Activities
Year
1 National Iodine 1992 - Goals: Reduce iodine deficiency disorders below 5%, ensure
Deficiency 100% consumption of iodated salt. - Activities: Conduct IDD
Disorders Control surveys, ensure iodated salt supply, monitor iodine levels,
Programme promote health education, and community awareness programs.
(NIDDCP) - Health Impact: Prevents health issues like goitre and mental
retardation related to iodine deficiency.
2 Mother's Absolute 2016 - Goal: Enhance breastfeeding practices. - Objectives: Create
Affection (MAA) supportive environments for breastfeeding, strengthen lactation
services, reward high-performing facilities. - Components: Media
campaigns, community dialogue, health worker training. -
Benefits: Supports early infant health, protects against diseases,

promotes maternal health.
3 National 11th Five - Goal: Prevent and control fluorosis. - Strategy: Community
Programme for Year Plan surveillance, capacity building, diagnostic facilities setup,
Prevention & period fluorosis management, health education. - Prevalence: Active in
Control of Fluorosis 230 districts, addressing fluorosis risks for over 11.7 million
(NPPCF) people. - Health Impact: Targets dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal
fluorosis due to excessive fluoride intake.
4 National Iron Plus 2013 - Objective: Address iron deficiency anaemia across all age
Initiative for groups. - Interventions: Tailored iron and folic acid
Anaemia Control supplementation, de-worming, health worker-led service
delivery. - Service Delivery: Utilizes ASHAs, ANMs, school, and
Anganwadi centres for supplement distribution and education. -
Health Impact: Improves health, cognitive development, and
maternal health by reducing anaemia prevalence.
Communicable diseases
1. The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP)
it is a comprehensive disease surveillance system in India aimed at early detection and monitoring of
diseases to facilitate prompt policy decisions.
Objectives:
1. Strengthening and maintaining a decentralized laboratory-based IT-enabled disease surveillance
system.
2. Monitoring disease trends and detecting/responding to outbreaks in their early stages through
trained Rapid Response Teams (RRTs).
Programme Components:
1. Integration and decentralization of surveillance activities at the Central, State, and District levels.
2. Human Resource Development: Training of surveillance officers, rapid response teams, and other
medical and paramedical staff.
3. Use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) for data collection, analysis, and dissemination.
4. Strengthening public health laboratories.
5. Intersectoral coordination for zoonotic diseases.
Data Management:
1. Data on epidemic-prone diseases is collected on a weekly basis (Monday-Sunday).
2. Three reporting formats are used: "S" (suspected cases), "P" (presumptive cases), and "L" (laboratory-
confirmed cases).
3. Health workers, clinicians, and laboratory staff fill out these formats.
4. Weekly data helps identify disease trends and seasonality.
5. Rapid Response Teams investigate rising illness trends to diagnose and control outbreaks.
6. Data analysis and actions are undertaken by State and District Surveillance Units.
2. National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP):
1. The National TB Control Programme was initiated in 1962 to address the tuberculosis epidemic in
India.
2. Initially, the program focused on detecting cases early and providing treatment through District
Tuberculosis Centres (DTCs) and Primary Health Institutions.
3. The Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) was launched in 1997, building on
the Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course (DOTS) strategy.
4. Since January 1, 2020, RNTCP is called as National TB Elimination Program, the program underwent
a name change to reflect its renewed focus on eliminating TB from the country.
5. The primary objective of NTEP is to provide free and high-quality services to all TB patients across
India.
6. NTEP aims to provide comprehensive TB services, including diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, to
all individuals affected by TB.
7. The program emphasizes decentralization of Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (DOTS)
services to ensure accessibility to all segments of the population.
8. NTEP operates through a network of District TB Centers, Tuberculosis Units (TU), and Designated
Microscopy Centers (DMC) to provide quality TB control services.
9. As of now, there are 27 functional District TB Centers, 150 Tuberculosis Units (TU), and 693
Designated Microscopy Centers (DMC) in operation in the state.
National Strategic Plan (NSP) 2012-17:

1. The NSP 2012-17 aligned with the country’s 12th Five Year Plan and focused on achieving universal
access to quality TB diagnosis and treatment.
2. It emphasized the importance of early detection of all TB cases, including drug-resistant and HIV-
associated TB, with increased engagement of the private sector.
3. The plan received substantial investment from the Government of India, leading to significant
improvements in TB control infrastructure and services.
Achievements and Gains:
1. During the NSP 2012-17 period, there were notable achievements in strengthening support
structures, program architecture, and implementation environment for TB control.
2. Mandatory notification of all TB cases, integration with general health services, expansion of
diagnostic services, and programmatic management of drug-resistant TB were some of the key
accomplishments.
National Strategic Plan (NSP) 2017-25:
1. The NSP 2017-25 builds upon the successes and lessons learned from the previous plan, aiming to
eliminate TB in India by 2030. (Now the goal is preponed to 2025)
2. It aligns with global efforts such as the WHO's End TB Strategy and the UN's Sustainable Development
Goals.
3. The vision is to achieve a TB-Free India with zero deaths, disease, and poverty due to tuberculosis by
2025, working towards rapid decline in TB burden, morbidity, and mortality.
4. The plan focuses on four strategic pillars: Detect, Treat, Prevent, and Build (DTPB), to guide efforts
towards TB elimination.
Recent Measures:
1. Large-scale active TB case finding campaigns were undertaken, and various strategies were
implemented to support TB patients, including teleconsultations and doorstep delivery of medicines.
2. Molecular diagnostic capacities were expanded, and additional machines for rapid molecular testing
for TB and Drug Resistant TB (DR-TB) were deployed.
3. Significant efforts were made in the diagnosis and treatment of pediatric TB and TB patients with HIV
co-infection.
4. Decentralized Drug Resistant TB (DR-TB) treatment services were expanded, and the access to
injection-free longer oral MDR-TB regimen with new drugs was increased. TB Preventive Treatment
(TPT) was expanded to include children above five years, adolescents, and adult household contacts
of index TB patients.
5. Integration of TB services with Ayushman Bharat Health & Wellness Centres (HWCs) was initiated,
and efforts were made to engage with various stakeholders to address social determinants of health
beyond medical interventions.
6. The TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan (TMBA) was launched in 2022 as a Jan Andolan or People’s Movement
for TB to raise awareness and drive community ownership of TB eradication efforts. The goal is to
eliminate TB by 2025.
7. Under the Nikshay Poshan Yojana (NPY), financial support for nutrition needs was provided to over
52.53 lakh TB patients. Work is ongoing to integrate Nikshay with other health portals.
8. NTEP has launched Nikshay Mitra to link patients in need (providing consent for donation) with a
willing donor to provide food items including locally available, culturally accepted, nutritious food
kits worth Rs 800 every month, till the completion of treatment.
3. National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP):
NLEP is a centrally sponsored scheme under the umbrella of National Health Mission (NHM).
NLEP is aimed to bring down Prevalence Rate of leprosy:
1. To less than 1/10,000 population at district level;
2. Grade II Disability rate per million population to Zero at district level;
3. Grade II Disability to Zero among new cases and
4. Child leprosy cases to zero level.
It also aims at generating awareness about leprosy disease.
Major initiatives under NLEP are as follows:
1. Leprosy Case Detections Campaign (LCDC) in high endemic districts.
2. Focused Leprosy Campaign (FLC) in low endemic districts for case detection.
3. Special plans for Hard-to-Reach areas for early case detection and treatment.
4. ASHA Based Surveillance for Leprosy Suspects (ABSULS).
5. Sparsh Leprosy Awareness Campaign on 30th January every year.
6. Active Case Detection and Surveillance both in rural and urban areas.
Leprosy-
1. Hansen’s disease, or leprosy, is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae.
2. It affects the nerves, skin, eyes, and lining of the nose (nasal mucosa).
3. Symptoms include skin ulcers, nerve damage, and muscle weakness.
4. Leprosy spreads through droplets from the nose and mouth during prolonged, close contact with
untreated individuals.
5. It is not transmitted through casual contact like shaking hands or sharing meals.
6. There is currently no vaccine available for leprosy.
7. Despite India being declared “Leprosy Eliminated” in 2005, it still accounts for over half of the
world’s new leprosy cases.
8. Leprosy is classified as a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD).
9. In 2022, 182 countries reported a registered prevalence of 165,459 cases and 174,087 new cases
of leprosy.
4. National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme:

