Dr.

Javed Ahmed Laghari

PhD, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor
javed@quest.edu.pk

Department of Electrical Engineering

QUEST, Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan

1
Def: A fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e.
equal fault currents in the lines with 120o displacement) is called symmetrical fault.

Explanation:
A fault in a circuit is any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current.

A short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load.

An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure.

A fault may occur on a power system due to a number of reasons. Some of the
common causes have their origins in natural disturbances like lightning, high speed
winds, earthquakes.
Generators, transformers, and other protective switchgear may fail due to insulation
breakdown.
There may be accidental faults such as falling of a tree along a line, vehicles colliding
with supporting structures, airplane crashing with the line, birds shorting line.

2
Sometime sabotage also results in creating faults. Contamination of insulators may
also result in a fault. Sometimes, small animals like rats, lizards enter switch gear to
create faults. Thus, symmetrical faults can also be defined as:

A fault in which all three phase are shorted to one another and to ground is
known as three phase short circuit fault or symmetrical faults.

A three phase short circuit occurs rarely but it is most severe type of fault involving
largest currents. For this reason the balanced short circuit calculations are
performed to determine these large currents to be used to determine the rating of
the circuit breakers.
Faults can cause system to become unstable. Hence, it is necessary that upon the
occurrence of fault , the faulty section should be disconnected as rapidly as possible in
order that the normal operation of the rest of the system is not affected. If this is not
done, the equipment may be damaged and the power supply is disrupted.

The relays should immediately detect the existence of the fault and initiate circuit
breaker operation to disconnect the faulty section.
3
The purpose of fault analysis is to determine the values of voltages and currents at
different points of the system during the fault. Such an analysis enables us to select
appropriate protective schemes, relays, and circuit breakers in order to save the system
from the abnormal condition within minimum time.
Note: The assumptions for short circuit calculations are same as for per unit system
reactance diagram.

When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is
limited by the impedance of the system up to the point of fault.
Hence, the knowledge of
the impedances of various
equipment and circuits in
the line of the system is very
important for the
determination of short-circuit
currents. 4
Experience in the operation of transmission lines have shown that ultra-high speed
reclosing breakers successfully reclose after most faults. Of those cases where reclosure
is not successful, many are caused by permanent faults where reclosure would be
impossible regardless of the interval between opening and reclosing.

Experiences has shown that between 70% and 80% of transmission line faults are
single line to ground faults, which arise from the flashover of only one line to the tower
and ground. Roughly 5% of all faults involve all three phases. These are the so called
symmetrical three phase faults.
Typical relative frequencies of occurrence of different kinds of faults in a power
system (in order of decreasing severity) are:

Type of Fault Percentage Occurrence

Three phase (3 ɸ) Faults 5%
Double line to ground (LLG) faults 10%
Double Line or Line to Line (LL) faults 15%
Single Line to ground faults 70% 5
The short circuit capacity of a bus network is defined as:
“The product of the magnitudes of the prefault voltage and the fault current”.
The short circuit capacity is also known as the fault level. Mathematically

SCC  V o  I F VA
Where, V0 = the prefault voltage in Volts,
IF = the short circuit current in amperes.

For a solid fault, the fault impedance ZF = 0, and the fault current is given by:

IF = VT / ZT
Where
VT =Thevenin voltage per phase in volts and
ZT =Thevenin impedance in ohms.

In our case VT = V0, therefore,

SCC 1  VT  I F  VT  VT / ZT  VT / ZT
2
VA / phase …Equation (A)
6
We know that,
SB
ZT p.u  ZT  ……………………Equation (B)
V 2B
Where,
Sb =Base volt-amperes in VA,
Vb = Base voltage in volts, ZT p.u = Thevenin impedance in per unit.
If VT is chosen as base voltage, VT = Vb. Therefore, Equation (B) can be written as:
SB
ZT p.u  ZT  2
V T
V 2T SB
 …………………Equation (C)
ZT Z T p.u
Combining Equations (A) and (C)

SCC 1  Sb / Z T ( p.u ) VA / phase

SCC 3  ( Sb ) 3 / Z T ( p.u ) MVA
7
Consider the Figure which shows the equivalent circuit of three phase generator on
no load, running at its synchronous speed and carrying a constant field current. It can
be noticed that the equivalent circuit resembles to series RL circuit.
Now, suppose, suddenly, the three phases of the
synchronous generator are short circuited. The
short circuit in each phase consists of a steady
state AC component and a transient DC offset.

The synchronous generator offers time varying

reactance which changes from X’’d to X’d and
finally to Xd.
The currents which flow in different parts of a power system immediately after the
occurrence of a fault differ from those flowing a few cycles later just before circuit
breakers are called upon to open the line on both sides of the fault. All of these current
differ widely from the currents which would flow under steady state conditions.

