Multiplexing Techniques 277

phase shift keying, is a variant of M-PSK and QAM that incorporates the advantages of both
M-PSK and QAM. It has relatively fewer amplitude levels compared to QAM, thus allowing
the use of non-linear power amplifiers, and also has relatively greater phase shifts between
adjacent phase positions compared to M-PSK. While the former feature produces higher power
output and efficiency; latter feature produces a lower bit error rate. Fewer amplitude levels
and a smaller difference in amplitude between different levels make it possible to operate in
the non-linear region of the power amplifier to boost output power level.
APSK uses fewer amplitude levels. In this case, symbols are arranged into two or more
concentric rings with a constant phase shift offset. Figure 5.47 (a) shows the I-Q phase diagram
of 16APSK using a double ring PSK format called 4+12 APSK with four symbols in the centre
ring and 12 symbols in the outer ring. Figure 5.47 (b) shows the phase diagram of a 32APSK.
APSK is primarily used in satellites due to its suitability for use with travelling wave tube
(TWT) amplifiers.

5.8 Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques are used to combine several message signals into a single composite
signal so that they can be transmitted over a common channel. Multiplexing ensures that the
different message signals in the composite signal do not interfere with each other and that they
can be conveniently separated out at the receiver end. The two basic multiplexing techniques
in use include:

1. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time division multiplexing (TDM)

While frequency division multiplexing is used with signals that employ analogue modulation
techniques, time division multiplexing is used with digital modulation techniques where the
signals to be transmitted are in the form of a bit stream. The two techniques are briefly
described in the following paragraphs.

5.8.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing

In case of frequency division multiplexing (FDM), different message signals are separated from
each other in the frequency domain. Figure 5.48 illustrates the concept of FDM showing simul-
taneous transmission of three message signals over a common communication channel. It is
clear from the block schematic arrangement shown that each of the three message signals mod-
ulates a different carrier. The most commonly used modulation technique is single side band
(SSB) modulation. Any type of modulation can be used as long as it is ensured that the carrier
spacing is sufficient to avoid a spectral overlap. On the receiving side, bandpass filters separate
out the signals, which are then coherently demodulated as shown. The composite signal formed
by combining different message signals after they have modulated their respective carrier sig-
nals may be used to modulate another high frequency carrier before it is transmitted over the
common link. In that case, these individual carrier signals are known as subcarrier signals.
FDM is used in telephony, commercial radio broadcast (both AM and FM), television
broadcast, communication networks and telemetry. In the case of a commercial AM broadcast,
the carrier frequencies for different signals are spaced 10 kHz apart. This separation is definitely
Multiplexing Techniques 279

Figure 5.48 Frequency division multiplexing

not adequate if we consider a high fidelity voice signal with a spectral coverage of 50 Hz to
15 kHz. For this reason, AM broadcast stations using adjacent carrier frequencies are usually
geographically far apart to minimize interference. In the case of an FM broadcast, the carrier
frequencies are spaced apart at 200 kHz or more. In the case of long distance telephony, 600 or
more voice channels, each with a spectral band of 200 Hz to 3.2 kHz, can be transmitted over a
coaxial or microwave link using SSB modulation and a carrier frequency separation of 4 kHz.

5.8.2 Time Division Multiplexing

Time division multiplexing (TDM) is used for simultaneous transmission of more than one
pulsed signal over a common communication channel. Figure 5.49 illustrates the concept.
Multiple pulsed signals are fed to a type of electronic switching circuitry, called a commutator
in the figure. All the message signals, which have been sampled at least at the Nyquist rate

Figure 5.49 Time division multiplexing

280 Communication Techniques

(the sampling is usually done at 1.1 times the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing problems), are
fed to the commutator. The commutator interleaves different samples from different sampled
message signals in order to form a composite interleaved signal. This composite signal is
then transmitted over the link. In case all message signals have the same bandwidth, one
commutation cycle will contain one sample from each of the messages. Where signals have
different bandwidths, more samples would need to be transmitted per second of the signals
having larger bandwidths. As an illustration, if there are three message signals with respective
sampling rates of 2.4 kHz, 2.4 kHz and 4.8 kHz, then each cycle of commutation will have
one sample each from the first two messages and two samples from the third message.
At the receiving end, the composite signal is de-multiplexed using a similar electronic
switching circuitry that is synchronized with the one used at the transmitter. TDM is widely
used in telephony, telemetry, radio broadcasting and data processing applications.
If 𝑇 is the sampling time interval of the time multiplexed signal of 𝑛 different signals, each
having a sampling interval of 𝑇s , then

𝑇s
𝑇 = (5.37)
𝑛
Also, if the time multiplexed signal is considered as a lowpass signal having a bandwidth of
𝑓TDM and 𝑓m is the bandwidth of individual signals, then