1. NVBDCP is a comprehensive program initiated in 2003 under the National Health Mission to address
the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases in India.
2. It operates under the Directorate of NVBDCP, which serves as the central nodal agency for managing
diseases like malaria, dengue, lymphatic filariasis, kala-azar, Japanese encephalitis, and chikungunya.
Programmes under NVBDCP:
3. Kala Azar Control Programme:
a. Kala-azar, or visceral leishmaniasis, is targeted primarily in endemic states such as Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh.
b. The program aims to reduce the incidence of kala-azar through targeted interventions,
including case detection, treatment, and vector control measures.
4. National Filaria Control Programme:
a. Focuses on controlling lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, a mosquito-borne
parasitic infection.
b. Strategies include mass drug administration, vector control measures, and surveillance to
eliminate the disease.
5. Japanese Encephalitis Control Programme:
a. Targets the early diagnosis and management of Japanese encephalitis, a viral disease
transmitted by mosquitoes.
b. Surveillance, vaccination, and vector control are key components of this program to prevent
outbreaks and reduce morbidity and mortality.
6. Dengue Control:
a. Aims to prevent and control dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral infection, through
surveillance, vector control, and public awareness campaigns.
b. The program focuses on early detection, case management, and community engagement to
minimize the impact of dengue outbreaks.
7. National Strategic Plan for Malaria Elimination:
8. Sets ambitious goals to eliminate malaria in India by 2027, ahead of the global deadline of 2030.
9. Strategies include enhanced surveillance, vector control measures, early diagnosis, prompt
treatment, and community participation to achieve malaria elimination.
Recent Achievements of NVBDCP-
1. Progress in malaria elimination efforts, with a significant decline in malaria cases reported.
2. Malaria made a notifiable disease in 31 states/UTs.
3. Distribution of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs) in high malaria endemic areas.
4. Strengthening of malaria microscopy through virtual training and certification of Laboratory
Technicians.
5. Health web-based reporting system for malaria and mapping of high malaria-prone areas.
6. Reduction in Kala-Azar cases and achievement of elimination targets in endemic blocks.
7. Strengthening of activities based on Kala-Azar Independent Assessment findings and dissemination

of SOPs and guidelines.
8. Maintenance of low Case Fatality Rate (CFR) for Dengue and increase in the number of identified
Sentinel Surveillance Hospitals (SSHs).
9. Progress in Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccination campaigns and establishment of Pediatric Intensive
Care Units (PICUs) and Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation (PMR) Departments.
10. Progress in Lymphatic Filariasis elimination efforts, with districts clearing Transmission Assessment
Surveys (TAS) and conducting Mass Drug Administration (MDA) rounds.
5. National AIDS Control Program-

1. In response to the detection of the first AIDS case in India in 1986, the National AIDS Committee was
established within the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
2. Recognizing the need for a nationwide program, the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) was
launched in 1992.
3. It is implemented through 36 State AIDS Control Societies (SACS) and one Mumbai District AIDS
Control Society.
Objective:
The primary goal of the NACP is to prevent and control the spread of HIV/AIDS in India.
Structure:
The program is closely monitored by the District AIDS Prevention and Control Unit (DAPCU) in 188 high
priority districts.
It is led by the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Phase-V (2021-2026):
1. The current phase, Phase-V, started on April 1, 2021, and runs until March 31, 2026.
2. The aim is to end HIV/AIDS as a public health threat by 2030, building on previous initiatives and
introducing new strategies.
3. NACP Phase-V builds upon previous initiatives such as the HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Act (2017),
Test and Treat Policy, Universal Viral Load Testing, Mission Sampark, Community-Based Screening, and
transition to Dolutegravir-based Treatment Regimen.
4. It introduces newer strategies to consolidate and augment the gains achieved in previous phases.
5. Sampoorna Suraksha Kendras (SSK): A key component of NACP Phase-V is the establishment of
Sampoorna Suraksha Kendras (SSK). These centers will provide services through a single-window model
for those "at risk" for HIV and STIs, covering prevention, testing, treatment, and care continuum.
6. SSKs offer a holistic set of services customized to clients' needs, with strong linkages and referrals within
and outside the health systems.
Establishment of NACO:
1. In 1992, the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) was formed to implement the NACP.
2. NACO was tasked with providing leadership to the HIV/AIDS control program in India.
3. NACO oversees and coordinates the HIV/AIDS prevention and control efforts in the country.
4. It collaborates with 35 HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Societies to implement various initiatives
and programs.
5. NACO's mission is to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, provide care and support to those affected, and
work towards eliminating the disease as a public health threat.
6. Over the years, NACO has evolved its strategies and programs to adapt to the changing dynamics of
the HIV/AIDS epidemic in India.
Recent Achievements-
1. Epidemiological Status: India's adult HIV prevalence was reported at 0.22% in 2023, with an estimated
23.19 lakh people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. The programme has contributed to a significant
decline in new HIV infections and AIDS-related deaths since 2010.
2. Progress on 90-90-90 Targets: Progress has been made on the 90-90-90 targets, with an increase in the
percentage of people living with HIV who are aware of their status and on ART. Viral suppression among
those on ART has also improved.
3. Legal Protection: 'THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AND ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY
SYNDROME (PREVENTION AND CONTROL) ACT' has been enacted to protect all people infected and
affected by HIV/AIDS from discrimination.
4. Dolutegravir-Based Regimen: Dolutegravir-based Anti-Retroviral regimen has been introduced under the
programme, with over 9.78 lakh patients transitioned to this regimen.
5. Test & Treat Policy: Under the 'Test & Treat' policy, all People Living with HIV (PLHIV) are eligible for ART
initiation, irrespective of their CD4 counts or WHO staging. Special algorithms have been released to
facilitate same-day initiation of ART.
6. Mission Sampark: It is an initiative of the Government of India to help people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV)
who have stopped treatment after starting Anti Retro-viral Therapy (ART). The program was launched
on December 1, 2017, on World AIDS Day, to reconnect PLHIV with ART services and improve their quality
of life.
6. Pulse Polio Program-
The Pulse Polio Immunization Programme, also known as National Immunization Day (NID), is a crucial
nationwide initiative in India aimed at immunizing children under five years of age against polio.
The program was launched in 1995 and is conducted twice a year, typically in the early part of the year.
History:
1. The campaign was first initiated in Delhi in 1994 with the tagline 'Do Boond Zindagi Ki'.
2. It reached nearly one million children up to the age of three years with two doses of OPV.
3. The successful implementation in Delhi led to the adoption of the campaign nationwide.
Objective:
The primary objective is to achieve 100% coverage with the oral polio vaccine (OPV) among children under
five years of age.
Implementation:
The program involves extensive social mobilization efforts to reach all eligible children.
It includes mop-up operations in areas where the poliovirus has almost disappeared to ensure complete
eradication.
The government aims to maintain high morale among the public to ensure participation and compliance.
Achievements:
4. India received 'Polio-free certification' from the World Health Organization on 27 March 2014,
marking a significant milestone in the fight against polio.
5. Multiple rounds of sub-national immunization days (SNID) have been conducted over the years in
high-risk states to complement the NID efforts.
Recent Drives:
1. The program continues with nationwide drives, such as the three-day pulse polio vaccination drive
that began on March 3, 2024.
2. These drives target children aged 0 to 5 years and ensure comprehensive coverage in both rural and
urban areas across the country.
7. National Viral Hepatitis Control Program-
1. The National Viral Hepatitis Control Program (NVHCP) launched by the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare aims to combat viral hepatitis and achieve its elimination as a public health threat by 2030
in India.
2. Magnitude of Viral Hepatitis: Viral hepatitis, including Hepatitis A, B, C, and E, is recognized as a
significant public health issue in India. The exact burden of the disease is not fully established, but
available data suggests considerable prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections in the population.
3. Goals: The NVHCP aims to eliminate Hepatitis C by 2030 and significantly reduce the morbidity and
mortality associated with Hepatitis B and C, including liver cancer and cirrhosis. It also seeks to
mitigate the risks posed by Hepatitis A and E.
Key Objectives:
1. Increase community awareness about hepatitis and emphasize preventive measures, especially among
high-risk groups and in hotspots.
2. Ensure early diagnosis and management of viral hepatitis across all levels of healthcare.
3. Develop standardized diagnostic and treatment protocols for viral hepatitis and its complications.
4. Strengthen healthcare infrastructure and human resource capacity to provide comprehensive services
for hepatitis management in all districts.
5. Establish linkages with existing national programs for awareness, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment
of viral hepatitis.
6. Develop a web-based Viral Hepatitis Information and Management System to maintain a registry of
affected individuals.
Components:
1. Preventive Component: Focuses on awareness generation, immunization against Hepatitis B, ensuring
blood and injection safety, promoting safe socio-cultural practices, and improving hygiene and
sanitation.
2. Diagnosis and Treatment: Includes screening of pregnant women for Hepatitis B, free screening,
diagnosis, and treatment for hepatitis B and C, provision of linkages for diagnosis and treatment, and
engagement with community support groups.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation, Surveillance, and Research: Establishes effective linkages to the surveillance
system, conducts operational research, develops standardized monitoring and evaluation framework,
and implements an online web-based system for monitoring.
4. Training and Capacity Building: Ensures continuous training and capacity building of healthcare workers
through various platforms, including traditional cascade training and e-learning.
National Program for Surveillance of Viral Hepatitis:
1. Acute Viral Hepatitis Surveillance: Initiated surveillance based on operational guidelines and
strategies developed by a technical resource group.
2. Chronic Viral Hepatitis Surveillance: Integrated with population-level surveys/programs like the
National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-4 and National Viral Hepatitis Control Program (NVHCP).
8. National Rabies Control Program-