8
The synchronous generator during short circuit has a characteristic time varying
behaviour.
In the event of a short circuit, the flux per pole undergoes dynamic change with
associated transients in damper and field windings.
The reactance of the circuit model of the machine changes in the first few cycles from
a low sub-transient reactance to a higher transient value, finally setting at a still higher
synchronous (steady state) value.

Depending upon the arc interruption time of circuit breakers, a suitable reactance
value is used for the circuit model of synchronous generators for short circuit analysis.
The current flowing immediately after a fault occurs in a power network is
determined by the impedances of the network components and the synchronous
machines.
The initial symmetrical rms fault current can be determined by representing each
machine by its sub-transient reactance in series with its sub-transient internal voltage.
9
Figure shows the short circuit for one phase of a synchronous generator with DC
offset component neglected. The dashed envelope is called the symmetrical short
circuit armature current. The wave may be divided into three distinct time periods.

Figure: Symmetrical short circuit current for one phase of synchronous generator 10
The period lasts for only about 2 cycles. During this period the current decays very
rapidly.

The transient period lasts for about 20 to 30 cycles. During this period the current
decreases somewhat slowly.

The current reaches its steady state value.

The rms value of initial current (that is, the current at the instant of short circuit) is
called sub transient current I’’.
The corresponding reactance of the winding is called the direct-axis sub-transient
reactance X’’d. This reactance is essentially due to the presence of damper winding.
11
The rms value of current after two cycles to 30 cycles is called transient current I’.
The corresponding reactance of the winding is called the direct-axis transient
reactance X’d. This reactance is essentially due to the presence of field winding.

The rms value of current after 20

cycles is called steady state current (I).
The corresponding reactance of the
winding is called the direct-axis
transient reactance Xd.

12
Selection of Circuit Breakers:
The electric utility company furnishes data to a customer who must determine the
fault current in order to specify circuit breakers properly for an industrial plant or
industrial power distribution system connected to the utility system at a certain point.

Up to this point, we have devoted most of our attention to the sub-transient current
called the initial symmetrical current, which does not include the DC component.
Inclusion of the DC component results in a rms value of current immediately after the
fault, which is higher than the sub-transient current.
For oil circuit breakers above 5 kV, the sub-transient current multiplied by 1.6 is
considered to be the rms value of the current whose disruptive forces the breaker must
withstand during the first half cycle after the fault occurs. This current is called
Momentary current.
This interrupting current is ofcourse lower than the momentary current and depends
on the speed of the breaker such as 8, 5, 3 or 2 cycles, which is a measure of the time
from the occurrence of the fault to the extinction of the arc.

13
Selection of Circuit Breakers:
Two of the rated circuit breaker ratings which require the computation of short circuit
current are:
Rated momentary current and
Rated symmetrical interrupting current.
Symmetrical short circuit current is obtained by using the sub-transient reactances for
synchronous machines.
Momentary current (rms) is then calculated by multiplying the symmetrical
momentary current by a factor of 1.6 to account for the presence of DC-off set current.
The DC off set value to be added to obtain the current to be interrupted is accounted
for by multiplying the symmetrical short circuit current by a factor as tabulated below:
Circuit Breaker Speed Multiplying Factor
8 cycles or slower (0.16 seconds) 1.0
5 cycles (0.1 seconds) 1.1
3 cycles (0.06 seconds) 1.2
2 cycles (0.04 seconds) 1.4 14
Selection of Circuit Breakers:
The rated interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the period between the instant of
energizing the trip circuit and the arc extinction on an opening operation.
Preceding this period is the tripping delay time which is usually assumed to be ½
cycle for relays to pick up.

Obviously the rated MVA interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker is to be more than
(or equal to ) the Short circuit MVA required to be interrupted.

15
Reactor Control of Short Circuit Currents:
A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as
compared to its ohmic resistance.
With the fast expanding power system, the fault level (i.e. the power available to flow
into a fault) is also rising.
The circuit breakers connected in the power system must be capable of dealing with
maximum possible short-circuit currents that can occur at their points of connection.
Generally, the reactance of the system under fault conditions is low and fault currents
may rise to a dangerously high value.
If no steps are taken to limit the value of these short-circuit currents, not only will the
duty required of circuit breakers be excessively heavy, but also damage to lines and
other equipment will almost certainly occur.
In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers
can handle, additional reactances known as reactors are connected in series with
the system at suitable points.

Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the equipment from
overheating as well as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces. 16
Reactor Control of Short Circuit Currents:
Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate without
communicating their disturbing effects to other parts of the power system. This
increases the chances of continuity of supply.
They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating.