𝑓TDM = 𝑛𝑓m (5.38)

Problem 5.15
Three message signals m1 (t), m2 (t) and m3 (t) with bandwidths of 2.4 kHz, 3.2 kHz and 3.4 kHz
respectively are to be transmitted over a common channel in a time multiplexed manner.
Determine the minimum sampling rate for each of the three signals if a uniform sampling
rate is to be chosen. Also determine the sampling interval of the composite signal.
Solution: Since the sampling has to be uniform for the three signals, the minimum sam-
pling rate for each of the signals would be twice the highest frequency component, i.e.
2 × 3.4 kHz = 6.8 kHz. The sampling rate of the composite signal = 3 × 6.8 kHz = 20.4 kHz
and therefore the sampling interval of the composite signal = (106 )∕(20.4 × 103 ) = 49 𝜇s.

Problem 5.16
In a certain digital telephony system comprising 24 voice channels, with each voice chan-
nel band limited to 3.2 kHz and using an 8-bit PCM, is transmitted over a common
communication channel using the TDM approach. If the signal is sampled at 1.2 times the
Nyquist rate and a single synchronization bit is added at the end of each frame, determine:

(a) duration of each bit and

(b) transmission rate

Solution: (a) Sampling rate = (2 × 3.2 × 1.2)kHz = 7.68 kHz. Therefore, the time period
of each multiplexed frame = (106 ∕7.68 × 103 ) = 130.2 𝜇s. Number of bits in each frame
= 24 × 8 + 1 = 193, therefore the bit duration = 130.2∕193 = 0.675 𝜇s.
(b) The transmission rate = 1∕0.675 = 1.482 Mbps.
Multiplexing Techniques 281

5.8.3 Code Division Multiplexing

Code division multiplexing (CDM) allows message signals from multiple independent signal
sources to be transmitted simultaneously over a common frequency band. This is unlike
either FDM or TDM. In the case of FDM, as discussed in section 5.8.1, multiple message
signals are transmitted simultaneously but are separated in frequency domain. In the case of
TDM, as discussed in section 5.8.2, multiple message signals are transmitted over a common
frequency band and are separated from each other by transmitting them in different time slots.
While FDM is used in the case of analogue signals, the latter is applicable to transmission of
digital bit streams.
CDM is accomplished by using orthogonal codes called spreading codes, which spread
each of the message signals over a common large frequency band, larger than the minimum
bandwidth that would otherwise be required to transmit these signals. After different signals
are spread over a large common frequency band using one of the spread spectrum techniques,
such as direct sequence spread spectrum, they modulate a common carrier and are transmitted
over a common channel. At the receiver end, appropriate orthogonal codes are used to recover
the corresponding message signals. In other words, at the receiver relevant orthogonal code
is used to recover the intended signal from the knowledge of the type of spreading code
used for that signal at the transmitter. Figures 5.50 (a) and (b) show the block schematic
arrangements used for the direct sequence spread spectrum for spreading and de-spreading
operations, respectively, at the transmitter and receiver.
To summarize, the spread spectrum technique of CDM is a three-step process of (a) spread-
ing the bandwidth of each message signal by using a spreading code that is independent of

Figure 5.50 Direct sequence spectrum for (a) spreading operation and (b) de-spreading operation
282 Communication Techniques

Figure 5.51 Simplified arrangement of communication system using code division multiplexing

message information, (b) modulating a carrier with the spread spectrum signal and transmitting
it over a common transmission channel and (c) using the relevant de-spreading codes at the
receivers to recover the intended message signals. Figure 5.51 shows a simplified arrange-
ment of a communication system using CDM. It may be mentioned here that CDM techniques
inherently provide reliability, noise immunity and security features to the communication and
therefore are extensively used in a number of commercial cellular telephone systems. The tech-
nique is used in many contemporary mobile telephone standards including (a) cdmaOne, the
first cellular standard to use CDM and implement the code division multiple access (CDMA)
scheme and also known as IS-95, (b) CDMA2000, a family of 3G mobile technology stan-
dards also known as IMT multi-carrier (IMT-MC) employing CDM and CDMA access to
send voice, data and signalling data between mobile phones and cell sites and (c) the universal
mobile telecommunications system (UMTS), a 3G mobile cellular system employing wide
band code division multiple access (W-CDMA) technology and used for networks based on
the GSM standard.

Further Readings
Calcutt, D. and Tetley, L. (1994) Satellite Communications: Principles and Application,
Edward Arnold, a member of the Hodder Headline Group, London.
Elbert, B.R. Introduction to Satellite Communication, Altech House, Boston, Massachusetts.