1. The National Rabies Control Programme (NRCP) is a Central Sector Scheme launched under National
Health Mission, by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare to prevent and control rabies in India.
2. The program was approved in 2013 and has two components: Human and Animal.
3. Rabies is a significant public health concern in India, causing extensive morbidity and mortality. It is
endemic throughout the country, with human cases reported from all states except Andaman &
Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands.
4. Dog bites account for about 96% of rabies-related mortality and morbidity in India, although other
animals like cats, wolves, jackals, mongooses, and monkeys also serve as reservoirs.
5. Objectives of the NRCP include training healthcare professionals on animal bite management,
advocating for the adoption of appropriate prophylaxis methods, strengthening surveillance systems,
and creating awareness in the community.
6. Strategies of the NRCP include providing rabies vaccines and immunoglobulins, training on animal
bite management, strengthening surveillance, and raising awareness about rabies prevention.
7. The National Action Plan for Dog Mediated Rabies Elimination (NAPRE) aims to eliminate rabies
transmitted by dogs from India by 2030. It focuses on controlling and managing the stray dog
population through vaccination and neutering, as outlined in the Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules,
2023, to be implemented by local authorities.
9. National Programme on Containment of Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR)
The National Programme on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) was launched in 2012 by the
Government of India to address the issue of antimicrobial resistance. The National Centre for Disease Control
(NCDC) coordinates the program.
Objectives:
1. Establish a laboratory-based AMR surveillance system.
2. Conduct surveillance of antimicrobial usage.
3. Strengthen infection control practices.
4. Promote rational use of antimicrobials through stewardship activities.
5. Generate awareness among healthcare providers and the community on AMR and rational
antimicrobial use.
Activities:
1. Establishment of the National Antimicrobial Surveillance network (NARS-Net).
2. Collection of surveillance data on seven priority bacterial pathogens.
3. Expansion of the network of labs, including 35 state medical college labs in 26 States/UTs.
4. Focus on generating quality data on AMR, surveillance of antimicrobial usage, and promoting rational
antimicrobial use.
S.No. Program Objectives and Key Activities

1 Integrated Disease - Strengthen and maintain a decentralized IT-enabled disease surveillance

Surveillance Programme system. - Detect and respond to disease outbreaks early. - Train
(IDSP) healthcare staff and integrate surveillance activities.
2 National Tuberculosis - Provide comprehensive TB services including diagnosis, treatment, and
Elimination Programme prevention. - Decentralize treatment and improve access. - Aim to
(NTEP) eliminate TB by 2025 through strategic plans and community
engagement.
3 National Leprosy - Reduce leprosy prevalence and disabilities. - Increase awareness and
Eradication Programme conduct active case detection. - Implement campaigns and surveillance in
(NLEP) endemic areas.
4 National Vector Borne - Control diseases like malaria, dengue, and chikungunya. - Reduce
Disease Control incidence through detection, treatment, and vector control. - Achieve
Programme malaria elimination by 2027.
5 National AIDS Control - Prevent and control the spread of HIV/AIDS. - Implement comprehensive
Program strategies including prevention, testing, and treatment. - End HIV/AIDS as
a public health threat by 2030.
6 Pulse Polio Program - Immunize children under five against polio. - Conduct extensive
vaccination drives to ensure complete eradication of poliovirus.
7 National Viral Hepatitis - Eliminate Hepatitis C by 2030. - Reduce morbidity and mortality from
Control Program Hepatitis B and C. - Strengthen healthcare services for comprehensive
hepatitis management.
8 National Rabies Control - Prevent and control rabies in India. - Train healthcare professionals on
Program animal bite management. - Eliminate dog-mediated rabies by 2030.
9 National Programme on - Establish a lab-based AMR surveillance system. - Promote rational use of
Containment of AMR antimicrobials. - Raise awareness about AMR and enhance infection
control practices.
Non-Communicable Diseases-
1. National Tobacco Control Program-
Tobacco use is a leading risk factor for chronic diseases in India, prompting the government to enact tobacco
control legislation and launch the National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP) in 2007-08.
Objectives: The NTCP aims to raise awareness about the harmful effects of tobacco, facilitate effective
implementation of tobacco control laws, and reduce tobacco-related deaths.
Program Components:
1. Training and capacity building
2. Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) activities
3. Monitoring of tobacco control laws
4. Survey and surveillance
Implementation Structure:
1. National Tobacco Control Cell (NTCC)
2. State Tobacco Control Cell (STCC)
3. District Tobacco Control Cell (DTCC)
Achievements:
1. Reduction in tobacco use prevalence by six percentage points
2. Launch of National Tobacco Cessation Quitline Services
3. Implementation of large specified health warnings on tobacco products
4. Regulation of tobacco use in films and TV programs
5. Acceding to the Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products
6. Ban on Electronic Nicotine Delivery System (ENDS)
7. Establishment of National Tobacco Testing Laboratories
8. Enactment of The Prohibition of Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2019
2. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases & Stroke
(NPCDCS)
The National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and
Stroke (NPCDCS) was launched by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in 2010 to address the rising
burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in India.
NCDs are significant contributors to mortality in India, with cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, chronic
respiratory diseases, and cancer collectively accounting for over 60% of deaths. Risk factors for NCDs include
harmful alcohol use, stress, household air pollution, tobacco consumption, poor dietary habits, and a
sedentary lifestyle.
Objectives: The program aims to prevent and control major NCDs through health promotion, early diagnosis,
management, referral, and strengthening of infrastructure and human resources.
Program Components:
1. Health promotion: Educating the population about the risks and prevention strategies of NCDs.
2. Early diagnosis: Screening for NCDs at all levels of the healthcare system to detect diseases in their
early stages.
3. Management: Providing comprehensive care for NCD patients, including treatment and
rehabilitation.
4. Referral: Facilitating referrals to higher-level healthcare facilities for advanced management, if
needed.
5. Strengthening infrastructure: Enhancing the healthcare infrastructure to better address the needs of
NCD patients.
6. Human resource development: Training healthcare professionals to effectively manage and treat
NCDs.
7. Diseases Covered: The NPCDCS focuses on common NCDs such as cancer (including breast, oral, and
cervical cancers), diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including high blood pressure.
3. National Programme for Control Treatment of Occupational Diseases