Short circuit current limiting reactors may be connected in series:

With each generator Note: The information about
With each feeder and Bus-bar can be found in Power
system Analysis by V. K. Mehta,
With Bus-bars.
Chapter 16, Topic 16.4 Bus bar
arrangements Page Number 391.
Depending upon the location of reactors, following are the main types of Reactors
Generator Reactors
Feeder Reactors
Bus-bar Reactors
Each installation has its own particular demands which must be carefully considered
before a choice of reactor location can be made. 17
Generator Reactors:
When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they are known as
generator reactors.

Modern generators are designed to have sufficiently large reactance to protect them in
even dead short circuits at their terminals. Thus, these reactors may only be used in
old generators having low values of reactance.
18
Disadvantages of Generator Reactors:
There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal
operation.
If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will
be reduced to a low value with the result that generators may lose synchronism and
supply may be interrupted.
If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to other is likely to be
affected.
Due to these disadvantages and
also since modern power station
generators have sufficiently large
leakage reactance to protect them
against short-circuit, it is not a
common practice to use separate
reactors for the generators.

19
Feeder Reactors:
When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as feeder
reactors.

Since most of the short-circuits occur on feeders, a large number of reactors are used
for such circuits.
20
Advantages of Feeder Reactors:
Two principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors:
Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not affect
the bus bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the generator to lose
synchronism.
Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders.

There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal
operation.
If the number of generators is
increased, the size of feeder reactors
will have to be increased to keep the
short-circuit currents within the
ratings of the feeder circuit
breakers.

21
Bus-bar Reactors:
When the reactors are connected in series with each Bus-bar, they are known as Bus-
bar reactors.
The limitations of generator and feeder reactors can be overcome by locating the
reactors in the bus-bars.
There are two methods for this purpose, namely;
Ring system and
Tie-Bar system.

Ring System:
In this system, bus-bar
is divided into sections
and these sections are
connected through
reactors.
This is the most
common method of
connection of reactors. 22
Ring System:
Under normal operation, each generator supplies feeder connected to its own section
and there will be no current through the reactors.

Thus, there is no voltage drop or power loss or very little power loss in the reactor
during normal operation. Generally, one feeder is fed from one generator only.

The principal advantage of the system is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only that
bus bar section is affected to which it is connected. The other sections continue to
operate normally.
One generator (to which the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault
current while the current fed from other generators is small due to the presence of
reactors.

Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which the feeder is connected,
the other sections being able to continue in normal operation

23
Tie-Bar System:
In this system, the generators are connected to the common bus-bar (tie-bar) through
the reactors but the feeders are fed from the generator side of the reactors.
The tie-bar system is better and more flexible than the ring system.

24
Tie-Bar System:
In the ring system, the short circuit current due to a fault on any bus bar section, is fed
from the generators connected to other sections through one reactor, whereas in the tie-
bar system the current flows through two reactors in series.
Therefore this system requires only half the reactance compared to the ring system.

The Tie-bar system has the

disadvantage that it requires
an additional bus-bar i.e. the
tie-bar.

25
Selection of Base kVA and Its Importance:
The common kVA rating assumed for calculation of per unit or short circuit current is
known as base kVA.

The value of this base kVA is quite unimportant and may be :

Equal to that of the largest plant

Equal to the total plant capacity

Any arbitrary value

The fact is that the value of base kVA does not affect the actual short circuit current.

Whatever value of base kVA we may choose, the actual value of short-circuit
current will be the same.
It can be proved with the help of an example as shown in the next slides

26
 This example is taken from Book Principles of Power System V K
Example: Mehta, Chapter 17, Topic 17.4 Percentage Reactance and Base kVA

Consider a 3-phase transmission line operating at 66 kV and connected through a

1000 kVA transformer with 5% reactance to a generating station bus-bar as shown in
Figure. The generator is of 2500 kVA with 10% reactance. Suppose a short-circuit fault
between three phases occurs at the high voltage terminals of transformer. Prove that
whatever value of base kVA we may choose, the value of short-circuit current will be
the same.

27
 J.A.Laghari way of solution is different than V.K.Mehta Solution
Solution:
Suppose we have chosen 2500 kVA and 5000 kVA, two common base kVA. Now first,
short circuit current is calculated with 2500 kVA as below:

ISC Calculation at 2500 kVA as Base kVA:

On this base value, the reactances of the various elements in the system are calculated
as below:
New Per unit Reactance of Generator G:
2
1110  2500 103
3
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1 p.u
1110  2500 10
G( p.u )new 3

New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T:

2
11103  2500 103
X  j 0.05   3
  j 0.05  2.5  j 0.125 p.u
1110  1000 10
T ( p.u )new 3

Total Per Unit Reactance Up to Point of Fault:

X  j 0.1  j 0.125  j 0.225 p.u
Total ( p.u ) 28
Solution:
Short Circuit Current ISC Per unit :
I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.225  4.44 p.u
SC( p.u )
Base Short Circuit Current ISC :


