State of the Climate

in Latin America
and the Caribbean
2023
WEATHER CLIMATE WATER

WMO-No. 1351
WMO-No. 1351
© World Meteorological Organization, 2024

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B
Contents
Key messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Global climate context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Regional climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Major climate drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Sea level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Extreme events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Tropical cyclones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Heavy precipitation, floods and landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Droughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Heatwaves and wildfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Cold waves and snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Climate-related impacts and risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Affected population and damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Agriculture and food security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Enhancing climate resilience and adaptation policies for health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Strengthening climate–health cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Weather and climate services capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Datasets and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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i
Key messages
In Latin America and the Caribbean, 2023 Extreme heat and heatwaves led to health
was the warmest year on record. impacts throughout the year, including
excess mortality. Between 2000 and 2019,
Sea level continued to rise at a higher there was an average of 36 695 heat-related
rate than the global mean around much of excess deaths in the region per year.
the Atlantic part of the region, threatening
the coastal areas of several countries and Intense and severe drought, exacerbated
small island developing States. by heatwaves, affected large areas of Latin
America during 2023. By the end of the year,
Hurricane Otis made landfall as a Category 5 76% of Mexico was experiencing some
strength hurricane near Acapulco, Mexico, degree of drought.
leading to major losses in life and infra-
structure. Otis was the strongest landfalling The Negro River in the Amazon hit a record
hurricane on record in the eastern Pacific low level since observations began in 1902.
Basin, with one of the most rapid rates In the Panama Canal, low water levels re-
of intensification. stricted ship traffic from August onward.

Floods and landslides triggered by heavy Exceptionally high temperatures and dry
rainfall led to significant fatalities and conditions also impacted wildlife. In Tefé
economic losses across the region. In São Lake, in the Brazilian Amazon, water tem-
Sebastião, Brazil, 683 mm of rainfall accu- perature reached a record high and over
mulated in 15 hours, triggering a landslide 150 river dolphins (Boto-cor-de-rosa) were
that led to at least 65 deaths. reported dead.

Climate services are pivotal in enhancing de- Agricultural losses were reported in many
cision-making and action in various sectors. countries in the region due to extreme
Despite recent developments and successful weather and climate events. Such impacts
initiatives, only 38% of WMO Members exacerbated food insecurity, especially in
in the region indicated providing tailored communities reliant on agriculture for their
climate products for the health sector. livelihoods.
Foreword
The present WMO report is the fourth in an annual
series starting with the year 2020. It summarizes the
observed climate trends and high-impact events, as
well as associated socioeconomic impacts, in Latin
America and the Caribbean (LAC). Tropical cyclones,
heavy precipitation and flooding events, extreme
heat and severe droughts led to significant human
and economic losses in the region throughout 2023.

The second half of 2023 was particularly influenced

globally by El Niño conditions, which contributed to a
record warm year and exacerbated extreme events in
the region. This happened on top of well-established
long-term climate change and the associated rising
frequency and intensity of extreme weather and
climate events.

Among many climatic hazards recorded in LAC, Hurricane Otis hit Acapulco, in Mexico,
as a Category 5 hurricane, devastating the area and leading to dozens of fatalities and billions
of dollars in damage. The drought in the Amazon was another noteworthy high-impact event
of the year. It was so intense that the Negro River, at Manaus, recorded its lowest level in more
than 120 years of observations.

The report highlights the advances made in integrating meteorological data into health
surveillance (focusing on disease), reflecting a move towards stronger public health strategies.
Despite this improvement, there is still a need for substantial developments and investments
in weather services infrastructure and tailored climate services.

There are major gaps in the weather and climate observing networks, especially in the least
developed countries and small island developing States; these gaps represent an obstacle
to the provision of early warnings, adequate climate services and effective climate monitoring,
especially at the regional and national scales. WMO works with its Members and partners
to improve climate observations through the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) and
by ensuring adequate financial mechanisms for weather and climate observations through the
Systematic Observations Financing Facility (SOFF).

Early warnings are fundamental for anticipating and reducing the impacts of extreme events.
WMO is leading the United Nations Early Warnings for All initiative and its Executive Action Plan.
The Action Plan, launched by United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres during the
World Leaders Summit at the United Nations 2022 Climate Change Conference (COP27), provides
a new horizon for strengthening Earth system observations, monitoring and warning capabilities.

I wish to congratulate and thank the lead authors, contributing experts, scientists and organi-
zations for their collaboration and input into the production, review and timely delivery of this
publication. I am also grateful to the WMO Member National Meteorological and Hydrological
Services, Regional Climate Centres and United Nations agencies for their forefront role in ensuring
adequate data and information used in the analysis provided in this report.

(Prof. Celeste Saulo)

Secretary-General

iii
 Global climate context
The global annual mean near-surface temperature in 2023 was 1.45 ± 0.12 °C above the
1850–1900 pre-industrial average. The year 2023 was the warmest year on record according
to six global temperature datasets. The past nine years, 2015 to 2023, were the nine warmest
years on record in all datasets.

Atmospheric concentrations of the three major greenhouse gases each reached new record
observed highs in 2022, the latest year for which consolidated global figures are available,
with levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) at 417.9 ± 0.2 parts per million (ppm), methane (CH4) at
1 923 ± 2 parts per billion (ppb) and nitrous oxide (N2O) at 335.8 ± 0.1 ppb – respectively 150%,
264% and 124% of pre-industrial (pre-1750) levels (Figure 1). Real-time data from specific
locations, including Mauna Loa1 (Hawaii, United States of America) and Kennaook/Cape Grim2
(Tasmania, Australia) indicate that levels of CO2, CH4 and N2O continued to increase in 2023.

Over the past two decades, the ocean warming rate has increased, and the ocean heat content
in 2023 was the highest on record. Ocean warming and accelerated loss of ice mass from the
ice sheets contributed to the rise of the global mean sea level by 4.77 mm per year between
2014 and 2023, reaching a new record high in 2023. Between 1960 and 2021 (latest available
data), the ocean absorbed about 25% of annual anthropogenic emissions of CO2 into the
atmosphere. CO2 reacts with seawater and lowers its pH. The limited number of long-term
observations in the open ocean have shown a decline in pH, with a reduction of the average
global surface ocean pH of 0.017–0.027 pH units per decade since the late 1980s. This process,
known as ocean acidification, affects many organisms and ecosystem services, and threatens
food security by endangering fisheries and aquaculture.

(a) Carbon dioxide concentration (b) Methane concentration (c) Nitrous oxide concentration
340
420 1950
1900
330
400
1850
ppb
ppm

320
ppb

380 1800

1750
360 310
1700

340 1650 300

1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020

(d) Carbon dioxide growth rate (e) Methane growth rate (f) Nitrous oxide growth rate
4 20 1.5

15
3
1.0
ppb/year
ppm/year

ppb/year

10
2
5
0.5
1
0

0 –5 0.0
1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020

Figure 1. Top row: monthly globally averaged mole fraction (measure of atmospheric concentration),
from 1984 to 2022, of (a) CO 2 in parts per million, (b) CH 4 in parts per billion and (c) N 2 O in parts per billion.
Bottom row: the growth rates representing increases in successive annual means of mole fractions for
(d) CO 2 in parts per million per year, (e) CH 4 in parts per billion per year and (f) N 2O in parts per billion per year.

1
 Regional climate
The following sections analyse key indicators of the climate in Latin America and the Caribbean
(LAC). One such indicator that is particularly important, temperature, is described in terms
of anomalies, or departures from a reference period. For global mean temperature, the Sixth
Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)3 uses the
reference period 1850–1900 for calculating anomalies relative to pre-industrial levels. However,
this pre-industrial reference period cannot be used in all regions as a baseline for calculating
regional anomalies, due to insufficient data for calculating region-specific averages before
1900. Instead, there are two more recent climatological standard average reference periods
with sufficient data for computing regional temperature anomalies and other indicators:
1961–1990, which is a fixed reference period recommended by WMO for assessing long-term
temperature change, and 1991–2020, which is the most recent climatological standard average
reference period. In the present report, exceptions to the use of these baseline periods for
calculating anomalies, where they occur, are explicitly noted.

MAJOR CLIMATE DRIVERS

LAC is surrounded by the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and the climate in the region is largely
influenced by the prevailing sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) and associated large-scale
atmosphere–ocean coupling phenomena, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Central and eastern tropical Pacific SST conditions are crucial for identifying the onset of El Niño
and La Niña and their influence on climate patterns and extremes, both worldwide and in the
LAC region. The tropical Pacific and Atlantic are also essential influences on LAC’s climate
variability, particularly in areas such as the northern coast of Peru and Ecuador, Amazonia,
north-eastern Brazil, south-eastern South America, and, during the hurricane season, the
tropical North Atlantic, the eastern coast of Mexico and the Caribbean.

A multi-year La Niña event began in mid-2020 and ended in early 2023. Subsequently,
sea-surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific increased, crossing typical El Niño
thresholds by June. However, the atmosphere was slower to respond, and it was not until
early September that El Niño conditions were well established in both the atmosphere and
ocean. By the end of the year, a strong El Niño had developed, with the Oceanic Niño Index
(ONI)4 reaching 2 °C for the November 2023–January 2024 period, the highest value since the
2015/16 El Niño, and indicative of a strong El Niño. Figure 2 shows annual SST anomalies in
2023 in most of the Pacific Ocean, including in the Niño 3.4 region, and part of the Atlantic
Ocean. An important aspect was the warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific, but also the
North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.