The National Programme for Control and Treatment of Occupational Diseases (NPCTOD) was initiated in
1998–99 by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, as a response to the growing
concern over occupational health hazards.
The National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) located in Ahmedabad serves as the nodal agency for
the NPCTOD, overseeing its implementation and coordination.
Objectives: The primary goal of the program is to address occupational health risks and diseases prevalent
among workers across various sectors. It aims to prevent, control, and treat occupational diseases through
a comprehensive approach.
Program Activities:
Preventing Occupational Risks: Implementing measures to reduce occupational hazards and promote
workplace safety.
Health Surveillance: Monitoring the health status of workers exposed to occupational risks and detecting
early signs of occupational diseases.
Training in Safe Working Methods: Providing education and training to workers on safe work practices and
the proper use of protective equipment.
First Aid: Ensuring access to first aid services and training for immediate response to workplace injuries or
emergencies.
Advising Employers: Providing guidance and support to employers on implementing occupational health and
safety measures in their workplaces.
Major Occupational Diseases:
The program focuses on addressing various occupational diseases prevalent in India, including:
1. Occupational injuries
2. Occupational lung diseases
3. Occupational cancers
4. Occupational dermatoses
5. Occupational infections
6. Occupational toxicology
7. Occupational mental disorders
Legal Framework: The 3rd schedule of the Indian Factories Act 1948 lists specific occupational diseases
recognized in India, which include poisoning by metals and compounds, dermatitis, and respiratory illnesses
such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.
4. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness (NPPCD)

The National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness (NPPCD) was launched by the Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, with the aim of preventing hearing loss caused by diseases
or injuries.
Objectives:
1. Prevent avoidable hearing loss due to disease or injury.
2. Early identification, diagnosis, and treatment of ear problems responsible for hearing loss and deafness.
3. Medically rehabilitate individuals of all age groups who suffer from deafness.
4. Strengthen existing inter-sectoral linkages to ensure the continuity of rehabilitation programs for
individuals with deafness.
5. Develop institutional capacity for ear care services by providing support for equipment, materials, and
personnel training.
Program Expansion:
1. The program was initially launched on a pilot basis in 25 districts and later expanded to 20 states and
192 districts in 2012-2013.
2. The 12th Five Year Plan aims to further expand the program to cover all states and an additional 200
districts, ensuring broader coverage and accessibility.
3. Impact of Hearing Loss:

4. Hearing loss is the most common sensory deficit in humans and the second leading cause of "Years lived
with Disability (YLD)" worldwide.
5. India has a significant number of hearing-impaired individuals, particularly among young people, leading
to a substantial loss of productivity, both physically and economically.
5. National Mental Health Program-

The National Mental Health Programme (NMHP) was launched in 1982 by the Government of India to
address the lack of mental health care infrastructure and the high burden of mental illness in the country.
Objectives:
Ensure availability and accessibility of minimum mental healthcare for all, especially the most vulnerable and
underprivileged sections of the population.
Encourage the application of mental health knowledge in general healthcare and social development.
Promote community participation in mental health service development and stimulate efforts towards self-
help in the community.
Components:
1. Treatment of the mentally ill
2. Rehabilitation
3. Prevention and promotion of positive mental health
Program Evolution:
1. In 1996, the District Mental Health Program was added to the NMHP.
2. In 2003, the program was restructured to include two schemes: modernization of state mental
hospitals and upgrading of psychiatric wings of medical colleges/general hospitals.
3. In 2009, the Manpower Development Scheme was incorporated into the Programme.
Strategic Revisions:
1. District Mental Health Program (DMHP) added in 1996.
2. Restructuring in 2003 to include modernization of mental hospitals and upgrading psychiatric wings.
3. Incorporation of the Manpower Development Scheme in 2009.
4. District as the unit for program planning and implementation under DMHP.
5. Incorporation of DMHP with the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM).
Helpline:
The NMHP includes a 24-hour helpline providing information on mental health resources, emergency
situations, crisis management, etc.
The National Tele Mental Health Assistance and Networking Across States (Tele-MANAS) is a 24/7 toll-free
helpline number that provides free tele-mental health services across India. The helpline numbers are 14416
or 1-800-891-4416, and callers can choose their preferred language. The service aims to increase access to
mental healthcare, especially in remote or under-served areas. It offers counseling, consultation with a
specialist, and e-prescriptions.
6. The National Programme for Control of Blindness and Visual Impairment (NPCBVI)
The National Programme for Control of Blindness and Visual Impairment (NPCBVI) was launched in 1976
with the aim of reducing the prevalence of blindness in India.
Objective: The primary goal of NPCBVI is to reduce the prevalence of blindness and visual impairment in
India, with a focus on addressing major causes such as cataract, corneal opacity, and glaucoma.
Evolution: Initially, NPCBVI was a 100% centrally sponsored scheme, but from the 12th Five Year Plan (FYP),
the funding pattern changed to 60:40 in all States/UTs and 90:10 in hilly states and all North Eastern States.
Additionally, the program was renamed from National Programme for Control of Blindness to NPCBVI in
2017.
Prevalence of Blindness: Over the years, there has been a significant reduction in the prevalence of blindness,
as indicated by various surveys conducted under the program. For example, the prevalence decreased from
1.4% in 1976 to 0.36% in 2019, according to the National Blindness Survey.
Main Causes of Blindness: The major causes of blindness identified by the program include cataract (66.2%),
corneal opacity (7.4%), cataract surgical complications (7.2%), posterior segment disorders (5.9%), and
glaucoma (5.5%).
Goal: The National Health Policy (NHP) sets a target to further reduce the prevalence of blindness to 0.25%
by 2025, reflecting ongoing efforts to combat visual impairment in India.
Major Activities:
1. Primary Eye Care Services: NPCBVI provides preventive and promotive eye care services through
Health and Wellness Centres, focusing on awareness, screening, and early detection of eye diseases.
2. Secondary Eye Care Services: This includes cataract surgeries, screening for refractive errors,
distribution of free spectacles, and management of visual impairment. The program also emphasizes
the use of mobile ophthalmic units and tele-ophthalmology networks to reach underserved areas.
3. Tertiary Eye Care Services: NPCBVI supports the strengthening of regional institutes of
ophthalmology and medical colleges to provide super-specialty eye care services. It also offers hands-
on training for government eye surgeons and promotes eye banking services.
4. Infrastructure Development and Capacity Building: The program provides grants for the development
of eye care infrastructure at primary and secondary levels, along with training for paramedical
ophthalmic assistants and eye donation counsellors.
5. Newer Initiatives/Focus Areas: NPCBVI has introduced several newer initiatives, including
comprehensive eye health care through Health and Wellness Centres, standards for eye banking,
expansion of services for other causes of visual impairment, and COVID-19 guidelines for safe
ophthalmology practices.
7. The National Programme for Prevention & Management of Burn Injuries (NPPMBI)
It was initiated to address the significant impact of burn injuries in India.
Objectives:
1. Reduce the incidence, mortality, morbidity, and disability due to burn injuries.
2. Improve awareness among vulnerable groups, including women, children, and workers in hazardous
occupations.
3. Establish infrastructural facilities and networks for behavior change communication, burn
management, and rehabilitation interventions.
4. Conduct research to assess behavioral, social, and other determinants of burn injuries for effective
program planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
Components:
1. Prevention Programme (IEC)
2. Treatment
3. Rehabilitation
4. Training
5. Monitoring and Evaluation