Base kVA 2500  10 3
2500 2500
I
SC( Base)     21.87 A
3 VBase 3  66 10 3
3  66 114.3153
Actual Short Circuit Current ISC :

I I I  4.44  21.87  97.1 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

Equation …1

29
Solution:
ISC Calculation at 5,000 kVA as Base kVA:
On this base value, the reactance's of the various elements are calculated as below:
New Per unit Reactance of Generator G:
2
1110  5000 103
3
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1 2  j 0.2 p.u
G( p.u )new
11  10  2500  10 3

New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T:

2
11103  5000 103
X
T ( p.u )new
 j 0.05  
 3

 3  j 0.05  5  j 0.25 p.u
11 10  1000 10
Total Per Unit Reactance Up to Point of Fault:
X  j 0.2  j 0.25  j 0.45 p.u
Total ( p.u )
Short Circuit Current ISC Per unit:
I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.45  2.22 p.u
SC( p.u ) 30
Solution:
Base Short Circuit Current ISC :
Base kVA 5000 1000 5000 5000
I
SC( Base)
     43.74 A
3 VBase 3  66 1000 3  66 114.3153
Actual Short Circuit Current ISC :

I I I  2.22  43.74  97.1 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

Equation …2

Hence, it can be observed from Equation 1 and 2 that actual value of short circuit
current does not depend upon the base kVA. However, in the interest of simplicity,
numerically convenient value for the base kVA should be chosen.

Answer 31
Example:
A three phase transmission line operating at 33 kV and having a resistance and
reactance of 5 ohms and 20 ohms respectively is connected to a generating station bus
bar through a 15 MVA step-up transformer which has a reactance of 0.06 p.u. connected
to bus bar are two generators, one 10 MVA having 0.1 p.u reactance and another 5MVA
having 0.075 p.u reactance.
Calculate the short circuit MVA and the fault current when a three phase short circuit
occurs:
(a) At the high voltage terminals of transformer
(b) At the load end of the transmission line. Select 15MVA and 11kV as the base
values.
(c) Which fault will have higher value of current (Added by J. A. Laghari)

32
Solution:
We know that the formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G1:

2
1110  15 10 6
3
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.111.5  j 0.15 p.u
G ( p.u )new
1 11  10  10  10 6

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G2:

2
1110  15 10 6
3
X  j 0.075   3
  j 0.075 1 3  j 0.225 p.u
G ( p.u )new
2 11  10  5  10 6

New Per unit Reactance of Transformer:

2
11103  15 10 6
X  j 0.06   3
  j 0.06 11  j 0.06 p.u
1110  15 10
T / F ( p.u )new 6
33
Solution:
New Per unit Impedance of Transmission Line:
It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. Hence, new
base voltage is determined by:
33  10 3
New Base Voltage  11103   33  10 3
V
1110 3

Now, it can be noticed that the impedance of transmission line is given in ohms
instead of per unit values. Hence, the formula to find per unit impedance of
transmission line is given by:
SB Base kVA
Z p.u  Z ohms   Z ohms 
V 2B ( Base kV ) 2
15 106 15
Z Line ( p.u )  (5  j 20)   (5  j 20) 
(33 10 )
3 2
1089
Z Line ( p.u )  (5  j 20)  0.01377
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.06887  j 0.2754 ) p.u 34
Solution:
(a) Calculation of Short Circuit Current at Point FA:
The equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at point FA is shown as below:

The total impedance from the generator side up to the point of fault FA is given by:
j 0.15  j 0.225
Z  ( j 0.15) || ( j 0.225)  j 0.06   j 0.06
Total ( p.u ) j 0.15  j 0.225
j 2  0.03375  1 0.03375
Z   j 0.06   j 0.06
Total ( p.u ) j 0.375 j 0.375
 ( j )  0.03375
Z   j 0.06 p.u  j 0.09  j 0.06 p.u  j 0.15 p.u
Total( p.u) 0.375 35
Solution:
The short circuit MVA fed into the fault at FA:
S Base 15 10 6 15 10 6 15 10 6 15 100 10 6
S Actual  
Z p.u j 0.15  0.15  15 / 100  15
 100 MVA
The fault current at point FA is given by:

Actual kVA 100 10 6 100 103 100 103

I SC      1.7495  10 3
 1749 .5 A
3  VActual 3  33 10 3
3  33 57.1576

Alternate Approach to Calculate Fault current FA: (J.A.Laghari)

It should be noted that the here question ask first to determine the short circuit MVA,
due to which here, fault current is directly calculated by putting the value of short
circuit MVA in the formula. However, if any question does not ask to calculate the short
circuit MVA and ask to determine the fault current only. In that case, first per unit short
circuit current will be calculated followed by short circuit base current. In the end, short
circuit or fault current will obtained as below:

I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.15  6.6667 p.u

SC( p.u )
36
Solution:
Base kVA 15 10 6 15 10 3 15 10 3
I
SC( Base)
     0.2624  10 3
 262.4 A
3  VBase 3  33 103 3  33 57 .1576

I I I  6.6667  262.4  1749 .5 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

(b) Calculation of Short Circuit Current at Point FB:

The equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at point FB is shown as below:

37
Solution:
The total impedance from the generator side up to the point of fault FB is given by:
Z  ( j 0.15) || ( j 0.225)  j 0.06  0.06887  j 0.2754
Total ( p.u )
Z
Total ( p.u )
 j 0.09  j 0.06  0.06887  j 0.2754  0.06887  j 0.4254

Z  0.06887 2  j 0.4254 2  0.431 p.u

Total ( p.u )
The short circuit MVA fed into the fault at FA:
Note: To calculate short circuit MVA,
S Base 15 10 6 15 10 6
S Actual     34.8 MVA impedance in polar form is used. However,
Z p.u j 0.431 0.431 alternatively, if impedance in rectangular
form is used, then short circuit MVA is
The fault current at point FB is given by: obtained by rationalizing the impedance.

34.8 10 6 34.8 10 3  34.8 10  0.6088 103  608.8 A

3
Actual kVA
I SC   
3  VActual 3  33 10 3
3  33 57.1576

38
Solution:

Alternate Approach to Calculate Fault current FB: (J.A.Laghari)

The short circuit current can also be determined by first determining the per unit short
circuit current followed by short circuit base current. In the end, short circuit or fault
current will obtained as below:
I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.431  2.32 p.u
SC( p.u )
Base kVA 15 10 6 15 103 15 103
I      0.2624  10 3
 262.4 A
SC( Base) 3  VBase 3  33 10 3
3  33 57.1576

I I I  2.32  262.4  608.8 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

(c) Which fault has higher value of current

From part A & B, it is evident that fault FA is more sever & has higher value.
Note: It should be noticed that without calculating the actual current, we
can realize that the fault point at generator side will have highest current
than all other points and decreases gradually at other points.
39
Example For Practice:
The single line diagram of a power system is shown in Figure. Find the short circuit
current that will flow at point F. select 35 MVA and 11 kV as base values.

Solution: Solving the system, we will get the following answer.

I I I  2.572 1837 .02  4724 .815 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

Answer 40
Example: This example is taken from Book Principles of Power System V K
Mehta, Chapter 17, Example 17.14.
A 10 MVA, 6.6kV, 3-phase star connected alternator having a reactance of 20% is
connected through a 5MVA, 6.6/33kV kV transformer of 10% reactance to a
transmission line having a resistance and reactance per conductor per kilometre of 0.2
ohms and 1 ohm respectively. Fifty kilometres along the line, a short circuit occurs
between the three conductors. Find
(a) The current fed to the fault by the alternator.
(b) The current at the fault point (Added by J.A.Laghari).

Solution:
(a) Short circuit current fed by the Alternator:
The formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
41
Solution: Let 10MVA and 6.6 kV be the base values.

2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G:

2
 6.6 10  10 10 6
3
X  j 0.2   3
  j 0.2 11  j 0.2 p.u
G( p.u )new
 6.6  10  10  10 6

New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T:

2
 6.6 10  10 10 6
3
X
T / F ( p.u )new
 j 0.1 
 3

 6  j 0.11 2  j 0.2 p.u
 6.6 10  5 10
New Per unit Impedance of Transmission Line:
It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. Hence, new
base voltage is determined by:
33 103
New Base Voltage  6.6 10  3
 33  10 3
V
6.6 10 3
42
 Solution:
Now, it can be noticed that the impedance of transmission line is given in ohms
instead of per unit values. Hence, the formula to find per unit impedance of
transmission line is given by:
SB Base kVA
Z p.u  Z ohms   Z ohms 
V 2B ( Base kV ) 2
10 106 10
Z Line ( p.u )  (10  j50) 
(33 10 )3 2
 (10  j50) 
1089
 (10  j50)  0.00918
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.0918  j 0.459) p.u
Total New Per unit Impedance up to the Fault Point:
ZToal ( p.u )  X G ( p.u )  X T / F ( p.u )  X Line( p.u )  j 0.2  j 0.2  0.0918  j 0.459

ZToal ( p.u )  0.0918  j 0.859  0.0918 2  ( j 0.859) 2  0.7463  0.8638 p.u

The short circuit MVA fed into the fault at FA:

S Base 10 10 6
S SC    11.57 MVA
Z p.u 0.8638
43
Solution:
The fault current fed by the alternator is given by:
Actual kVA 11.57 10 6 11.57 10 3 11.57 103
I SC      1012 A
3  VActual 3  6.6 10 3
3  6.6 11.43

