I.T.

S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
Faculty
Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name

MATHEMATICAL MODELS
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as mathematical model.
These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. Analysis of control system means finding
the output when we know the input and mathematical model. Therefore, the design of control system means
finding the mathematical model when we know the input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
• Differential equation model
• Transfer function model
• State space model
Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.
Differential Equation Model - Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control
systems. Follow these steps for differential equation model.
• Apply basic laws to the given control system.
• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate variable(s).
Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown below. This circuit consists of resistor, inductor and
capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and
the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage v0.
Mesh equation for this circuit is –
di
v i = Ri + L + v0
dt
Substituting, the current i (as given below), passing through
capacitor in the above equation.
dv 0
i=C
dt
dv 0 d 2 v0
⇒ v i = RC + LC 2 + v 0
dt dt
2
d v 0 R dv 0 1 1
⇒ 2 + + v0 = v
dt L dt LC LC i
The above equation is a second order differential equation.
Transfer Function Model - Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.
The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.

Mr.. Agha A Husain Page 1

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
Faculty
Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace transforms
are X(s) and Y(s). Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown below.
Y(s)
i.e., Transfer Function =
X(s)

Here, we have represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this block has an
input X(s) and output Y(s).
Example: Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as –
d 2 v 0 R dv 0 1 1
2 + + v0 = v . Apply Laplace transform on both sides we obtain the following equations –
dt L dt LC LC i
R 1 1
s 2 V0 (s) + s
V0 (s) + V0 (s) = V (s)
L LC LC i
R 1 1
⇒ {s 2 + s + }V (s) = V (s)
L LC 0 LC i
V (s) 1 LC
⇒ 0 =
Vi (s) s 2 + s(R L) + (1 LC)

Where, Vi(s) and V0(s) are the respective Laplace transform of the input voltage vi and the output voltage v0.
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer function model
of this system is shown below. Here, we have shown a second order electrical system with a block having the
transfer function inside it. And this block has an input Vi(s) and an output V0(s).

MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

In this section, we will be discussing the differential equation modeling of mechanical systems. There are
two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
• Translational mechanical systems
• Rotational mechanical systems
Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.

Mr.. Agha A Husain Page 2

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
Faculty
Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass,
elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite directions,
the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three
elements individually.
Mass – Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body having
mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to the
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and frictions are negligible.
Fm α a
d2x
⇒ Fm = Ma = M
dt 2
d2x
F = Fm = M 2
dt

Where,
• F is the applied force • a is acceleration
• Fm is the opposing force due to mass • x is displacement
• M is mass
Spring – Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to the
displacement of the spring. Assume mass and frictions are negligible.
Fα x
⇒ Fk = Kx
F = Fk = Kx

Where,
• F is the applied force • K is spring constant
• Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of • x is the displacement
the spring
Dashpot – If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the
dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity is
negligible.

Mr.. Agha A Husain Page 3

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code RIC-603
Faculty
Dr. Ashish Gupta
Name
Fb  v
dx
⇒ Fb = Bv = B
dt
dx
F = Fb = B
dt
Where,
• Fb is the opposing force due to friction of • v is velocity
dashpot
• x is displacement
• B is the frictional coefficient
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment
of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in
opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque
opposed by these three elements individually.
Moment of Inertia – In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy. If a torque is applied on a body having moment of
inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is
proportional to angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction is negligible.
Tj  
d 2
⇒ T j = J = J
dt 2
d 2
T = Tj = J
dt 2
Where,
• T is the applied torque • J is moment of inertia
• Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of • α is angular acceleration
inertia
• θ is angular displacement
Torsional Spring – In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.

Dr. Ashish Gupta Page 4

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code RIC-603
Faculty
Dr. Ashish Gupta
Name
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of
torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement of the torsional spring.
Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.
Tk  
⇒ Tk = K
T = Tk = K
Where,
• T is the applied torque • K is the torsional spring constant
• Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity • θ is angular displacement
of torsional spring
Dashpot – If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the rotational
friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the body. Assume the
moment of inertia and elasticity is negligible.
Tb  
d
⇒ Tb = B = B
dt
d
T = B = B
dt
Where,
• Tb is the opposing torque due to the • ω is the angular velocity
rotational friction of the dashpot
• θ is the angular displacement
• B is the rotational friction coefficient

ELECTRICAL ANALOGIES OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are satisfied.
• The two systems are physically different
• Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two types of
electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage analogy and force current
analogy.

Dr. Ashish Gupta Page 5

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code RIC-603
Faculty
Dr. Ashish Gupta
Name
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are compared with
mesh equations of the electrical system. Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in
the following figure.

The force balanced equation for this system is

F = Fm + Fb + Fk
d2x dx
⇒ F = M 2 + B + Kx (1)
dt dt

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of a resistor, an
inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series. The input voltage applied to this
circuit is V volts and the current flowing through the circuit is i Amps.
Mesh equation for this circuit is –
dq d 2q q
V=R +L 2 + (2)
dt dt C
or
d 2q dq q
V=L 2 +R + (3)
dt dt C
By comparing Equation 1 and 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the translational mechanical system and
electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force (F) Voltage (V)
Mass (M) Inductance (L)
Frictional Coefficient (B) Resistance (R)
Spring Constant (K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/C)
Displacement (x) Charge (q)
Velocity (v) Current (i)

Dr. Ashish Gupta Page 6

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code RIC-603
Faculty
Dr. Ashish Gupta
Name
Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now discuss about this
analogy.
Torque Voltage Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared with mesh
equations of the electrical system. Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is –

T = Tj + Tb + Tk
d 2θ dθ
⇒T=J 2 +B + Kθ (4)
dt dt
Again by comparing Equation 3 and 4, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational mechanical system
and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque (T) Voltage (V)
Moment of Inertia (J) Inductance (L)
Rotational friction coefficient (B) Resistance (R)
Torsional spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/C)
Angular Displacement (θ) Charge (q)
Angular Velocity (ω) Current (i)

Force Current Analogy

In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal equations of the electrical system. Consider the following electrical system as shown in the
following figure. This circuit consists of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical
elements are connected in parallel.
Nodal equation for this circuit is –
1 dΨ i d 2Ψ
i= + Ψ+C 2 (5)
R dt L dt
dΨ
where, V is being replaced by V =
dt
d 2 Ψ 1 dΨ Ψ
or, i = C + + (6)
dt 2 R dt L

Dr. Ashish Gupta Page 7

 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accreditated)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code RIC-603
Faculty
Dr. Ashish Gupta
Name
By comparing Equation 1 and 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the translational mechanical system
and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force (F) Current (i)
Mass (M) Capacitance (C)
Frictional coefficient (B) Reciprocal of Resistance (1/R)
Spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L)
Displacement (x) Magnetic Flux (ψ)
Velocity (v) Voltage (V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now discuss this
analogy.
Torque Current Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are compared with the nodal
mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational mechanical system and
electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque (T) Current (i)
Moment of inertia (J) Capacitance (C)
Rotational friction coefficient (B) Reciprocal of Resistance (1/R)
Torsional spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L)
Angular displacement (θ) Magnetic flux (ψ)
Angular velocity (ω) Voltage (V)

In this section, we have discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These analogies are
helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical system from analogous electrical system.

Dr. Ashish Gupta Page 8