6. Research
Expected Outcome:
1. Dedicated burns care services in 70 medical colleges and 25 district hospitals.
2. Availability of skilled manpower at medical colleges and district hospitals.
3. Increased awareness regarding burn injury prevention, safety measures, and service availability
through Information Education and Communication (IEC).
8. Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Programme.
1. It is initiated in 2016 under the National Health Mission (NHM), aims to provide free dialysis services
to economically disadvantaged individuals.
2. India witnesses approximately 2.2 Lakh new cases of End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) annually,
resulting in a demand for 3.4 Crore dialysis sessions.
3. Existing infrastructure, comprising around 4950 dialysis centers, mostly in the private sector, meets
less than half of this demand.
4. Dialysis incurs substantial expenses, approximately Rs. 2000 per session, leading to significant
financial burden on families.
5. Families often incur additional costs for travel and lose wages due to frequent visits to dialysis
centers.
6. The program aims to address both the need for life-saving dialysis services and the financial strain on
affected families.
Solution Strategy:
1. The program offers two main types of dialysis: hemodialysis (HD) and peritoneal dialysis (PD).
2. HD involves filtering blood through a machine and is typically required 3 times per week for 3-4 hours
each session.
3. PD cleans the blood without removing it from the body, utilizing the abdomen sac as a natural filter.
It offers options like continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and automated peritoneal
dialysis (APD).
4. Proper planning and layout of dialysis units are crucial to ensure smooth operations and prevent
complications.
Public Private Partnership for Hemodialysis services:
1. Private partners are responsible for providing medical resources, dialysis machines, infrastructure
like Reverse Osmosis (RO) water plants, and consumables.
2. State governments provide space, power, and water supply within District Hospitals.
Financial Support:
1. NHM covers 100% service fees for patients below the poverty line (BPL).
2. Non-BPL patients can access services at district hospitals at the same rates as BPL patients.
3. While schemes like Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) partially cover dialysis costs for BPL
families, additional resources under NHM support non-BPL patients.
9. National Programme for the Health Care for the Elderly

To ensure accessible, affordable, and high-quality long-term, comprehensive care services for the ageing
population, fostering an inclusive society for all ages, and promoting active and healthy ageing.
Specific Objectives:
1. Provide easy access to promotional, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative services to the elderly
through community-based primary health care.
2. Identify and address health issues in the elderly through community interventions with strong
referral support.
3. Build capacity of medical and paramedical professionals and caregivers within families to provide
elderly healthcare.
4. Establish referral services for elderly patients through district hospitals and regional medical
institutions.
5. Ensure convergence with National Rural Health Mission, AYUSH, and other relevant departments for
holistic care.
Core Strategies:
1. Implement community-based primary health care with domiciliary visits by trained health workers.
2. Establish dedicated services at primary and community health centers with necessary resources,
training, and infrastructure.
3. Set up dedicated facilities at district hospitals with specialized wards, additional resources, and
training.
4. Strengthen regional medical institutions to provide tertiary level care, introduce PG courses in
Geriatric Medicine, and conduct in-service training.
5. Utilize Information, Education & Communication (IEC) initiatives for community outreach.
6. Ensure continuous monitoring, evaluation, and research in Geriatrics for effective implementation.
Supplementary Strategies:
1. Promote public-private partnerships in Geriatric Health Care.
2. Integrate AYUSH and traditional health practices, and collaborate with the Ministry of Social Justice
and Empowerment for geriatrics.
3. Reorient medical education to address geriatric issues effectively.
10. National Oral Health Programme

Objectives:
1. Improve determinants of oral health such as healthy diet and oral hygiene to reduce disparities in
accessibility to oral health care between rural and urban populations.
2. Reduce morbidity from oral diseases by strengthening oral health services at sub-district/district
hospitals.
3. Integrate oral health promotion and preventive services with general health care systems and other
relevant national health programs.
4. Promote Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) for achieving public health goals in oral health.
Components:
1. National Health Mission Component: Support provided to states for setting up Dental Care Units at
district hospitals or below, including manpower support (dentist, dental hygienist, dental assistant),
equipment procurement (dental chair), and provision of consumables for dental procedures.
2. Tertiary Component: Central-level activities such as designing IEC materials, organizing training
programs for nodal officers, preparing state/district level trainers through workshops.
3. IVRS Oral Health Helpline: The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare launched an IVRS helpline for the
Oral Health Programme on World Oral Health Day, March 20, 2017. Accessible through a toll-free
number (1800-11-2032), it aims to:
a. Provide information on common oral health concerns.

b. Raise awareness about the importance of oral health.
c. Dispel myths regarding oral diseases.
d. Provide emergency instructions for common oral health issues.
S.No. Program Name Objectives Key Components

1. National Tobacco Control Program Reduce tobacco use and Training, Information, Education,
(NTCP) related deaths and Communication (IEC)
activities, law monitoring,
surveys
2. National Programme for Prevention Prevent and control major Health promotion, early
and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, NCDs diagnosis, management,
Cardiovascular Diseases & Stroke infrastructure enhancement
(NPCDCS)
3. National Programme for Control Address occupational Health surveillance, risk
Treatment of Occupational Diseases health risks prevention, training, advising
(NPCTOD) employers
4. National Programme for Prevention Prevent and control Early identification, diagnosis,
and Control of Deafness (NPPCD) deafness rehabilitation, capacity building
5. National Mental Health Program Accessible mental health Treatment, rehabilitation,
(NMHP) care, promote mental prevention, community
health knowledge participation
6. National Programme for Control of Reduce blindness and Eye care services, infrastructure
Blindness and Visual Impairment visual impairment development, training
(NPCBVI)
7. National Programme for Prevention Reduce burn injury Prevention, treatment,
& Management of Burn Injuries impacts rehabilitation, training, research
(NPPMBI)
8. Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Provide free dialysis Hemodialysis, peritoneal
Programme services dialysis, infrastructure setup,
financial support
9. National Programme for the Health Comprehensive care for Community-based care,
Care for the Elderly the elderly specialized facilities, training,
integration with other services
10. National Oral Health Programme Improve oral health and Dental care units setup, training,
reduce disparities IEC initiatives, helpline
Other Initiatives under NHM-

Free Drugs and Free Diagnostics Service Initiatives-
Free Essential Medicines Initiative:
1. The Free Essential Drugs Initiative (FDSI) is a program initiated under the National Health Mission
(NHM) by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India.
2. Launched in 2015, this initiative aims to ensure the availability of essential drugs for free in public
health facilities across all states and union territories (UTs).
3. The Free Essential Drugs Initiative (FDSI) aims to ensure essential drugs are free for economically
disadvantaged populations, preventing financial constraints from hindering access to medication.
4. Making essential drugs freely available contributes to improving the quality of healthcare services in
public health facilities.
5. FDSI offers financial assistance to states and UTs to provide essential medicines at no cost, based on
their outlined requirements and resource allocation. Covering a range of essential drugs, including
insulin, ensures equitable access to healthcare services for the poor and needy.
6. Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP): Additionally, the FDSI facilitates access
to quality generic medicines, including insulin, at affordable prices through the PMBJP. This initiative
aims to make essential medications accessible to all sections of society.
7. Under the National Health Mission, financial support is provided to States/UTs for the provision of
free essential medicines in public health facilities.
8. The number of essential medicines recommended varies based on the type of facility, with DHs
having 375, SDHs 311, CHCs 299, HWC-PHCs 171, and HWC-Sub Centres 105.
Free Diagnostics Service Initiative (FDSI):
1. The Free Diagnostics Service Initiative (FDSI) is a program launched under the National Health Mission
(NHM) by the Government of India.
2. It aims to provide accessible, affordable, and quality diagnostic services in public health facilities,
extending up to district hospitals.
3. The initiative, started in 2015, is designed to address the high out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) on
diagnostics and improve the quality of healthcare services.
The objectives of the FDSI program are:
4. Accessibility: Ensure the availability and access to diagnostic tests at public health facilities, including
district hospitals, to reduce the financial burden on patients.
5. Affordability: Provide diagnostic services at no cost or minimal cost to patients, thereby reducing
their out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare.
6. Quality: Enhance the quality of diagnostic services offered in public health facilities, including
maintaining standards for pathological and radiological diagnostics.
The number of diagnostics provided varies across different types of facilities, with DHs offering 134, SDHs
111, CHCs 97, HWC-PHCs 63, and HWC-Sub Centres 14.
Major Health Schemes and Programs that are not under NHM:
1. PM Swasth Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) -