(b) Short circuit current at the fault point:

Actual kVA 11.57 10 6 11.57 103 11.57 103
I SC      202.4 A
3  VActual 3  33 10 3
3  33 57.157

Alternate Approach to Calculate ISC: (By J.A.Laghari)

The fault current fed by the alternator is given by:

I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.8638  1.157 p.u

SC( p.u )
For the fault current fed by the alternator, the short circuit base current is given by:
Base kVA 10 10 6 10 103 10 103
I      874.77 A
SC( Base) 3  VBase 3  6.6 10 3
3  6.6 11.431
44
Solution:
I I I  1.157  874.77  1012 A
SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

The fault current at the fault point is given by:

I  V p.u / X p.u  1.0 / 0.8638  1.157 p.u

SC( p.u )
For the fault current at fault point, the short circuit base current is given by:
Base kVA 10 10 6 10 103 10 103
  3    174.95 A
I
SC( Base) 3 VBase 3  33 10 3  33 57.157
I I I
SC ( Actual ) SC ( p.u ) SC ( Base)

I  1.157 174.95  202.4 A

SC ( Actual )

45
 This example is taken from Book Power System
Example For Practice: Analysis by P.S.R.Murty. Chapter 6, Example 6.17.
A 3-phase generating station has two 15,000 kVA generators connected in parallel
each with 15% reactance and a third generator of 10,000 kVA with 20% reactance is
also added later in parallel with them. Load is taken as shown from the station bus-bars
through 6000 kVA, 6% reactance transformers. Determine the maximum fault MVA
which the circuit breakers have to interrupt on
(a) LV side and
(b) HV side of the system for a symmetrical fault.

46
Solution: Let 15,000 kVA as base kVA

(a) Short Circuit MVA at LV side of Transformer:

The formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given
The short circuit MVA is given by:

S Base 15,000 10 3

S SC    250 MVA
Z p.u 0.06

(b) Short Circuit MVA at HV side of Transformer:

The short circuit MVA is given by:

S Base 15,000 10 3

S SC    71.43 MVA
Z p.u 0.21
47
 This example is taken from Book Modern Power System Analysis
Example: by D.P.Kothari. Chapter 9, Example 9.1.

For the radial network shown in Figure, a three phase fault occurs at F. determine the
fault current.

48
Solution: Let 100 MVA and 11 kV as chosen as base values.

(a) Short Circuit Current at End of Feeder:

The formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G1:

2
1110  100 10 6
3
X  j 0.15   3
  j 0.15 10  j1.5 p.u
1110  10 10
G1( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G2:

2
1110  100 10 6
3
X  j 0.125   3
  j 0.125 110  j1.25 p.u
1110  10 10
G2 ( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Impedance of Transformer T1:

2
11103  100 10 6
Z  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1110  j1.0 p.u
1110  10 10
T ( p.u )new 6
1 49
Solution:
New Per unit Impedance of Transmission Line:
It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. Hence, first
new base voltage is required to determined. Then its per unit impedance can be
calculated. The formula for finding new base voltage is given by:
E2 33 10 3
New Base Voltage  Old Base Voltage   11 10 
3
 33 kV
E1 11 10 3

The formula to find per unit impedance of transmission line is given by:
SB Base kVA
Z p.u  Z ohms   Z ohms 
V 2B ( Base kV ) 2
The values are given for per kilometre. Hence, for 30 kilometre, we have to multiply
it with 30.
100 106 100
Z Line ( p.u )  30  (0.27  j0.36 )   30  (0.27  j0.36 ) 
(33 10 )
3 2
1089
Z Line ( p.u )  30  (0.27  j0.36)  0.09183  (8.1  j10.8)  0.09183
Z Line ( p.u )  0.744  j 0.99 p.u 50
Solution:
New Per unit Impedance of Transformer T2:
2
 33 103  100 106
6  j 0.08 1 20  j1.6 p.u
Z  j 0.08   3

T ( p.u )new
2  33 10  5 10
New Per unit Impedance of Cable:
It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. The new
base voltage is determined as below:
E2 6.6 10 3
New Base Voltage  Old Base Voltage   33 10 
3
 6.6 kV
E1 33 10 3

The impedance value of cable is given for per kilometre. Hence, for 3 kilometre, we
have to multiply it with 3 as below:
100 106 100
Z Cable ( p.u )  3  (0.135  j0.08)   3  (0.135  j0.08) 
(6.6 103 ) 2 43.56
ZCable ( p.u )  3  (0.135  j0.08)  2.295  (0.405  j0.24)  2.295
ZCable ( p.u )  0.93  j 0.55 p.u 51
Solution:
The equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at point F is shown as below:

It can be observed that since the system is on no load prior to occurrence of the fault,
the voltages of the two generators are identical (in phase and magnitude) and are equal
to 1.0 p.u. the generator circuit can thus be replaced by a single voltage source in series
with the parallel combination of generator reactance's as shown above. 52
Solution: The total impedance up to the fault point is given as:

Z  ( j1.5) || ( j1.25)  j1.0  0.744  j 0.99  j1.6  0.93  j 0.55

Total( p.u)
j1.5  j1.25
Z   j1.0  0.744  j 0.99  j1.6  0.93  j 0.55
Total ( p.u ) j1.5  j1.25
j 21.875
Z   j1.0  0.744  j 0.99  j1.6  0.93  j 0.55
Total ( p.u ) j 2.75
Z  (1)  ( j )  0.681  j1.0  0.744  j 0.99  j1.6  0.93  j 0.55
Total ( p.u )

Z  j 0.681  j1.0  0.744  j 0.99  j1.6  0.93  j 0.55

Total ( p.u )

Z  1.674  j 4.82 p.u  1.674 2  j 4.82 2  5.170.8 p.u

Total ( p.u )
The per unit short circuit current is given by:

I  V p.u / Z p.u  1.0 / 5.170.8  0.196  70.8 p.u

SC( p.u )
53
Solution:
Now, the short circuit base current is given by:
Base kVA 100 10 6 100 103 100 103
I      8750 A
SC( Base) 3  VBase 3  6.6 10 3
3  6.6 11.43

I I I  0.196  8750  1715 A

SC( Actual ) SC( p.u ) SC( Base)

54
 This example is taken from Book Modern Power System Analysis
Example: by D.P.Kothari. Chapter 9, Example 9.4.
Three 6.6 kV generators A, B and C, each of 10% leakage reactance and MVA ratings
40, 50 and 25 respectively are interconnected electrically as shown in Figure, by a tie
bar through current limiting reactors, each of 12% reactance based upon the rating of
the machine to which it is connected. A three phase feeder is supplied from the bus bar
of generator A at a line voltage of 6.6 kV. The feeder has a resistance of 0.06 Ω/phase
and an inductive reactance of 0.12 Ω/phase. Estimate
(a) The maximum MVA that can be fed into a symmetrical short circuit at the far end
of the feeder.
(b)The maximum short circuit current at the feeder. (added by J.A.Laghari)

55
Solution: Let 50 MVA and 6.6 kV as chosen as base values.

(a) Short Circuit MVA at Far End of Feeder:

The formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G1:

2
 6.6 10  50 106
3
5 j 0.5
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1   j 0.125 p.u
 6.6 10  40 10
G1( p.u)new 6
4 4
New Per unit Reactance of Generator G2:
2
 6.6 10  50 106
3
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.111  j 0.1 p.u
 6.6 10  50 10
G2 ( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G3:

2
 6.6 10  50 106
3
50
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.11  j 0.11 2  j 0.2 p.u
 6.6 10  25 10
G3 ( p.u )new 6
25 56
Solution:
New Per unit Reactance of Reactor A:
2
 6.6 103  50 106 5 j 0.6
X  j 0.12   3
  j 0.12    j 0.15 p.u
 6.6 10  40 10
A( p.u)new 6
4 4
New Per unit Reactance of Reactor B:
2
 6.6 10  50 10 6
3
X  j 0.12   3
  j 0.12 1  j 0.12 p.u
 6.6 10  50 10
B( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Reactance of Reactor C:

2
 6.6 10  50 10 6
3
X  j 0.12   3
  j 0.12 1 2  j 0.24 p.u
 6.6 10  25 10
C ( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Reactance of Feeder:

Now, it can be noticed that the impedance of transmission line is given in ohms
instead of per unit values. Hence, the formula to find per unit impedance of
transmission line is given by:
SB Base kVA
Z p.u  Z ohms   Z ohms 
V 2B ( Base kV ) 2 57
Solution:
50 106 50
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.06  j0.12 )   (0.06  j 0.12 ) 
(6.6 103 ) 2 43.56
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.06  j0.12 ) 1.1478  (0.069  j 0.138) p.u
The equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at point F is shown as below:

58
Solution:
It can be noticed from the equivalent circuit that j0.1 and j0.12 are in series, similarly,
j0.2 and j0.24 are in series. Hence, these can be combined to get one value as j0.22 and
j0.44 p.u respectively. The modified equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at
point F is shown as below:

The total impedance

from the generator to the
fault point is given as:

Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.15  j 0.22 || j 0.44)