>5
Figure 2. Annual SST
20° N 4 anomalies (°C) in 2023
3 (reference period:
Niño 3.4 1991–2020). The box
2
0° “Niño 3.4” represents the
1 Niño 3.4 SST Index region
Latitude

0 (5°N–5°S, 120°W–170°W).
20° S –1 Source: National Oceanic
–2 and Atmospheric Association
40° S (NOAA) National Centers
–3
for Environmental Prediction
–4 (NCEP) Global Ocean Data
Resolution: 0.25° x 0.25°
60° S < –5 Assimilation System (GODAS),
120° E 140° E 160° E 180° 160° W 140° W 120° W 100° W 80° W 60° W 40° W 20° W °C produced by CIIFEN
Longitude

2
The 2023 El Niño event was associated with higher air temperatures and precipitation deficits
(see Precipitation) over Mexico, the Peruvian-Bolivian Altiplano and the Amazon, as well as
increased rainfall in parts of south-eastern South America. It also prolonged a pre-existing
drought over much of the south-western Amazon that, together with higher temperatures,
led to extreme low river levels in most of the region during the southern hemisphere spring.5
As of 31 December, 76% of Mexico was in drought, according to the most recent data from
the country’s water service (CONAGUA), including extreme drought across much of central
and north Mexico.

TEMPERATURE
The 2023 mean temperature in LAC was the highest on record, 0.82 °C above the 1991–2020
average (anomaly of 0.75 °C–0.96 °C, depending on the dataset used). Relative to a 1961–1990
baseline, 2023 was 1.39 °C warmer (anomaly of 1.24 °C–1.62 °C, depending on the dataset
used) (Table 1). The annual mean temperature anomalies relative to the 1991–2020 average
across the LAC region are shown in Figure 3 and Table 1 (see details regarding the datasets
in the Datasets and methods section). Warming was more pronounced in the region in 2023
compared to 2022 due to an El Niño phenomenon. The 1991–2023 period shows the highest
warming trend (about 0.2 °C or higher per decade) since 1900 in the LAC region (compared with
the previous 30-year periods of 1900–1930, 1931–1960 and 1961–1990). Mexico experienced
the fastest rate of warming of the four subregions, about 0.3 °C per decade, from 1991–2023
(Figure 4).

Table 1. 2023 temperature ranking (1900–2023) and anomalies for LAC

(°C, difference from the 1991–2020 and 1961–1990 averages)

Anomaly (°C)
Temperature
Subregion/region
ranking
1991–2020 1961–1990

Mexico 1st warmest 0.88 [0.81–1.06] 1.58 [1.24–1.83]

Central America 1st warmest 0.85 [0.67–0.97] 1.31 [1.16–1.54]

Caribbean 1st warmest 0.71 [0.60–0.79] 1.21 [0.93–1.42]

South America 1st warmest 0.81 [0.72–0.97] 1.37 [1.17–1.62]

LAC 1st warmest 0.82 [0.75–0.96] 1.39 [1.24–1.62]

Source: Data are from six datasets used in this assessment: Berkeley Earth, ERA5, GISTEMP, HadCRUT5,
JRA-55 and NOAAGlobalTemp. Five datasets were used in the assessment relative to 1961–1990.
For details regarding the datasets, see Temperature in the Datasets and methods section.

3
 Mexico Caribbean
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0

–0.5 –0.5

°C
°C

–1.0 –1.0

–1.5 –1.5

–2.0 –2.0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year Year
Central America South America
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0

–0.5 –0.5
°C
°C

–1.0 –1.0

–1.5 –1.5

–2.0 –2.0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year Year

HadCRUT5 (1900–2023) Berkeley Earth (1900–2023)

NOAAGlobalTemp (1900–2023) JRA-55 (1958–2023)
GISTEMP (1900–2023) ERA5 (1979–2023)

Figure 3. Annual mean near-surface temperature anomalies, 1900–2023, difference relative to the 1991–2020 average for four subregions in the LAC
region: Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America. Data are from six different datasets, as indicated in the legend: Berkeley Earth,
ERA5, GISTEMP, HadCRUT5, JRA-55 and NOAAGlobalTemp. The inset maps show the subregions for which the averages are calculated.

0.6
Caribbean
Mexico
Central America
0.4 South America
Trend ( °C/decade)

0.2

Figure 4. Temperature trends for

the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America
and South America subregions,
0.0
for 30-year periods. The coloured bars
show the average trend calculated over
each period for the six datasets: Berkeley
Earth, ERA5, GISTEMP, HadCRUT5,
–0.2 JRA-55 and NOAAGlobalTemp. The black
Trends Trends Trends Trends vertical lines indicate the ranges
1901—1930 1931—1960 1961—1990 1991—2023 of the six estimates.

4
The year 2023 was the warmest on record in many parts of the region, which is reflected by the
high temperature anomalies at the country level. Station data for 2023 relative to 1991–2020
(Figure 5a to Figure 5d) show that positive anomalies of +1 °C to +3 °C were recorded in
central Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, and negative anomalies of –1 °C to –2 °C in parts
of northern Mexico and Baja California. Anomalies of +1 °C to +2 °C were recorded in Central
America (Figure 5b). Positive temperature anomalies of +1 °C to +2 °C were recorded in many
areas across the Caribbean region (Figure 5c). In South America, above-normal temperature
anomalies of around +2 °C, up to +3 °C in some locations, were observed in central and
northern Argentina, the central and southern Andes of Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile and
Paraguay, the Peruvian and Bolivian Amazon, and the entire tropical zone of South America,
some of them reflecting the heatwaves that affected the region (see Heatwaves section).
Negative temperature anomalies of –0.5 °C to –1.0 °C were observed in the extreme south of
Argentina and Chile (Figure 5d).

(a) (d)
Mexico South America
20° N
30° N

25° N 10° N

20° N

15° N 0°
115° W 110° W 105° W 100° W 95° W 90° W

(b) Central America

10° S

15° N
Latitude

Latitude

20° S

10° N

30° S
90° W 85° W 80° W

(c)
Caribbean
40° S
25° N

20° N
50° S
15° N

10° N

85° W 80° W 75° W 70° W 65° W 60° W 90° W 80° W 70° W 60° W 50° W 40° W 30° W
Longitude Longitude

°C
–3.0 –2.5 –2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Figure 5. In situ mean air temperature (2 m) anomalies for 2023 (relative to 1991–2020) for (a) Mexico, (b) Central America,
(c) the Caribbean and (d) South America, in °C. The colour scale is shown below the figure.
Source: International Research Centre on El Niño (CIIFEN), from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services’ data

5
PRECIPITATION
Annual rainfall anomalies for 2023 (relative to the 1991–2020 climatological standard normal)
are shown in Figure 6. Rainfall was below normal in most of Mexico (around 20%–60%); some
exceptions were Baja California and the Yucatán Peninsula (Figure 6a). In most of Central
America, rainfall was generally between 20%–40% below normal, including in Panama and
Honduras. Rainfall in Costa Rica and parts of Guatemala was about 10%–40% above normal
(Figure 6b). In the Caribbean, above-normal rainfall was recorded in parts of the Dominican
Republic and eastern Cuba. In the Eastern Caribbean islands, negative rainfall anomalies
were predominant (around 20% below normal) (Figure 6c).

In South America (Figure 6d), below-normal rainfall was recorded in central Chile (about
40% below normal), in the central and south-western Andes of Peru, in the Plurinational
State of Bolivia, in the western Amazon (about 40%–70% below normal) and in the rest of
tropical Brazil (20%–40% below normal). As in 2022, below-normal rainfall was dominant over

(a) (d)
Mexico South America
20° N
30° N

25° N 10° N

20° N

15° N 0°
115° W 110° W 105° W 100° W 95° W 90° W

(b) Central America

10° S

15° N
Latitude

Latitude

20° S

10° N

30° S
90° W 85° W 80° W
(c)
Caribbean
40° S
25° N

20° N
50° S
15° N

10° N

85° W 80° W 75° W 70° W 65° W 60° W 90° W 80° W 70° W 60° W 50° W 40° W 30° W
Longitude Longitude

%
–100 –80 –60 –40 –20 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 6. In situ rainfall anomalies for 2023 (percentage relative to the 1991–2020 reference period) in (a) Mexico,
(b) Central America, (c) the Caribbean and (d) South America. The colour scale is shown below the figure.
Source: CIIFEN, from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services' data

6
the Paraná–La Plata Basin in Uruguay and northern Argentina, suggesting a late onset and
weak South American monsoon. Above-normal precipitation anomalies (40%–50%) dominated
parts of southern and south-eastern Brazil, the northern coast of Peru, central and coastal
Colombia and Ecuador, and eastern Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Guyana. Positive
precipitation anomalies in south-eastern Brazil were related to heavy precipitation events
concentrated over a few days (see Extreme events). Some of the observed rainfall patterns
were consistent with the typical rainfall patterns associated with La Niña conditions during
the first half of 2023, and with El Niño in the second half (see Major climate drivers), especially
intense rainfall in southern Brazil and drought in the western Amazon (see Extreme events).