1. The Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) is a scheme announced in August 2003 and
launched in March 2006 to improve the quality of medical education and correct regional imbalances in
the availability of affordable healthcare services in India. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare.
2. The scheme focuses on setting up new AIIMS (All India Institutes of Medical Sciences) institutions and
upgrading existing government medical colleges.
3. PMSSY aims to enhance healthcare infrastructure and medical education in underserved regions of the
country.
4. The scheme includes components for infrastructure development, manpower training, and research in
the field of healthcare.
5. It seeks to improve access to quality healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas.
6. PMSSY is implemented with the goal of achieving equitable healthcare delivery across the nation.
The scheme has been implemented in multiple phases over the years, with each phase focusing on specific
objectives and targets:
Phase I: Started in 2006, this phase focused on setting up six new AIIMS institutions across various states in
the country.
Phase II: Launched in 2008, Phase II aimed to upgrade existing government medical colleges to improve
infrastructure and facilities.
Phase III: Initiated in 2013, Phase III focused on setting up AIIMS-like institutions in states that did not have
one.
Phase IV: This phase commenced in 2019 and aims to further expand the healthcare infrastructure by
establishing new AIIMS institutions and upgrading existing medical colleges.
7. Under this, so far, 22 new AIIMS and 75 up-gradation projects of existing GMCIs have been approved. Six
AIIMS under Phase-I are fully functional, with additional facilities and services being provided.
Construction and upgradation work is ongoing for other AIIMS and GMCIs.
8. The upgradation programme includes improving tertiary health infrastructure through construction of
Super Speciality Blocks / Trauma Care Centres and procurement of medical equipment. Several
upgradation projects have been completed, adding more than 12000 Super-specialty beds.
9. To enhance the facilities for tertiary care of cancer, Strengthening of Tertiary Care for Cancer Scheme is
being implemented to support setting up of State Cancer Institutes (SCI) and Tertiary Care Cancer Centres
(TCCC) in different parts of the country. Oncology in its various aspects has focus in case of new AIIMS
and many upgraded institutions under Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojna (PMSSY).
2. Ayushman Bharat Yojana (ABY):

This program was launched in 2018 to achieve Universal Health Coverage as recommended by National
Health Policy 2017.
Ayushman Bharat is an attempt to move from sectoral and segmented approach of health service delivery
to a comprehensive need-based health care service. Ayushman Bharat aims to undertake path breaking
interventions to holistically address health (covering prevention, promotion and ambulatory care), at
primary, secondary and tertiary level.
Ayushman Bharat adopts a continuum of care approach, comprising of two inter-related components, which
are -
1. Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) – For Primary Health Care
2. Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) – For Secondary and tertiary Health Care
Coverage: Offers healthcare services at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs):
1. Aim to deliver Comprehensive Primary Health Care (CPHCs) at 1.5 lakh sub-centres and Primary
Health Care centres.
2. It’s Health and Wellness Centre component (AB-HWC) provides essential primary and community
health services such as maternal, neonatal and child health services including immunization and
nutrition, thus fostering human capital development during children’s critical early years. These
centres also provide services to prevent and manage common NCDs and major communicable
diseases.
3. Services at Ayushman Bharat – Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs) are free and universal to all
individuals residing in the service area.
4. Facilitate access to healthcare facilities across the country for registered patients.
5. Plan to establish a seamless medical information system with e-medical records accessible across
public and private hospitals.
Key features of the Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs) include:
1. Conversion of existing Sub Centres and Primary Health Centres into HWCs to provide CPHC services.
2. HWCs staffed by trained Primary Health Care teams, led by Mid-Level Health Providers (MLHPs),
delivering an expanded range of services.
3. Primary Health Centres (PHCs) serving as the first point of referral and being strengthened to deliver
CPHC services.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY):
1. Aims to provide annual cashless health insurance cover of Rs 5 lakh per family for 1,300 illnesses.
2. AB-Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) provides free and cashless care to about 500
million poor (Around 40% of India’s population) and deprived people for secondary and tertiary
hospitalization care.
3. Covers hospitalization charges, pre-hospitalization, and post-hospitalization expenses.
4. Targets poor and vulnerable families in urban and rural areas.
5. Services can be availed through e-cards for beneficiaries.
6. AI and Machine Learning (ML) employed for service improvement, fraud detection, and better
scheme utilization.
National Health Authority-
1. The National Health Authority (NHA) implements India's flagship public health insurance scheme,
Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY), and oversees the National Digital
Health Mission (NDHM).
2. Formerly known as the National Health Agency, NHA was reconstituted as the National Health
Authority in January 2019 for full functional autonomy.
3. It operates as an attached office of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, with a Governing Board
chaired by the Union Minister for Health and Family Welfare.
4. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), a senior government official, manages NHA's affairs and serves as
the Ex-Office Member Secretary of the Governing Board.
5. State Health Agencies (SHAs) have been established by respective states to implement PM-JAY at the
state level, with operational autonomy over the scheme's implementation.
6. NHA leads the implementation of the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) in coordination with
various government ministries, state governments, and private sector/civil society organizations.
3. National Digital Health Mission (NDHM)-
Launched on 15th August 2020
Aim: To create an integrated healthcare system linking practitioners with patients digitally, ensuring access
to real-time health records for prompt and structured healthcare across India.
Vision: To create an efficient, accessible, inclusive, and affordable national digital health ecosystem.
Expected outcomes: Access to health records within 5 clicks, single-point healthcare services, continuum of
care assured at all levels, etc.
Implemented by the National Health Authority (NHA) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Aims to create a national digital health ecosystem supporting universal health coverage.
Components of NDHM:
1. National Health Electronic Registries.
2. Federated Personal Health Records (PHR) Framework.
3. National Health Analytics Platform.
4. Other horizontal components like Unique Digital Health ID, Health Data Dictionaries, etc.
Salient Features:
1. Institutional framework operates at different levels: apex, board of directors, CEO, and operations.
2. Health ID repository for all health-related information.
3. Health data consent managers facilitate seamless exchange of health records.
4. Healthcare services provided through mobile app or website.
5. Digi Doctor enables remote healthcare provision.
Challenges: Data misuse, leakages from health repositories, profiteering, foreign surveillance.
AI and Tech-based Initiatives:
National eHealth Authority:
1. Aims to promote eHealth adoption by establishing standards and frameworks for the health sector.
2. Facilitates e-health exchanges between government and private hospitals.
3. Integrated Health Information Program:
4. Consolidates and provides electronic health records (EHRs) to all citizens nationwide.
5. Includes medical history, diagnosis, and medication records for comprehensive healthcare
management.
Electronic Health Record Standards for India:
1. Sets standards for EHRs to ensure consistency and interoperability across healthcare systems.
2. Facilitates seamless data exchange and access to medical information for better patient care.
4. Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM):

1. Launched in 2021 with an outlay of approximately Rs. 64,180 Cr over till FY 2025-26.
2. Aims to strengthen healthcare infrastructure across India.
3. Focus areas include developing capacities of health systems and institutions at primary, secondary,
and tertiary levels, and preparing health systems to respond effectively to pandemics/disasters.
4. Interventions include establishing Health and Wellness Centers, Block Public Health Units, Critical
Care Hospital Blocks, Public Health Labs, Training Institutions, Disease Surveillance Labs, Health
Emergency Operation Centers, And Biosafety Level III Laboratories.
Few Important Health Initiatives-