Total ( p.u )
j 0.22  j 0.44
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.15  )
Total ( p.u ) j 0.22  j 0.44
59
Solution:
j 2 0.0968
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.15  )
Total ( p.u ) j 0.66
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.15  (1)  ( j )0.14667 )
Total ( p.u )
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.15  j 0.14667 )
Total ( p.u )
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.125 || ( j 0.29667 )
Total ( p.u )
j 0.125  j 0.29667
Z  (0.069  j 0.138) 
Total ( p.u ) j 0.125  j 0.29667
j 2 0.03708
Z  (0.069  j 0.138) 
Total ( p.u ) j 0.42167
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  (1)  ( j )  0.087936
Total ( p.u )
Z  (0.069  j 0.138)  j 0.087936
Total ( p.u )
Z  0.069  j 0.226 p.u  0.069 2  j 0.226 2  0.236 73 p.u
Total ( p.u )
60
Solution:
The short circuit MVA is given by:

S Base 50 10 6
S SC    211 .86 MVA
Z p.u 0.236

(b) Short circuit current at the fault point:

Actual kVA 211.86 10 6 211.86 103 211.86 103

I SC      18.532 kA
3  VActual 3  6.6 10 3
3  6.6 11.43

Alternate Approach to Calculate ISC: (By J.A.Laghari)

In order to avoid the repetition of steps, we just write the steps to calculate the short
circuit current. To do this, first, per unit short circuit current is calculated followed by
base current is calculated. Finally, total short circuit current is calculated. The formulae
for the currents can be used from the previous examples.

61
Example:
Three 6.6 kV generators A, B and C, each of 10% leakage reactance and MVA ratings
40, 50 and 25 respectively are interconnected electrically as shown in Figure. A three
phase feeder is supplied from the bus bar of generator A at a line voltage of 6.6 kV. The
feeder has a resistance of 0.06 Ω/phase and an inductive reactance of 0.12 Ω/phase.
Estimate:
(a) The maximum MVA that can be fed into a symmetrical short circuit at the feeder.
(b)The maximum short circuit current at the feeder.

This example is the modification of previous example. The aim is to analyse the advantage
of reactor. Hence, in this example, reactors are not used. This is modified by J.A.Laghari 62
Solution: Let 50 MVA and 6.6 kV as chosen as base values.

(a) Short Circuit MVA at Far End of Feeder:

The formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
2
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
Z  Z ( p.u ) old    
( p.u )new
 base kVnew  base kVA given

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G1:

2
 6.6 10  50 106
3
5 j 0.5
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1   j 0.125 p.u
 6.6 10  40 10
G1( p.u)new 6
4 4
New Per unit Reactance of Generator G2:
2
 6.6 10  50 106
3
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.111  j 0.1 p.u
 6.6 10  50 10
G2 ( p.u )new 6

New Per unit Reactance of Generator G3:

2
 6.6 103  50 106 50
X  j 0.1  3
  j 0.1 1   j 0.11 2  j 0.2 p.u
 6.6 10  25 10
G3 ( p.u )new 6
25 63
Solution:
New Per unit Reactance of Feeder:
The formula to find per unit impedance of feeder is given by:
SB Base kVA
Z p.u  Z ohms  2  Z ohms 
V B ( Base kV ) 2
50 106 50
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.06  j0.12 )   (0.06  j0.12 ) 
(6.6 10 )
3 2
43.56
Z Line ( p.u )  (0.06  j0.12 ) 1.1478  (0.069  j 0.138) p.u
The equivalent per unit single line diagram with fault at point F is shown as below:

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Solution:
The total impedance from the generator to the fault point is given as:
Z  ( j 0.2) || ( j 0.1) || ( j 0.125)  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u )
j 0.2  j 0.1
Z  || ( j 0.125)  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u ) j 0.2  j 0.1
j 2 0.02
Z  || ( j 0.125)  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u ) j 0.3
Z  (1)  ( j )  0.0667 || ( j 0.125)  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u )
Z  j 0.0667 || ( j 0.125)  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u )
j 0.0667  j 0.125 j 2 0.00833
Z   0.069  j 0.138   0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u ) j 0.0667  j 0.125 j 0.1916
Z  (1)  ( j )  0.04346  0.069  j 0.138  j 0.04346  0.069  j 0.138
Total ( p.u )
Z  0.069  j 0.18146  0.069 2  j 0.18146 2  0.194 69.18 p.u
Total ( p.u )
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Solution:
The short circuit MVA is given by:

S Base 50 10 6
S SC    257 .73 MVA
Z p.u 0.194

(b) Short circuit current at the fault point:

Actual kVA 257.73 10 6 257.73 103 257.73 103

I SC      22.548 kA
3  VActual 3  6.6 10 3
3  6.6 11.43
It can be observed that without using the reactors, the short circuit MVA is quite large
compared to the short circuit MVA using the reactors. Hence, it is proved that use of
reactors will highly limit the short circuit current and will reduce the size of the
breakers required. This will result in overall cost reduction of the system.
Answer

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