GLACIERS
In the Andes, the greatest number of glaciers are found along the border between Chile and
Argentina (approximately 4 000). A smaller number are found in the tropical Andes, which
constitute more than 95% of the world’s tropical glaciers.6 In the dry Andes, the longest series
of data relating to glacier mass reported by the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS)
comes from the Echaurren Norte glacier (Figure 7), which lost about 31 m water equivalent
(m w.e.) from 1975 to 2023 (0.65 m w.e. per year).The largest part of the loss, about 22 m w.e.
(0.96 m w.e. per year), occurred since 2000.7

The O’Higgins Glacier in Chile, one of the largest of southern Patagonia, has been experiencing
a rapid calving retreat (an important process of mass loss) since 2016. The recession from
2016 to 2023 has been 7 km², with 4 km² occurring from 2019 to 2023. The retreat since 2016
has been 3 000 m on the northern margin, 3 700 m in the centre and 3 500 m on the southern
margin. 8,9

4 000

2 000
Annual mass balance (mm w.e.)

0
Figure 7.Annual mass balance
of the Echaurren Norte
reference glacier, Andes
(Chile), 1975–2022
–2 000
Source: World Glacier
Monitoring Service (WGMS)
Fluctuations of Glaciers
Database; WGMS FoG
database version: 2024-01-23,
–4 000
https://doi.org/10.5904/
wgms-fog-2024-01.
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

7
 SEA LEVEL
In 2023, global mean sea level (GMSL) continued to rise. GMSL rise is estimated to be
3.43 mm ± 0.3 mm per year, averaged over the 31 years (1993–2023) of the satellite altimeter
record. The decadal average rate of sea-level rise has more than doubled since the start of
the satellite record, increasing from 2.13 mm per year between 1993 and 2002 to 4.77 mm
per year between 2014 and 2023.10

The mean sea level has increased at a higher rate than the global mean in the South Atlantic
and the subtropical and tropical North Atlantic, and at a lower rate than the global mean in the
eastern Pacific over the last three decades. Sea-level rise threatens a large portion of the Latin
American and Caribbean population who live in coastal areas, by contaminating freshwater
aquifers, eroding shorelines, inundating low-lying areas and increasing the risks of storm surges.11

High-precision satellite altimetry data covering the period from January 1993 to May 2023
indicate that during this period, the rates of sea-level change on the Atlantic side of South
America were higher than those on the Pacific side (Figure 8 (right) and Table 2). In the South
American Pacific zone, the rate of change was 2.43 mm ± 0.12 mm per year, and along the

Table 2. Rate of area-averaged sea-level change over the period from January 1993 to May 2023
based on satellite altimetry. Zones are defined in Figure 8.
Zone number Trends in rate of sea-level
Subregion Area
(see Figure 8) rise (in mm per year)
1 Central America Pacific 2.22 + 0.27
Mexico,
Central America 2 Subtropical North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 4.23 + 0.12
and the Caribbean
3 Tropical North Atlantic 3.56 + 0.10
1 South America tropical North Atlantic 3.68 + 0.08
South America 2 South Atlantic 3.96 + 0.06
3 South America Pacific 2.43 + 0.12

20° N Figure 8. Sea-level

trends based on satellite
altimetry, in the LAC
0° subregions of Mexico,
30° N Central America, the
Caribbean (left), and
Coordinates

20° N South America (right),

Latitude

over the period from

20° S
January 1993 to May 2023.
10° N
The transition from green
to yellow corresponds to
0° the 3.4 mm per year global
120° W
120° W 100° W 80° W 60° W
40° S mean averaged trend.
Longitude The numbered boxes
represent the zones where
150° W the rates of area-averaged
150° W 120° W 90° W 60° W 30° W 60° S 0°
sea-level change are
GMSL 3.4 Coordinates provided in Table 2.
(mm/yr) Source: Copernicus
10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 –2.5 –5.0 –7.5 –10.0 Climate Change
Service (C3S)

8
Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America, it was 2.22 mm ± 0.27 mm per year, both lower
than the global average. Along the Atlantic coast of South America, south of the equator, the
rate of change from January 1993 to July 2023, namely 3.96 mm ± 0.06 mm per year, was
higher than the global average. A comparable rate was also observed in the subtropical North
Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico (4.23 mm ± 0.12 mm per year). In the tropical North Atlantic,
around Central America and the southern Caribbean, the rate was 3.56 mm ± 0.10 mm per
year during this period (Figure 8 (left) and Table 2).

The Guna Yala, an archipelago of over 300 islands off the north-east coast of Panama, are home to the Guna people,
an Indigenous community. The islands are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, especially sea-level rise.
Credit : Silvia Markli (United States of America)

9
Extreme events
The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of IPCC Working Group I12 states that global warming
is altering the intensity and frequency of many extreme weather events, leading to or
exacerbating other high-impact events such as flooding, landslides, wildfires and avalanches.
The wider socioeconomic risks and impacts associated with these events are described in
the Climate-related impacts and risks section. The IPCC AR6 also states that for Central and
South America, the observed trends indicate a likely increase in the intensity and frequency
of hot extremes, and a likely decrease in the intensity and frequency of cold extremes, as
well as an increase in mean and heavy precipitation in south-eastern South America. The
following sections only highlight the most extreme weather- and climate-related events
of 2023; details on all reported extreme weather- and climate-related events can be found in
an interactive online map.

TROPICAL CYCLONES
The 2023 Atlantic hurricane season had an above-average number of storms, ending with
20 named storms (compared to an average of 14 named storms for 1991–2020).13 El Niño
usually favours low hurricane activity in the Atlantic Basin due to the increased vertical wind
shear mainly in the western portion of the main development region, where most tropical
storms develop. However, that was not the case in 2023, due to several inter-related conditions
including the anomalously warm SSTs in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic and the Gulf of
Mexico.14 Some storms affected land areas in the LAC region (Table 3), including two tropical
storms and two major hurricanes.

In the eastern Pacific, the hurricane season was slightly more active than normal, with 17 named
storms (compared to an average of 15 named storms for 1991–2020).15 Six of these storms

Table 3. Summary of the 2023 hurricane season in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Basins. The table
includes only tropical storms, hurricanes and major hurricanes that most affected land areas in the LAC
region (in chronological order). Some of these also had significant impacts outside the LAC region. Major
hurricanes are identified with the acronym MH.
Hurricane or tropical
Period Affected areas
storm
Barbados, Dominica, Saint Vincent
Tropical Storm Bret 19–24 June
and the Grenadines, and Saint Lucia
Hurricane Hilary (MH) 16–21 August Baja California (Mexico)
Dominican Republic and parts of
Hurricane Franklin (MH) 20 August–1 September
the Greater Antilles, Bermuda Hispaniola
Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), Cayman
Hurricane Idalia (MH) 26–31 August
Islands, western Cuba
Tropical Storm Philippe 23 September–6 October Barbuda
Hurricane Lidia (MH) 03–11 October Jalisco (Mexico)
Hurricane Norma (MH) 17–23 October South Baja California (Mexico)
Hurricane Otis (MH) 22–25 October Acapulco (Mexico)

Source: Based on data from NOAA/National Hurricane Center (NHC): https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tafb_latest/

tws_atl_latest.gif and https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tafb_latest/tws_pac_latest.gif, last accessed on 11 January 2024

10
affected Mexico, namely four major hurricanes (Hilary, Norma, Lidia and Otis), one hurricane
(Beatriz) and one tropical storm (Max). Major Hurricanes Lidia and Otis rapidly intensified in
the hours leading up to their landfall.

Otis was the strongest hurricane to make landfall on Mexico’s west coast, and Lidia was the
fourth strongest. Lidia made landfall in the state of Jalisco, on 10 October, with sustained
winds of 220 km/h (120 knots). Otis reached hurricane intensity at 1200 UTC on 24 October,
and within 15 hours had intensified to a Category 5 system. Otis made landfall near Acapulco
(Mexico) on 25 October, with maximum sustained winds estimated to be 260 km/h (140 knots).
This is the first time on record (since the NHC assumed operational forecast responsibility
for the basin in 1988) that the eastern Pacific had a hurricane at Category 5 through landfall.16
Otis caused at least 48 deaths and an estimated 12 billion US dollars (USD) of damage.17 In
Acapulco, a city that depends heavily on tourism, Otis damaged 80% of the hotel infrastructure
and 96% of businesses (Figure 9).18

Hurricane Idalia impacted Cuba on 28 August with tropical storm-force winds, damaging
agriculture plantations. Hurricane Idalia crossed the Gulf of Mexico and made landfall near
Keaton Beach, Florida, around 1145 UTC on 29 August, leading to significant impacts in
portions of the south-eastern United States.19

Tropical Storm Franklin (later Major Hurricane Franklin) made landfall in the Dominican Republic
on 23 August, bringing flooding and mudslides to the island. Rain in Santo Domingo exceeded
330 mm. In the Dominican Republic, at least 749 homes were damaged by the storm. Two
people were killed, and one other was reported missing. More than 1.6 million people were
left without water the following day.

750 m
Hurricane Otis in Acapulco, Mexico

Acapulco

BuiltUp Grading
Damaged
Destroyed
Possibly damaged

Figure 9. Buildings damaged and destroyed by Hurricane Otis, on 25 October 2023, in Acapulco, Mexico:
situation as of 26 October at 1713 UTC
Source: European Union, Copernicus Emergency Management Service (CEMS) Rapid Mapping, activation code #EMSR70

11
 HEAVY PRECIPITATION, FLOODS AND LANDSLIDES
In Latin America and the Caribbean, heavy rainfall events and subsequent flooding and
landslide episodes were reported in 2023. In this region, El Niño is typically associated with
above-normal rainfall in southern Brazil, southern Argentina, central Chile, eastern Plurinational
State of Bolivia and along the coast of Peru and Ecuador.