Rastriya Arogya Nidhi:
Financial assistance to patients living below poverty line for life threatening diseases under the schemes
such as Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi (RAN), Health Minister’s Cancer Patient Fund (HMCPF) and Health
Minister’s Discretionary Grant (HMDG) is also provided.
AMRIT Dayal Outlets-
Affordable Medicines and Reliable Implants for Treatment (AMRIT) Deendayal outlets have been opened
with an objective to make available drugs and implants for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), Cancer and
Diabetes at discounted prices to the patients.
Mera Aspataal:
'Mera Aspataal' is a patient feedback system launched in September 2016 to integrate feedback from
Central Government Hospitals, District Hospitals, and now extended to other healthcare facilities.
Currently functional in 34 States/UTs, with integration of 9,446 government health facilities and 736 non-
governmental health facilities.
Kayakalp:
Launched in 2015 to promote cleanliness, hygiene, and sanitation in public health facilities. Incentivization
for facilities excelling in cleanliness, with the number of awardees increasing from 100 facilities in FY 2015-
16 to 12,431 facilities in FY 2020-21.
Swachh Swasth Sarvatra:
Joint initiative of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare and Ministry of Jal Shakti to improve health
outcomes through sanitation and healthy lifestyles.
Implemented in both rural and urban areas, focusing on sustaining Open Defecation Free (ODF) status and
promoting healthy behavior.
Funds approved for CHCs and UPHCs to achieve cleanliness standards, with increasing number of facilities
winning Kayakalp awards every year.
MusQan Initiative:
Launched to reduce child mortality and morbidity by improving pediatric care services. Implemented
under the National Quality Assurance Standards to ensure quality care for newborns and children.
A national dissemination workshop conducted to orient states and UTs about the initiative.
e- Sanjeevani Initiative:
1. Rolled out in November 2019, eSanjeevani supports both Doctor-to-Doctor and Patient-to-Doctor
teleconsultation services.
2. Objective: Aims to implement teleconsultation services in all 1.5 lakh Health and Wellness Centres by
December 2022.
3. Types of Services: Offers two types of teleconsultations: Doctor-to-Doctor (eSanjeevani) and Patient-
to-Doctor (eSanjeevani OPD).
4. COVID-19 Response: Launched eSanjeevaniOPD in April 2020 to provide online health services directly
to patients at home during the pandemic.
5. Consultation Statistics: Completed around 2 crore consultations, with over 1,00,000 patients seeking
health services daily in 35 States/UTs.
6. Top Consultation States: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and others have
registered the highest consultations through eSanjeevani platforms.
COVID 19- India’s Fight

1. Management of Waves: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection in India demonstrated three
peaks in India. first wave (16-7-2020 to 31-1-2021), second wave (16-3-2021 to 6-5-2021) and third wave
(1-1-22 to 20-2-22) The second wave was more vicious in terms of symptoms, inflammatory markers,
radiology, complications, requirement of ventilation and mortality. Mutation in the virus, lack of
immunity and vaccination at the time point of second wave could have been the possible causes.
2. Multi-Pronged Approach: The government adopted a multi-pronged approach to save lives, including
imposing restrictions/partial lockdowns, building capacity in health infrastructure, promoting COVID-19
appropriate behavior, testing, tracing, treatment, and vaccination drives.
3. Containment Measures: Measures were taken to break the chain of transmission through containment
and buffer zones, perimeter control, contact tracing, isolation, testing of suspect cases and high-risk
contacts, and creation of quarantine facilities.
4. Preventive Strategies: Preventive strategies evolved based on real-time data and evidence. Testing
capacity increased significantly, with tests for COVID-19 made free in all government centers. Rapid
Antigen Test kits were introduced for faster screening.
5. Health Infrastructure: Capacity in health infrastructure was enhanced, with ramping up of manufacturing
for N-95 masks, ventilators, personal protective equipment kits, and sanitizers. Massive infrastructure
was created for isolation beds, dedicated intensive care unit beds, and the supply of medical oxygen.
6. Collaborative Efforts: Various sectors including railways, Air Force, Navy, and industry were engaged to
meet the exponential rise in medical oxygen demand during the second wave.
7. Vaccination Drive: COVID vaccines were emphasized as the best shield against the disease to save lives
and sustain livelihoods. The vaccination drive aimed to vaccinate all eligible beneficiaries aged 18 years
and above in the shortest possible time.
India's COVID-19 Vaccination Strategy-