Flash floods in the Mexican state of Jalisco on 25 September resulted in eight fatalities after
a sudden rise of a river in Autlán de Navarro. Another notable event took place on 3 November,
when the Aguadulcita and Tancochapa Rivers in Veracruz overflowed due to a combination
of record-breaking precipitation (400 mm in San José del Carmen, Veracruz, on 1 November)
and strong winds. 20

A tropical disturbance moved across the Caribbean on 17 November, bringing torrential rainfall
to Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, with at least 21 people losing their lives in the
Dominican Republic. Arroyo Hondo Viejo (Dominican Republic) recorded a daily rainfall amount
of 431.0 mm on 18 November, the highest on record in the country. Comparable amounts
were also recorded in the Renacimiento neighbourhood in Santo Domingo (426.0 mm), and
in Paraiso in Barahona Province (394.7 mm). 21

In central Chile, significant rainfall totals were recorded from 18–23 August. The General
Freire station in Curicó (Maule Region) recorded 150.2 mm in 24 hours, the highest amount
since 1950.

In Brazil, in the coastal areas of the state of São Paulo, at least 65 people lost their lives after
torrential rain caused floods and landslides in the city of São Sebastião; on 18–19 February,
683 mm of rain fell in 15 hours in the city (Figure 10).

In the state of Acre in the Brazilian Amazon, heavy rain and the overflowing of the Acre
River flooded vast areas of Rio Branco on 23 March. The city recorded 124.4 mm of rainfall
in 24 hours. 22 On 23 March, the Acre River level at Rio Branco jumped from around 8 m to
15.8 m in 24 hours (flood level is 14 m). In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, on 27 March, the
Acre River stood at 12.13 m above normal. The Santa Cruz Department reported rising levels

Figure 10. Daily variability of rainfall

600 February mean total: between 11 and 28 February for São
Bertioga – 320.0 mm Sebastião (blue bars), Bertioga (green bars)
500 Guarujá – 215.8 mm and Guarujá (red bars) in the northern
São Sebastião – 270.0 mm coastal state of São Paulo (Brazil) (each
city has several stations, represented by
Rainfall (mm)

400
different bars for each day). Units in mm/day.
The 2013–2023 monthly mean for the three
300 locations is provided in the upper right
“February mean total”.
200 Source: Marengo, J. A; Cunha, A. P.;
Seluchi, M. E. et al. Heavy Rains and
100 Hydrogeological Disasters on February
18th–19th, 2023, in the City of São Sebastião,
São Paulo, Brazil: From Meteorological
0
Causes to Early Warnings. Natural
Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Feb

Hazards 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

s11069-024-06558-5.
Days

12
of the Pirai and Rio Grande Rivers from around 20 March and two persons died in the Pirai
River. In Brazil, heavy rainfall on 21 April led to flooding and landslides in south Bahía, forcing
thousands to leave their homes. As much as 92.9 mm of rain fell in Santa Cruz Cabrália in the
24 hours leading up to 22 April. The following day, the city of Belmonte recorded 216.0 mm,
and Porto Seguro 87.9 mm.

The state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil was affected by intense rain events in 2023.
In one of these events the torrential rain, brought by an extra-tropical cyclone, triggered
flooding and landslides on 16 June. In total, 49 municipalities in the state were affected by
heavy rainfall and strong winds. As much as 300 mm of rain fell in 24 hours in Maquiné. On
4 September, heavy rainfall and flooding led to at least 48 fatalities, 20 978 people displaced
and 4 904 homeless. It also caused widespread damage in the state, where several stations
reported more than 100 mm of rain in 24 hours, leading to a rise of 12 m in the level of the
Taquari River on 6–7 September.23 Heavy rain continued to affect the state throughout September
and early October. On 10 October, 136 out of the 295 municipalities in Santa Catarina were
affected by the rains and floods, 89 of which declared a state of emergency.

In late October, intense rain in Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná (Brazil) disrupted the city. The station near
the airport recorded approximately 239 mm over three days (27–29 October). 24 Iguaçu Falls
had a flow of 24 200 m3/s on 30 October. According to the Iguaçu National Park administration,
this is the highest value recorded in recent years. Usually, the flow of the Falls ranges from
500 m3 /s to 1 000 m3 /s. 25

In Peru, at least eight people lost their lives in seven departments after heavy rain and
flooding associated with Cyclone Yaku, starting on 8 March. In Cajamarquilla, a new record
daily rainfall amount of 57.4 mm was observed on 10 March. Six fatalities were reported in
the department of Piura and over 200 people were displaced.

In Paraguay, heavy rain led to flooding in at least four departments from 25 February.
Thousands of families were affected by floods in Concepción, where about 200 mm of rain
were measured between 25 and 26 February. 26

In Argentina, in western Patagonia, rainfall events led to accumulations ranging from

around 100 to 800 mm during July. The south-eastern part of the province of Buenos Aires
was affected by abundant and intense rains between 2 and 4 July; the city of Mar del Plata
accumulated 120 mm throughout the period. On 11 July, Gualeguaychú, in the province of
Entre Ríos, recorded 90 mm, a new 24-hour rainfall record for that location. The intense rain
raised the level of the Uruguay River, and ferry crossings between Brazil and Argentina were
suspended because the safe level was exceeded. Crossings between Brazil and Argentina
at the Porto Xavier international port were also suspended due to the rise in the Uruguay
River. On 16–17 December, a severe storm affected the city of Bahía Blanca, and later that
night the same storm arrived in Buenos Aires, producing strong wind gusts (more than
150 km/h). These gusts were destructive, causing hundreds of trees to fall and massive
power outages.

DROUGHTS
Drought affected several countries in the LAC region during 2023. La Niña-related impacts during
the first quarter of 2023, and El Niño in the second half of the year, contributed to precipitation
deficits, above-average temperatures and recurrent heatwaves, leading to severe droughts
in various countries in the region. The Integrated Drought Index (IDI), which combines a

13
 (a) (d)
Mexico South America

30° N 10° N

20° N

0°

10° N

110° W 100° W 90° W

10° S
(b) Central America
Latitude

Latitude

20° S

10° N

90° W 80° W 30° S

(c)
Caribbean
30° N

40° S
20° N

10° N 50° S
90° W 80° W 70° W 60° W
80° W 70° W 60° W 50° W 40° W 30° W
Longitude Longitude

Exceptional drought Severe Drought

Extreme Drought Moderate Drought

January – November 2023

Figure 11. IDI for January–November 2023 in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America
Source: Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), calculated from Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data
(CHIRPS) and Vegetation Health Index data from the Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR/NOAA). The calculation
was based on Cunha, A. P. M. A.; Zeri, M.; Deusdará Leal, K. et al. Extreme Drought Events over Brazil from 2011 to 2019.
Atmosphere 2019, 10 (11), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110642.

meteorological-based drought index and a remote sensing-based index, was used to provide
an integrated assessment of drought conditions in LAC. Figure 11 shows the intensity of the
drought by the end of November according to the IDI. Areas affected by severe drought include
most of Mexico, central Chile, the Altiplano, western and eastern Amazon, the central and
southern Andes, Panama, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, central Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela, and the Guianas; areas affected by moderate drought include Cuba, Dominican
Republic and Haiti. In Costa Rica, severe drought conditions were detected in the country as
reported by the national weather service.

In Mexico, by the end of September, almost 60% of the territory, mostly in central and north-
west Mexico, was affected by severe and extreme drought.27 In some states, such as Durango,

14
San Luis Potosí, Queretaro and Hidalgo, exceptional drought (the highest of the five drought
intensity categories) was detected during the second half of the year. In Mexico, 2023 was the
driest year on record (records began in 1941). 28 By the end of December, drought conditions
affected 76% of the country, including extreme drought across much of central and north
Mexico. Rainfall in 2023 was below average through most of Central America. Low water
levels restricted traffic in the Panama Canal from August onwards.

Drought became increasingly widespread in the northern half of South America as the year
progressed. June–September rainfall was well below average in much of the Amazon Basin,
and rivers fell to well below-average levels. Eight Brazilian states recorded their lowest July to
September rainfall in over 40 years, with precipitation totals of around 100 to 300 mm/month
below normal. 29 According to the Port of Manaus authorities, the level of the Negro River fell
to 12.70 m at Manaus (Brazil) on 26 October (Figure 12), the lowest on record (observations
started in 1902). 30

Together with the lack of rainfall in the region, a warmer austral winter and spring were observed
in the south-western region of the Amazon, due to a dome of hot and dry air. Six heatwaves
affected the region between August and December. In an area neighbouring Manaus, thousands
of fish were found floating dead on the surface of Piranha Lake by the end of September.
In Tefé Lake, 500 km west of Manaus, more than 150 botos cor-de-rosa (an Amazon River
dolphin) were found dead in late September, with the potential cause related to the excessive
heat, as the water temperature reached a record high 39.1 °C on 28 September. Other main
rivers in the Amazon, including the Solimões, Purus, Acre and Branco, suffered extreme drops
in their levels in some regions, and dried up completely in others. The level of the Madeira
River in Porto Velho (Brazil) was the lowest observed in 56 years of measurements (15 m on

2012 2021
2015
2009 2022
1976 2014
1953 1989 1999 2013 2019
1923 1975
30 1909 1971 1994 2017
7
29.0 m
28
Negro River water level at Manaus (m)

26 Floods

24

22
Droughts
20

18

16 15.8 m
1948
1909 1995
1950 2005
14 1906 1916 1926 1936 1958 1997
1963 1998 2010
12 2023
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year

Figure 12. Maximum (blue lines) and minimum (red lines) levels of the Negro River at the Port of Manaus, 1902 to November 2023.
Blue and red numbers indicate record floods and droughts, respectively. Orange lines represent the higher (29.0 m) and lower
(15.8 m) thresholds to define floods and droughts, respectively. Values are in metres.
Source: J. Schongart, National Institute for Amazonian Research (INPA), Brazil

15
15 October).31 In the Peruvian Amazon, the flows and levels recorded on the Amazon, Marañón,
Huallaga and Ucayalí Rivers were average to much lower than average. The discharge of the
Huallaga River at Tingo María (Peru) was 45% below normal in October.32 In the Plurinational
State of Bolivia, the Mamoré, Guaporé and Madeira Rivers remained very low due to deficient
rainfall from July 2022 to June 2023. 33

In the northern and central Bolivian Altiplano, the extreme drought that started in August–
September 2022 peaked in January 2023, reducing the yield of potatoes by more than 50% and
of some other Andean crops, thus causing very heavy economic losses for many thousands
of farmers. According to the meteorological service of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, the
lack of water in the country has affected more than 487 000 families. La Paz, Cochabamba,
Santa Cruz, Oruro, Chuquisaca, Potosí and Tarija were the most affected departments. By
September, the drought in the Altiplano and Valles regions had accelerated the melting of
several Andean glaciers, triggering a water crisis in the country. 34

In Peru, drought prevailed over the Andean region’s northern and southern sections. The
level of Lake Titicaca was very low in January–April (132 cm below average), lower than in
the historical dry period of 1982–1983. This exceptionally low level persisted until October,
in both Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia, and slightly recovered thereafter. Due to
the influence of El Niño, the Puno region has experienced the driest conditions of the last
60 years. The drought affected the population, crops, harvest and regional economy. The lack
of water began in 2022, but further intensified with El Niño. It is estimated that the water deficit
has generated agricultural losses in Puno of 80% in potato and sweet potato production, and
90% in Andean grains production. 35

Long-term drought continued in subtropical South America. During the first half of the year,
the effects of La Niña were still visible; the cascading impacts from lack of water in the La Plata
Basin hit Uruguay, northern Argentina and southern Brazil the hardest. Rainfall from January
to August was 20% to 50% below average over much of northern and central Argentina, with
some regions experiencing their fourth successive year of significantly below-average rainfall.
There were major crop losses in Argentina, with wheat production in 2022–2023 more than
30% below the five-year average. In Uruguay, the summer of 2023 was the driest of the last
42 years on record. Water storage reached critically low levels affecting the quality of potable
water for over 60% of the population, including in major centres such as Montevideo. Earlier in
June, Uruguay’s government declared a water emergency, exempting taxes on bottled water
and ordering the construction of a new reservoir.36 These conditions threatened the economy
and ecosystems in South America. 37 Through mid-October in major food-producing areas
in eastern Argentina and southern Brazil, the occurrence of rainfall improved conditions but
did not completely bring an end to the drought in the area. 38

In Chile, prolonged dry conditions were partially interrupted by two episodes of intense
precipitation in June and August 2023. Some frontal systems reached the southern part of
Chile. However, the central region received lower-than-average rainfall. Central Chile had been
experiencing warm and dry conditions for at least a decade, but events in 2023 are a good
reminder of climate variability, and heavy rains can occur even during a prolonged drought
and not be sufficient to end it. 39

Normal to below-normal conditions were seen throughout the eastern Caribbean over the
twelve-month period (according to the Standardized Precipitation Index, January–December
2023). Dominica and Saint Croix were predominantly moderately dry; Guadeloupe, Antigua and
Saint Kitts were severely to extremely dry. The southern part of Puerto Rico was severely dry. In
Cuba, extremely dry conditions for the 12-month period were observed in west-central areas.40

16
HEATWAVES AND WILDFIRES
Extreme heat was recorded in South America on numerous occasions during the year, leading to
health impacts, including excess mortality, and exacerbating drought conditions and wildfires.

The heatwave in Argentina from 28 February to 20 March was an extraordinarily late extreme
heat phenomenon, which mainly affected the central zone of the country, but also affected
northern and coastal zones. The heatwave was the most extensive experienced in Argentina
since the 2013 heatwave, affecting the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, and all
the northern provinces, with record temperatures in multiple locations. The high temperatures
were exceptional for March, when there is usually a drop in temperature corresponding to
the beginning of the austral autumn. In Chile, wildfires in the Biobío, Ñuble and La Araucanía
regions were described as among the worst in years. The government issued emergency
declarations for affected areas to help speed up relief efforts.41

Many intense heatwaves affected central South America at the end of the austral winter and
in the spring, from August to December. During the second half of August, temperatures in
parts of Brazil exceeded 41 °C as South America was hit by scorching weather in the middle of
the winter and near-all-time high temperatures were recorded. In Cuiabá, in central-western
Brazil, the temperature reached 41.8 °C on 20 August. The heatwave also hit Rio de Janeiro
and São Paulo, Brazil’s two most populous cities. In Rio de Janeiro, the temperature reached
38.7 °C on 22 August.42 Many locations in Argentina also saw highs of 30 °C to 35 °C. The
temperature in Buenos Aires set a daily record for the start of August, with 30.1 °C, which
was more than 9 °C above the previous daily record.43

Countries including Brazil, Peru, the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina
all recorded their highest September temperatures. This was due to a heat dome, which
occurs when high pressure stays over an area and remains there, trapping hot and dry air
for a prolonged period. Record high temperatures were set in French Guiana, with 38.8 °C
in Saint-Laurent, and in Brazil, with 38.6°C in Belo Horizonte, on 25 September. The heatwave

Amazon forest fire

Credit : SPmemory, iStock

17
covered most of the Brazil central region, including the western Amazon, where the combination
of higher temperature and dry conditions has contributed to one of the worst springtime
droughts and some of the lowest river levels this century (see section on Droughts). In Peru,
the temperature in Tingo de Ponaza reached 41.4 °C on 27 September. This heatwave was
also felt in Bolivia which recorded its all-time highest September temperature of 40.3 °C in
Magdalena on 25 September. In Argentina, on 16 October, temperatures reached 45.0 °C in
Las Lomitas, 43.8 °C in Resistencia, 43.2 °C in Corrientes and 44.1 °C in Formosa, more than
10 °C above the 1991–2020 monthly normal of 29.0 °C.

In western Paraguay, in the period from 7 to 13 November, the temperature reached 44.5 °C in
Mariscal Estigarribia and 42.0 °C in Puerto Casado (the average monthly maximum is 35.1 °C
and 33.4 °C, respectively).44 This same heatwave affected almost all of Brazil, except the
southern region, with record temperatures across the country. About 120 stations recorded
their highest maximum temperatures on 12 November. The highest maximum was recorded
in Rio de Janeiro, which registered 40.4 °C, followed by Cuiabá with 39.6 °C and Teresina
with 38.9 °C. São Paulo had the highest maximum in the last nine years, with 37.1 °C on
12 November. According to the Brazilian meteorological service (INMET), Porto Murtinho
recorded a maximum of 42.3 °C on 11 November, and the recorded 44.8 °C in Araçuaí (in the
state of Minas Gerais) on 19 November was the highest temperature ever recorded in Brazil.

Large wildfires burned across the heat-affected regions in Paraguay, Brazil and the Plurinational
State of Bolivia.45 In the Amazon, 22 061 fire outbreaks were recorded in October, the worst
record for the month since 2008, 46 resulting in heavy smoke impacting the entire population
of Manaus (over 2 million people).47

The boreal summer of 2023 was exceptional for extreme heat over Mexico. Temperatures
surpassing 45 °C were recorded in many stations and the highest temperature, 51.4 °C,
occurred on 29 August, in Mexicali, in the state of Baja California.48 According to the Ministry
of Health, the number of cases of health impacts related to extreme heat in 2023 doubled
those of 2022. From 19 March to 7 October there were 4 306 cases of heatstroke, dehydration
and burns associated with extreme heat, and 421 deaths.49 The most affected states were
Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Sonora and 12 others.

COLD WAVES AND SNOW

In Argentina, a mass of cold air of polar origin affected the country causing intense cold from
the middle of July. On the morning of 17 July, the temperature reached –22.5 °C in Perito
Moreno, in southern Patagonia, Argentina. From 19 to 22 August, heavy snowfall across the
central Andes produced between 3 m and 5 m of snow accumulation in the south of Mendoza
Province. The nearest city, Malargüe, recorded 60 cm of snowfall, breaking its historical record.

On 18 June, a wave of snow, ice and heavy rain hit the department of Santa Cruz, the
Plurinational State of Bolivia’s most significant agricultural zone, causing widespread damage
to crops and leading to the death of cattle. The cold front extended beyond Santa Cruz, with
record-breaking temperatures of –9 °C in the north of the country. Notably, temperatures also
took a steep dive in the southern wine-producing department of Tarija, a critical area for the
country’s winegrowing industry.50

18
 Climate-related impacts
and risks
Climate-related impacts in the LAC region are associated not only with hazardous events,
but also with a complex scenario of increased exposure and vulnerability.51 The presence
of El Niño in the second half of 2023 contributed to the climate-driven impacts (see also
Extreme events section). As in previous years, added to this complex scenario are the high
and rising food prices, increasing poverty in the context of the post COVID-19 period, high
levels of income inequality, and increasing levels of hunger, food insecurity and obesity.52,53

AFFECTED POPULATION AND DAMAGES

The present section complements the Extreme events section. Based on information from the
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) Emergency Events Database
(EM-DAT), 54 in 2023, 67 meteorological, hydrological and climate-related hazards were reported
in the Latin America and the Caribbean region. Of these 67 hazards, 77% were storm- and
flood-related events and accounted for 69% of the 909 fatalities documented in this database
(Figure 13). The estimated USD 21 billion of economic damage reported to EMDAT was mainly
due to storms (66%) (including the USD 12 billion of damages associated with Hurricane
Otis), floods (16%) and droughts (14%). The actual amount of damage related to the impacts
of extreme events is likely to be worse because of under-reporting and because data on
impacts are not available for some countries.

11 million USD 21 billion

67 reported case 909 deaths people affected of economic damage

Wildfire Wildfire Wildfire

Landslide Landslide 4%
Landslide 6% 4% (wet) Drought
(wet) 14%
(wet) 27% Drought 1% Flood
8% 31% 16%

Drought
9% Flood Flood Flood
55% 55% 53%
Storm
22% Storm Storm
14% Storm
15%
66%

Figure 13. Weather-, climate- and water-related disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2023.
Note: Impact numbers for some disaster occurrences may be lacking due to data unavailability.
Source: CRED EM-DAT, accessed 21 February 2024

AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY

Disasters and climate change, along with socioeconomic shocks, are the main drivers of
acute food insecurity in the region, 55 such that in 2023, 13.8 million people were reported
to be in a situation of acute food crisis (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC)
phase 3 or above), especially in Central America and the Caribbean. 56 Extreme weather and
climate events linked to climate change impact all pillars of food security (availability, access,
utilization and stability). 57 Impacts on agricultural production reduce the availability of food
and income, thereby restricting access to food and also leading to a loss of dietary diversity.
Today in Latin America and the Caribbean, disasters represent a greater caloric loss than in
other regions. 58 Finally, in the face of these shocks, consumers may resort to overstocking,
thereby destabilizing food markets. For this reason, the impacts on agriculture continue to have

19
impacts on food and nutritional security, as explicitly reported in the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela and Colombia in 2023. In other countries in the region, such as in Haiti, violence
and governance problems, together with impacts of extreme weather and climate events,
are cumulative factors that generate and exacerbate food crises.

Climate change intensifies weather-related impacts such as floods, storms, droughts and
extreme temperatures, significantly impacting agriculture59 and affecting to a greater extent
small and medium-sized farms, women and indigenous communities.60 El Niño conditions
during the second half of 2023 contributed to the prolonged droughts in the Central American
Dry Corridor and northern South America, and to intense rainfall and flooding along the coasts
of Ecuador and Peru, leading to negative impacts on agriculture. Such impacts exacerbated
food insecurity, especially in communities reliant on agriculture for their livelihoods, and will
likely be felt in 2024 and beyond.61

According to the Group on Earth Observations Global Agricultural Monitoring (GEOGLAM) Crop
Monitor, crop conditions over the main growing areas are assessed based on a combination
of inputs, including remotely sensed data, ground observations, field reports, and national
and regional experts. Regions that were in conditions other than favourable are labelled on
Figure 14 with a symbol representing the crop(s) affected. At the end of October, conditions
for wheat, maize, rice and soybeans remained mixed. Maize prospects improved in parts of
the northern hemisphere as the harvesting of crops wrapped up, while the expanding dryness
in Argentina was impacting planting.62

The latest available data indicates that in 2023, record maize production in Brazil compensated
for below-average harvests due to prolonged dry spells elsewhere in South America, especially
in Argentina where drought conditions were expected to result in a 15% decrease in cereal
production compared with the five-year average.

Conditions:

Exceptional

Favourable

Watch

Poor

Failure

Out-of-season
Figure 14. Synthesis map from the
No data
Crop Monitor for Agricultural Market
Countries: Information System (AMIS) report
showing crop conditions as of 28
Crop monitor counties October 2023
Non-crop monitor counties Source: https://static1.
squarespace.com/
Crops: static/636c12f7f9c2561de642a866/
t/65677cc181d9f97964049
Wheat Maize Rice Soybean Sorghum Millet Teff Beans 3cb/1701280965248/AMIS_
CropMonitor_202311.pdf

20
In Brazil, both excess rain and drought, linked to El Niño, set back the soybean planting.
The increase in rainfall in southern Brazil should help the 2023/2024 soybean productivity
levels to recover and, therefore, avoid greater losses in second-crop corn as well. Wheat
production in the state of Paraná fell by 889 000 metric tonnes in relation to potential, and a
30% loss is expected in its wheat harvest, while authorities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul
reported a delay in soybean planting. Between 14 and 20 November, the excess moisture
in the soil hampered operations to complete soybean planting in south-western Paraná.
The climate-related impacts favoured by the La Niña event in the 2022/2023 harvest and
by El Niño in the following cycle, generated losses of USD 550 million for agriculture in the
state of Paraná. The state of Santa Catarina already estimates a loss of USD 500 million in
agriculture. The end of the austral winter crop cycle – wheat, barley and oats – saw a significant
reduction in production quantity and quality. 63 As a result of the hail, rain and strong winds
that hit Rio Grande do Sul, there were losses related to infrastructure, primary production,
livestock and pastures, with 198 municipalities affected and an emergency declared in 115 of
them. The main grain crops affected were wheat, soybean, corn, corn silage and rice. Losses
in production areas reached 120 600 hectares, with an estimated loss of more than 186 000
metric tonnes.

Ecuador experienced an increase in precipitation linked to El Niño Costero (coastal), affecting

the main agricultural cycles. 64 Farmers in the states of Guárico and Apure, in the Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela, face the prospect of a food crisis until May 2024, attributed to the
intensification of dry periods linked to El Niño and a lack of water. 65 Uruguay suffered a serious
drought until mid-2023, affecting crops, harvests and dairy production. 66 In Argentina, severe
floods affected 5 million heads of livestock. 67

El Niño conditions (increase of sea temperature) also impacted fisheries, 68 reducing tuna
catches in Ecuador by 30%,69 and significantly affecting anchoveta fishing in Peru, both key
fishing resources in terms of volume.70 In Colombia, it is estimated that 8 million people are
susceptible to reduced food and nutritional security (FNS) due to El Niño.71

In Mexico, a late onset of the rainy season in addition to progressively increasing extreme
drought in the vast majority of the territory, impacted rain-fed agriculture. The boreal sum-
mer–spring agricultural cycle reported an agricultural performance of nearly 60% for basic
grains.72 Hurricane Otis further aggravated some of the impacts.73

Overall, harvesting of the main cereal production season (primera) was mostly finalized in
September under poor conditions in Central America and the Caribbean. In Central America,
the rainfall deficit and high temperatures linked to El Niño delayed rainstorms and affected
basic grain crops.74 In Guatemala, this shock affected the agricultural seasons.75 In El Salvador,
Honduras and Nicaragua the delay in the harvest at the end of the year was expected to reduce
the income of subsistence homes and commercial production by at least 25%.76 In December
2023, accumulated losses reportedly continued to hamper the production of the frijol bean
throughout Nicaragua and Guatemala.77

In the Caribbean, in Haiti, 78% of agricultural producers reported that lack of water and/or
precipitation was the main difficulty in producing, and 44% reported a decrease in harvesting.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) anticipates that the irregular rains
and high temperatures of 2023 will reduce corn and rice production by 4%–5%, affecting
the seed reserves of small farmers, thus reducing the crop for the boreal spring season
of 2024.78 In August, Hurricane Idalia damaged plantations of plane trees, yuca and sweet
potato (camote) in Cuba. At the end of November, rains and floods in the Dominican
Republic affected more than 7 000 agricultural producers, with damage estimated at more
than USD 460 million.79

21
HEALTH
The LAC region faces increased health risks due to population exposure to heatwaves, wildfire
smoke, sand dust and aeroallergens leading to cardiovascular and respiratory problems, as
well as rising food insecurity and malnutrition. These health risks are projected to increase the
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by 10% by 2050.80 In the 2013–2022 period, in Latin America,
people older than 65 years experienced an average of 271% more days of heatwave per year
than in 1986–2005. This was associated with an increase in heat-related mortality of 140%
from 2000–2009 to 2013–2022.81 In Latin America and the Caribbean, an estimated 36 695
(20 064– 59 526) annual heat-related excess deaths occurred between 2000 and 2019. 82
Furthermore, there are indirect impacts, as heatwaves affect key infrastructure such as water
and energy systems, further affecting livelihoods, particularly in marginalized areas.

Air pollution, often worsened by climate change, is a serious health threat, with over 150 million
people in the LAC region living in areas exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) air
quality guidelines. In 2020, a rise in premature deaths linked to ambient PM2.5, exacerbated
by increasing wildfires and ozone levels, was reported in South America.83

In addition to the direct health impacts, changing rainfall patterns and warming temperatures
due to climate change are altering the geographic distribution of diseases transmitted by
water, air and soil. In some cases, the geographic range has expanded into areas of higher
elevation in the tropical Andes and into southern temperate latitudes, in the southern cone of
South America. For example, in 2023 the first cases of chikungunya were reported in Uruguay,
and Chile issued alerts due to the expanded presence of the Aedes aegypti mosquito vector
that transmits arboviruses.84,85 In 2019, over 3 million cases of dengue were reported in the
Americas, the highest number on record. However, this number was already exceeded in the
first 7 months of 2023, setting a new record for the Americas.86

Alter do Chao beach along the dry Tapajos River, impacted by the 2023 drought in the Amazon
Credit : Tarcisio Schnaider (Brazil)

22
Enhancing climate resilience and
adaptation policies for health
STRENGTHENING CLIMATE–HEALTH COOPERATION
The integration of climate and health sciences and services is vital in order to address growing
health risks from climate extremes, climate variability and change, ecosystem change and the
deepening social inequalities that increase vulnerability.87 Effective climate-informed early
warning systems (EWSs) go beyond infrastructure; they demand a multifaceted health sector
response. To optimize climate services for public health, enhancements in data infrastructure
and cooperation between health, climate services and other key sectors are essential, as is
training across the climate and health sectors. An EWS should activate a range of health
sector responses, including healthcare worker training, capacity enhancement of health
systems to mobilize first responders, and strengthening of epidemiological and entomological
teams if needed. It should also increase lab analysis capacity, enhance risk communication
and ensure adequate infrastructure to support these actions. This holistic approach not only
bolsters public health resilience but also lays the groundwork for health and climate change
observatories.

An example of a relevant joint initiative by the World Health Organization (WHO) and WMO
is the ClimaHealth platform, 88 whose goal is to facilitate access to actionable knowledge in
order to protect populations from the health risks of climate change and other environmental
hazards, and to serve as a technical reference point for users of interdisciplinary health,
environmental and climate science.

At the United Nations 2023 Climate Change Conference, COP28, 124 countries, including 17 from
the LAC region, endorsed a Declaration on Climate and Health, advocating for health benefits
through substantial greenhouse gas reductions. This includes promoting just transitions,
cleaner air, active lifestyles and sustainable diets.89 These actions include shared goals of
strengthening climate–health information services, surveillance, early warning and response

San Juan River in Matanzas, Cuba

Credit : Anabel del rio Viamonte (Cuba)

23
systems, and cultivating a climate-ready health workforce. Emphasizing intersectoral cooperation
and governance, the commitments in the Declaration on Climate and Health extend across
various levels to deliver comprehensive solutions. Additionally, there is a dedicated effort
towards climate-resilient health systems, ensuring their adaptability to evolving challenges.

In the Americas, strides are being made to increase health sector resilience to climate change.
Twelve of thirty-five countries are developing Health National Adaptation Plans (HNAPs),
while nine have completed and six are developing Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments
(V&As). While South American countries acknowledge the health impacts of climate change
in their plans, enhancing public health protection requires maximizing climate policy benefits
and including health-related issues across all relevant sectors.90 The collaborative efforts in
developing HNAPs and V&As are promising signs of tackling climate challenges. However,
there is still a significant gap in effective adaptation responses, particularly for vulnerable
populations, and very limited climate financing focused on health sector adaptation.91

The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submitted by LAC countries have placed
significant emphasis on adaptation. The submitted NDCs have identified water, agriculture
and health as priority areas of focus with regard to adaptation. In terms of health, 9 (30%)
of the 30 reviewed NDCs have identified vector-borne diseases as one of the climate health
risk areas of concern in the region. This is followed by injury and mortality from extreme
weather events and heat-related illnesses (Figure 15). Despite some NDCs now including
health aspects, overall progress is slow and the health sector is still lagging in climate
change adaptation. 92

Vector-borne diseases 30%

Injury and mortality from extreme 20%

weather events

Heat-related illness 17%

Malnutrition and food-borne diseases 13%

Waterborne diseases and other 10%

water-related health impacts

Impacts on health care facilities 7%

Zoonoses 3%

Noncommunicable diseases 3%

Air-borne and respiratory illnesses 3%

Mental and psychosocial health 0%

Figure 15. Percentage of WMO Members from the LAC region that refer to climate-sensitive health risks or outcomes. Note:
Percentages in the chart are based on the 30 Members whose NDCs were reviewed.
Source: Readapted by WMO, based on data in: World Health Organization (WHO). 2023 WHO Review of Health in Nationally
Determined Contributions and Long-term Strategies: Health at the Heart of the Paris Agreement ; WHO: Geneva, 2023.
https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/372276.

24
WEATHER AND CLIMATE SERVICES CAPACITIES
Climate services are the provision and use of climate data, information and knowledge to assist
decision-making. Climate services require appropriate engagement between the recipient
of the service and its provider, along with an effective access mechanism to enable timely
action.93 Based on the available data from 32 WMO Members from the LAC region, 16 (50%)
Members are currently providing climate services at essential/full capacities, as illustrated
in Figure 16. This finding underscores the commitment and capabilities within the region to
provide climate services.

Specifically, some climate services for health may be developed in a form of partnership,
defined as the iterative process of collaboration between relevant transdisciplinary partners to
identify, generate and build capacity to develop, deliver and use relevant and reliable climate
knowledge to enhance decision-making and action in the health sector. Examples of climate
products and services may include monitoring and warning systems for population exposure
to wildfire smoke or early warning systems for extreme temperatures.94 The ClimaHealth
platform also includes the countries’ climate services profile pages and reference to WMO
Health Focal Points.

The provision of data services for the health sector is provided by 63% of WMO Members from
the LAC region, however only less than half of the Members are providing climate projections

Advanced
1 (3%)

No data
8 (25%) Basic
Less 6 (19)%
than basic
1 (3%)

Full
Essential
7 (22%)
9 (28%)

Figure 16. Overview of generalized climate services capacities (not sector specific). The information in the figure represents
32 WMO Members whose data have been validated by internationally certified auditors.

25
 22% 22% 22% 22% 22% 22%

16%
22% 22%
28%
38%
50%

63%
56% 56%
50%
38%
28%

Data services Climate Climate analysis Climate Climate change Tailored

monitoring and diagnostics predictions projections products

Yes No No Data

Figure 17. Breakdown of the diverse range of climate services provided by NMHSs to the health sector in the LAC region
Note: Percentages are based on the 32 WMO Members from the LAC region.

and tailored products. It is pertinent to note that most of the services provided are still not
sector tailored, as only 38% of Members in the region indicated providing tailored products
for the health sector (Figure 17). The National Meteorological and Hydrological Services
(NMHSs)’ self-reported level of service provision to the health sector was evaluated on a
scale of 1–6, with 1 corresponding to “initial engagement” and 6 to “full engagement”. This
scale was used to assess the level of socioeconomic benefits achieved and documented. The
average score was reported to be 3.1 out of 6 for the region, which suggests that most of the
engagement is at the initial stage (1–3), where definition of needs is prioritized, rather than
at the stage of providing tailored products and services (4–6).

The 2021 Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) survey shows advancements in Latin
America, with 17 countries integrating meteorological data into health surveillance, focusing
on diseases and extreme weather impacts.95 This reflects a move towards stronger public
health strategies amid climate issues.

Moreover, there has been progress in setting up a National Framework for Climate Services96
(NFCS) in various Member countries in the region, as a mechanism to promote coordination,
governance and collaboration to improve the development, delivery and use of climate
services at the country level, to support decision-making. Recent data indicate that 16 Member
countries in the region are in the process of establishing their respective NFCS.

Weather services are instrumental to safeguarding public health by providing timely and
accurate information, thereby empowering both communities and individuals to effectively
prepare for and respond to weather-related risks within a short timescale of less than 30 days.
The crucial role of weather services lies in their ability to offer insights into upcoming weather
conditions, which is vital for planning and mitigating the potential impacts on health and
safety. However, despite their significance, the available data reveal a notable gap in the level
of services provided by NMHSs. Only 6% of the WMO Members from the LAC region provide
“full or advanced” weather services, indicating a comprehensive range of information and

26
 No data Basic/Essential

41%

47%

6% 6%
Less
than basic
Full/Advanced

Figure 18. Overview of generalized weather services capacities (not sector specific).
Note: Percentages are based on the 32 WMO Members from the LAC region.

advanced capabilities. In contrast, 47% provide only “basic or essential” weather services,
suggesting limitations in the scope and depth of the information available to the public and
relevant authorities (Figure 18).

The results highlight the need for substantial improvements and investments in weather services
infrastructure. However, it is important to note that a significant percentage of responses fall
into the category of “No data”, making these findings highly dependent on the countries/
territories that responded to the survey. Achieving a higher percentage of NMHSs offering
“full or advanced” services is essential to enhance the overall preparedness and resilience
of communities and individuals in the face of weather-related risks. Such advancements
would ensure that a broader array of information, including more sophisticated forecasts, is
accessible to the public, enabling better decision-making and response strategies to protect
public health and safety. As extreme weather events become more intense and impactful
due to climate change, the importance of strengthening and expanding advanced weather
services cannot be overstated.

27
Datasets and methods
TEMPERATURE
Six datasets (cited below) were used in the calculation of regional temperature. Regional mean
temperature anomalies were calculated relative to the 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 baselines
using the following steps:

1. Read the gridded dataset;

2. Regrid the data to 1° latitude × 1° longitude resolution. If the gridded data are higher
resolution, take a mean of the grid boxes within each 1° × 1° grid box. If the gridded data
are lower resolution, copy the low-resolution grid box value into each 1° × 1° grid box
that falls inside the low-resolution grid box;

3. For each month, calculate the regional area average using only those 1° × 1° grid boxes
whose centres fall over land within the region;

4. For each year, take the mean of the monthly area averages to get an annual area average;

5. Calculate the mean of the annual area averages over the periods 1961–1990 and 1991–2020;

6. Subtract the 30-year period average from each year to obtain the anomalies relative to
that base period.

The following six datasets were used:

Berkeley Earth – Rohde, R. A.; Hausfather, Z. The Berkeley Earth Land/Ocean Temperature Record.
Earth System Science Data 2020, 12, 3469–3479. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3469-
2020. The data are available here.
ERA5 – Hersbach, H.; Bell, B.; Berrisford, P. et al. The ERA5 Global Reanalysis. Quarterly Journal
of the Royal Meteorological Society 2020, 146 (730), 1999–2049. https://doi.org/10.1002/
qj.3803. The data are available here.
GISTEMP v4 – GISTEMP Team. GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (GISTEMP), version 4. NASA
Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2022. https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/. Lenssen,
N.; Schmidt, G.; Hansen, J. et al. Improvements in the GISTEMP Uncertainty Model.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2019, 124 (12), 6307–6326. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2018JD029522. The data are available here.
HadCRUT.5.0.2.0 – Morice, C. P.; Kennedy, J. J.; Rayner, N. A. et al. An Updated Assessment of
Near-Surface Temperature Change From 1850: The HadCRUT5 Data Set. Journal of
Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2021, 126. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD032361.
HadCRUT.5.0.2.0 data were obtained from http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/
hadcrut5 on 17 January 2024 and are © British Crown Copyright, Met Office 2024,
provided under an Open Government Licence, http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/
open-government-licence/version/3/.
JRA55 – Kobayashi, S.; Ota, Y.; Harada, Y. et al. The JRA55 Reanalysis: General Specifications and
Basic Characteristics. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Ser. II 2015, 93 (1),
5–48. https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2015-001. The data are available here.
NOAAGlobalTemp v5.1 – NOAA Interim: Vose, R. S.; Huang, B.; Yin, X. et al. Implementing Full
Spatial Coverage in NOAA’s Global Temperature Analysis. Geophysical Research Letters
2021, 48. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL090873. The data are available here.

Temperature in situ data from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services were also used.

28
 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation in situ data from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services were used.

GLACIERS
Glacier mass balance data for 22 monitored glaciers in the Andes were obtained from the
World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS), https://www.wgms.ch.

SEA-SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Sea-surface temperature anomalies were processed by CIIFEN using data from the NOAA/
NCEP Global Ocean Data Assimilation System (GODAS).

SEA LEVEL
Regional sea-level trends are based on gridded C3S altimetry data averaged from 50 km
offshore to the coast by the Laboratory of Space Geophysical and Oceanographic Studies
(LEGOS).

FLOODS
Data from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services and from United Nations
organizations were used, as well as data from https://floodlist.com/.

DROUGHT
The Integrated Drought Index (IDI) uses Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) data calculated
using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) and the
Vegetation Health Index from the Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR/NOAA).

Drought data were also provided by the United States Drought Monitor (USDM) https://
droughtmonitor.unl.edu/.

WILDFIRES
Active fire data for South America come from NASA satellite images (MODIS-AQUA) processed
by the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE).

COLD WAVES
In situ data from National Meteorological and Hydrological Services were used.

29
 CLIMATE SERVICES
2023 State of Climate Services: Health (WMO-No. 1335).
2020 State of Climate Services: Risk Information and Early Warning Systems (WMO-No. 1252).
WMO analysis of the NDCs of the parties to the Paris Agreement, complemented by the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) synthesis report: Nationally
Determined Contributions Under the Paris Agreement: Synthesis Report by the Secretariat.
Readapted from WMO based on data from World Health Organization (WHO). 2023 WHO
Review of Health in Nationally Determined Contributions and Long-term Strategies:
Health at the Heart of the Paris Agreement; WHO: Geneva, 2023. https://iris.who.int/
handle/10665/372276.
Checklist for Climate Services Implementation (Climate Services Dashboard)

30
List of contributors
NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SERVICES
Antigua and Barbuda Meteorological Services; National Meteorological Service (SMN),
Argentina; Bahamas Department of Meteorology; Barbados Meteorological Services; National
Meteorological Service, Belize; Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología (SENAMHI),
Bolivia (Plurinational State of); National Meteorological Institute of Brazil (INMET); Dirección
Meteorológica de Chile (DMC); Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies
(IDEAM), Colombia; National Meteorological Institute (IMN), Costa Rica; Meteorological
Department Curacao; Dominica Meteorological Service; National Office of Meteorology,
Dominican Republic; Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología (INAMHI), Ecuador;
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN), El Salvador; Meteo-France; Grenada
Meteorological Service; Instituto Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e
Hidrología (INSIVUMEH), Guatemala; Hydrometeorological Service, Guyana; Centro de Estudios
Atmosféricos, Oceanográficos y Sísmicos (CENAOS), Honduras; National Water Commission
(CONAGUA), Mexico; Instituto Meteorológico Hidrológico de Panamá (IMHPA); Dirección de
Meteorología e Hidrología (DMH), Paraguay; Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología
(SENAMHI), Peru; Saint Lucia Meteorological Services; Meteorological Department Sint
Maarten; Meteorological Service Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Service;
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States of America; Instituto
Uruguayo de Meteorología (INUMET), Uruguay; Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología
(INAMEH), Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

ORGANIZATIONS
Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH); Centre for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED); Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S); Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); Global Precipitation Climatology Centre
(GPCC); Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI); International Research
Centre on El Niño (CIIFEN); International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI);
Laboratory of Space Geophysical and Oceanographic Studies (LEGOS), France; National
Centre for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN), Brazil; National
Institute for Space Research (INPE), Brazil; NOAA; Pan American Health Organization (PAHO);
Regional Climate Centre for Western South America (RCC-WSA); Regional Climate Centre
Network for Southern South America (RCC-SSA); ReliefWeb; School of Earth Sciences,
Energy and Environment, Yachay Tech University (Ecuador); United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP); United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA);
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR, formerly UNISDR); Universidad
Veracruzana (UV), Mexico; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil; WMO; WMO
Commission for Weather, Climate, Hydrological, Marine and Related Environmental Services
and Applications (SERCOM) – Expert Team on Climate Monitoring and Assessment (ET-CMA);
World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS)

INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS
Jose A. Marengo (coordinating lead author, CEMADEN), Jorge Luis Vázquez-Aguirre
(coordinating lead author, UV), Rodney Martinez (lead author, WMO), Barbara Tapia (lead
author, WMO), Teddy Allen (CIMH), Grinia Avalos Roldan (SENAMHI-Peru), Pablo Ayala
(MARN), Omar Baddour (WMO), Julian Baez (WMO), Alexander Baklanov (WMO), Ruben
Basantes-Serrano (Yachay Tech University), Jessica Blunden (NOAA, ET-CMA), Daniel

31
Buss (PAHO), Anabel Castro Narciso (SENAMHI-Peru), Anny Cazenave (LEGOS), Kris Correa
Marrou (SENAMHI-Peru), Sebastian Cortinez (FAO), Felipe Costa (CIIFEN), Ana Paula Cunha
(CEMADEN), Cristina Davila Arriaga (SENAMHI-Peru), Danielle B. Ferreira (INMET), Yolanda
Gonzalez (CIIFEN), Atsushi Goto (WMO), Yvan Gouzenes (LEGOS), Veronica Grasso (WMO),
Stella Hartinger (Lancet Countdown Latin America), Karina Hernandez (IMN), Christopher Hewitt
(WMO), John Kennedy (WMO, ET-CMA), Marion Khamis (FAO), Renata Libonati (UFRJ-Instituto
de Geociências (IGEO), ET‑CMA), Filipe Lucio (WMO), Jürg Luterbacher (WMO), Anwar Mendez
(PAHO), Jorge Molina (SENAMHI-Bolivia, Plurinational State of), Nakiete Msemo (WMO),
Zuhelen Padilla (IAI); Reynaldo Pascual (SMN-CONAGUA), Karen Polson-Edwards (PAHO),
Maria Mercedes Proano (FAO), Andrea M. Ramos (INMET), Claire Ransom (WMO), Alejandro
Saez Reale (WMO), Iliana Salazar (CIIFEN); Nury Sanabria (IMN), Joy Shumake-Guillemot
(WMO), José Álvaro Pimpão Silva (WMO), Yasna Karina Palmeiro Silva (Lancet Countdown),
María de los Milagros Skansi (SMN-Argentina), Anna Stewart-Ibarra (IAI), Irene Torres (IAI);
Blair Trewin (Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM, ET-CMA), Markus Ziese (GPCC, ET-CMA)

32
Endnotes
1
https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/mlo.html. Measurements at Mauna Loa were interrupted by a volcanic eruption and the
measurement site was temporarily relocated to Mauna Kea observatories, 34 km to the north.
2
https://www.csiro.au/greenhouse-gases/
3
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Masson-Delmotte, V.;
Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/
report/ar6/wg1/.
4
https://origin.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ONI_v5.php
5
National Centre for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN), Brazil
6
Vuille, M.; Francou, B. ; Wagnon, P. et al. Climate Change and Tropical Andean Glaciers: Past, Present and Future.
Earth-Science Reviews 2008, 89, 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.04.002.
7
https://wgms.ch/data/min-data-series/FoG_MB_1344.csv
8
https://blogs.agu.org/fromaglaciersperspective/2023/02/26/glacier-ohiggins-chile-rapid-calving-retreat-2016-2023/
9
Millan, R.; Rignot, E.; Rivera, A. et al. Ice Thickness and Bed Elevation of the Northern and Southern Patagonian Icefields.
Geophysical Research Letters 2019, 46, 6626–6635. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082485.
10
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). State of the Global Climate 2023 (WMO-No. 1347). Geneva, 2024.
11
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Masson-Delmotte, V.;
Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/
report/ar6/wg1/.
12
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