The strategy has been guided by scientific evidence, WHO guidelines, and global best practices.
1. National Expert Group: The National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19 (NEGVAC)
provided guidance for the program based on scientific evidence.
2. Liberalized Pricing Strategy: From May 1 to June 20, 2021, the Liberalized Pricing and Accelerated
National COVID-19 Vaccination Strategy allowed states/UTs and private hospitals to procure vaccines
directly from manufacturers. The government initially procured 50% of monthly vaccine production, later
increased to 75%.
3. Vaccine Availability: India produces several COVID vaccines, including COVAXIN and COVISHIELD. Other
vaccines like COVOVAX, Sputnik-V, ZyCoV-D, and recombinant (Ad26.COV2-S) have also received
emergency use authorization.
4. Pricing and Equity: COVID vaccines were made available free of cost at government vaccination centers.
The Union Budget allocated funds for procurement, ensuring equitable distribution. Nearly half of the
administered doses went to females, and over 70% were administered in rural areas.
5. Coverage: The vaccination drive started with healthcare and frontline workers, then expanded to older
age groups and finally to all adults. Since January 2022, vaccinations have been extended to the 15-18
age group, and precautionary doses for healthcare workers, frontline workers, and those over 60 with
comorbidities.
6. Vaccine Hesitancy: To address vaccine hesitancy, awareness campaigns were conducted through media
channels, influencers, and mobile teams. Initiatives like 'Har Ghar Dastak' aimed to reach those who
missed doses.
7. Technology-Driven Approach: ArogyaSetu app and Co-WIN 2.0 facilitated registration, tracking, and
management of vaccination activities in real-time.
8. Vaccination Progress: As of January 16, 2022, India administered 156.76 crore doses, with a significant
increase in vaccination speed after opening up to the 18-45 age group. The majority of doses were
administered to the 18-45 age group, followed by 45-59 and those aged 60 & above.
Several initiatives have been implemented in India to combat the COVID-19 pandemic:
1. Laboratory Network: India has established a robust laboratory network for COVID-19 testing.
2. Medical Oxygen Plants: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) installed and
commissioned 931 Medical Oxygen Plants in 869 hospitals across the nation within six months. These
plants, funded through the PM-CARES fund, were designed based on the spin-off technology of
India’s indigenous fighter aircraft Tejas' Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS).
3. Oxy-Care System: DRDO developed the SPO2 based Oxygen Cylinder Controller (SPOCC) to optimize
the use of medical oxygen for COVID-19 patients. This system supplies oxygen based on an
individual’s SPO2 levels. The technology was transferred to M/s Bharat Forge Ltd and M/s UFLOW
automation, who supplied 1.5 lakh such systems to government hospitals across the country.
4. Anti-COVID Drug 2-DG: An anti-COVID-19 therapeutic application of the drug 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-
DG) was formulated in collaboration with Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories, Hyderabad. Based on the results
of Phase-II and Phase-III clinical trials, the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) granted permission
for Emergency Use of 2-DG as adjunct therapy in moderate to severe COVID-19 patients. The drug
comes in powder form in sachets and is taken orally by dissolving it in water. DRDO transferred its
patented process technology to 13 major Pharma industries.
5. Co-WIN: Successful management of the Covid pandemic without the Co-WIN platform would not
have been possible. Aadhaar played a vital role in developing the Co-WIN platform and in the
transparent administration of over 2 billion vaccine doses.
6. Mission COVID Suraksha- "Mission COVID Suraksha" aimed at accelerating the development,
production, and distribution of indigenous COVID-19 vaccines. Led by Department of Biotechnology,
the mission focuses on ensuring India's readiness to tackle the pandemic effectively. It supports
research and development efforts, enhances manufacturing capacity, and creates necessary
infrastructure. Through public-private partnerships, financial support, and regulatory streamlining,
the mission aims to make India self-reliant in combating COVID-19 while fostering global
collaboration.
Financial support for vaccine development and technical oversight were provided under the "Mission
COVID Suraksha."
The vaccines developed under this mission are:
1. ZyCoV-D: The world's first and India's indigenously developed DNA vaccine.
2. CORBEVAXTM: India's first protein subunit vaccine.
3. GEMCOVAC™-19: The world's first and India's indigenously developed mRNA vaccine.
4. iNCOVACC: The world's first and India's indigenously developed intranasal COVID-19 vaccine.
The mission also supported the augmentation of manufacturing facilities for COVAXIN® production.
7. COVID Vaccine Maitri- "Vaccine Maitri" initiative, which involves supplying COVID-19 vaccines
produced in India to countries worldwide. As of Dec 2022, India has delivered over 282 million vaccine
doses to 101 countries and two UN entities under this program.
COVID-19 vaccines approved for Manufacture for Sale or for Distribution in India by Central Drugs
Standards Organisation-
S.No Vaccine Applicant Date of Age Dosing Schedule Route & Shelf
Approval Group Storage Life
1 ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 Serum 27.01.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, 4 to 6 Intramus 9
(COVISHIELD) Institute of 22 years weeks apart cular, 2- months
India Pvt. (Overseas data 8°C
Ltd. available for 12
weeks)
2 Whole-Virion Bharat 27.01.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 12
Inactivated SARS- Biotech 22 years 28 cular, 2- months
CoV-2 Vaccine 8°C
(COVAXIN)
3 Gam COVID Vac Dr. Reddy’s 12.04.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 Intramus 12
(SPUTNIK-V) Lab. Ltd. 21 years (comp I) & Day 21 cular, - months
(Importer) (comp II) 18°C
4 mRNA-1273 Cipla Ltd. 29.06.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 7
COVID-19 vaccine (Importer) 21 years 28 cular, - months
(Moderna 25ºC to -
vaccine) 15ºC
5 Gam COVID Vac Panacea 02.07.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 Intramus 12
(SPUTNIK-V) Biotec Ltd 21 years (comp I) & Day 21 cular, - months
(comp II) 18°C
6 COVID-19 vaccine Johnson & 07.08.20 ≥ 18 Single dose Intramus 6
(Ad26.COV2-S) Johnson 21 years cular, - months
[recombinant] Pvt. Ltd. 25ºC to -
(Janssen Vaccine) (Importer) 15ºC & 2-
8°C
7 COVID-19 vaccine Biological E 18.08.20 ≥ 18 Single dose Intramus 6
(Ad26.COV2-S) Limited 21 years cular, - months
[recombinant] 25ºC to -
(Janssen Vaccine) 15ºC & 2-
8°C
8 Novel Corona Cadila 20.08.20 ≥ 12 Three doses, Day 0, Intrader 12
Virus-2019-nCov Healthcare 21 years 28 & 56 mal, 2- months
vaccine (rDNA) Limited 8°C
(ZyCoV-D)
9 Gam COVID Vac Hetero 07.10.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 Intramus 6
(SPUTNIK-V) Biopharma 21 years (comp I) & Day 21 cular, - months
Ltd (comp II) 18°C
10 Whole-Virion Bharat 24.12.20 ≥ 12 to Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 12
Inactivated SARS- Biotech 21 18 28 cular, 2- months
years 8°C
CoV-2 Vaccine
(COVAXIN)
11 SARS-CoV-2 Biological E 28.12.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 18
vaccine Limited 21 years 28 cular, 2- months
containing 8°C
Receptor Binding
Domain (RBD) of
SARS-CoV-2 gene
(CORBEVAX)
12 SARS-CoV-2 rS Serum 28.12.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 9
Protein (COVID- Institute of 21 years 21 cular, 2- months
19) recombinant India Pvt. 8°C
spike protein Ltd.
Nanoparticle
Vaccine
[COVOVAX]
13 Recombinant Dr. Reddy’s 05.02.20 ≥ 18 Single dose Intramus 6
adenoviral vector Lab. Ltd. 22 years cular, - months
vaccine (Importer) 18°C
containing
particles of
serotype 26
containing the
protein S gene of
the SARS-CoV-2
virus (SPUTNIK
Light)
14 Recombinant Hetero 16.03.20 ≥ 18 Single dose Intramus 6
adenoviral vector Biopharma 22 years cular, - months
vaccine Ltd 18°C
containing
particles of
serotype 26
containing the
protein S gene of
the SARS-CoV-2
virus (SPUTNIK
Light)
15 Novel Corona Cadila 26.04.20 ≥ 12 Two doses, Day 0 & Intrader 9
Virus-2019-nCov Healthcare 22 years 28 mal, 2- months
vaccine (rDNA) Limited 8°C
(ZyCoV-D)
16 Lyophilized mRNA Gennova 28.06.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intramus 6

Vaccine for Biopharmac 22 years 28 cular, 2- months
Injection (COVID- euticals 8°C
19) [HGCO-19] Limited
17 ChAd36-SARS- Bharat 06.09.20 ≥ 18 Two doses, Day 0 & Intra 6
CoV-S COVID-19 Biotech 22 years 28 Nasal, 2- months
(Chimpanzee 8°C
Adenovirus
Vectored)
recombinant
COVID-19 Vaccine
[iNCOVACC]
Note- Dear all,

Add current issues to the above notes.
All The Best

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APPSC Group2 S&T Notes by Malleswari Reddy Mana La Excellence

APPSC Group 2 S&T Mains Material

Science & Technology in India

Important Scientific Institutes and Organisations-

National Policies on proliferation of Science, Technology and Innovation

Science Policy Resolution 1956-

Technology Policy Statement (1983)

Science & Technology Policy (2003)

Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013:

The key elements of the STI Policy - 2013

National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2020 (STIP 2020)

National Science and Technology Missions-

2. National Super Computing Mission, 2015

3. National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), 2018

4. National Quantum Mission (NQM), 2023

National Science Missions-

Mission 2: Quantum Frontier

Mission 5: Electric Vehicles (EVs)

Mission 8: Deep Ocean Exploration

Indian Scientists and Their Contributions-

A.P. Mitra Contributions to atmospheric science and Padma Bhushan

Sam Pitroda Telecom and IT revolution in India; Padma Bhushan

Keywords related to Space Technology-

13. Launch Station:

Types of Launch Vehicles of India

Type of Satellite Description Indian Satellite Examples

Indian Space Missions

2018 GSAT-29 Communication High-throughput communication satellite to provide

Moon Missions of India-

4. Miniature Synthetic Aperture 7. Chandrayaan-2

ISRO Outreach Activities to Promote Space Technology

10. Stealth Technology

Chief of Defence Staff (CDS):

5. Principal Military Adviser to the Defence Minister on tri-service matters.

DRDO- Defence Research and Development Organization

Cluster Laboratories/Establishments List under DRDO-

4 Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) Bengaluru Aeronautics

30 Instruments Research & Development Dehradun Electronics & Optical

Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP)

The missiles developed under the programme were:

Structured as a phased campaign, IGMDP progressed through technology development, sub-system

Anti-Ballistic Missile System:

Advanced Air Defence Endo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 200km

S-400 Air Defence Missile System:

Aircraft Carriers of India:

Indigenous Submarine Program of India:

Joint Military Exercises-

Name Countries Start Year

EXERCISE INDRADHANUSH (Airforce) India and UK 2006

1.5 Information and Communication Technology (ICT): National Policy on

National Policy on Information Technology 2012-

12. Enabling access to ICT for differently-abled people.

Digital India Program-

Impact of Digital India Mission- (2015-23)

Digital India- Health Sector-

e-Kranti: National e-Governance Plan 2.0

4. Promote rapid replication and integration of e-Governance applications.

servers and risking millions of patients' data. In

How Vulnerable is India to Cyber Attacks?

Challenges Posed by Cyber Attacks on India: