Gravitation:

Newton’s Law of gravitation:

The gravitational attraction force between two bodies of masses m1 and m2 respectively
separated by a distance r is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
F ∝ (m1 x m2)
F ∝ 1/r²
F ∝ (m1 x m2)/r²
F= G (m1 x m2)/r²
G=F r²/(m1 x m2)
Where G is the universal gravitation constant. G = 6.67x 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²

Acceleration due to earth’s gravity:

mg = GMm/ r²
g = GM/ r²
Where g is the gravitational acceleration due to earth. g = 9.8 m/s²

Variation of g due to elevation:

The gravitational acceleration on the surface of earth is by g = GM/R²
The gravitational acceleration at a height h is given by g’ = GM/(R+h) ²
g’/g = R²/(R+h) ²
R = radius of earth.
If h << R then g’= (1-2h/R) g

Variation of g due to depth:

The gravitational acceleration on the surface of earth is by g = GM/R²
The gravitational acceleration at a depth x is given by g’ =GM/ (R-x) ²
g’/g = (R-x)/R
If x << R then g’= (1-x/R) g
Variation of g due to rotation of earth:
The gravitational acceleration due to rotation of earth is given by

mg’ = mg – m w²R cos²θ

g’ = g – w²R cos²θ
where
θ = latitude
m = mass of the body
w = angular velocity
At equator θ = 0˚
g’ = g – w²R
At poles θ = 90˚
g’ = g

Due to Shape:

The shape of earth is not like an exact sphere. The north and south poles are flat and the equator is
extended. So due to this the radius of earth is not same everywhere on its surface. The acceleration
due to earth also depends on its radius. So, if the radius of earth changes due to its shape the value
of g also changes.

Time period of satellite:

The Time period of satellite moving in a circular orbit of radius r is
T²= 4ᴨ²r³/GM
T² ∝ r³
Numerical:
1) Two identical isolated particles each of mass 5 kg are separated by a distance of 6m.
What is the magnitude of the gravitational force of one particle on the other?

G = 6.67x 10⁻¹¹Nm²/kg²
m1 = 5Kg
m2 = 5Kg
r = 6m
 The magnitude of the gravitational force of one particle on the other is

F = G (m1 x m2)/r²
F = (6.67x10⁻¹¹) x 5x5/6²
F = 4.63x10⁻¹¹ N

2) The gravitational acceleration due to earth is 9.8 m/s². Find the mass of earth if its
radius is 6371Km.

Gravitational acceleration due to earth = g = 9.8 m/s²

Radius of earth = 6371Km= 6371x 10³ m
G = 6.67x 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²

So, the mass of earth is

M = g r²/G
M = 9.8 x (6371 x 10³) ² / (6.67x10⁻¹¹)
M = 5.96 x 10²⁴ Kg

3) Moon takes 27 days to revolve earth in a circular orbit. If mass of earth is 5x10²⁴ Kg.
Find the distance between earth and moon.

G = 6.67x 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²

M = 5x10²⁴ Kg
T = 27 days = 27x24x60x60 sec
The distance between earth and moon is
r³= (T² x GM) /4ᴨ²
r³ = [((27x24x60x60)²)x(6.67x 10⁻¹¹)x(5x10²⁴ )]/4ᴨ²
r = 358231.45 Km
4) Find the depth below the surface of earth at which acceleration due to gravity reduced to
90% of its value on the surface of the earth. Radius of earth is 6371Km.

Acceleration due to Earth’s gravity at a depth x is

g’ = (1-x/R)g
g’/g = 1-x/R =90/100 = 1-x/6371
x = 6371 x (1-9/10)= 637.1Km
 ROTATION:

Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia of a rotating body having mass m and
placed at a distance r from the axis of rotation is
I = mr²
In SI system unit of moment of inertia is Kgm²

Radius of gyration: Suppose moment of inertia of a body isIand if we assume all its
mass (m) concentrated into a point mass placed at a distance K from the axis then its
radius of gyration is mK² = I
In SI system unit of radius of gyration is meter.

Parallel axes theorem: Suppose moment of inertia of a body about its centre of
mass axis is Ic, then the moment of inertia of that body about an axis parallel to its
centre of mass axis is
Io = Ic + m x²

Io = moment of inertia of the body about the other axis

m= mass of the body
x = distance between the axes

Perpendicular axes theorem: For a plane lamina the moment of inertia about its
perpendicular axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertias of the other two axes.
Iz = Ix + Iy
Iz = moment of inertia of the lamina about z axis.
Ix = moment of inertia of the lamina about x axis.
Iy = moment of inertia of the lamina about y axis.
Kinetic energy of a rotating body: Kinetic energy of a rotating body with angular velocity w
is ½ I w²
Kinetic energy of a rolling body: Total kinetic energy of a rolling body is
Translational energy + rotational energy
= ½ m v² + ½ I w²
Gyroscope:
Gyroscope is a device which is widely used in navigation instruments, ships, aeroplanes,
satellites for maintain a particular direction.
It consist a rotating wheel that can spin rapidly about an axis and move freely to change the
direction. The tendency of a rotating body to keep unchanged direction of its axis is called
gyroscopic inertia. Even in case of an external force is applied to the body it can maintain its
direction fixed. The tendency of a body to rotate at right angle to an external force is called
precession.
For a gyroscope
Wp x Ws = M g R / I
Where
Wp = precessional angular velocity
Ws = spinning angular velocity
M = mass of the wheel
g = gravitational acceleration
R = length of the axis from wheel
I = moment of inertia of the wheel
Numerical:
1) Determine the total kinetic energy of a solid cylinder of mass 15 kg and radius of
gyration 45 cm rolling on a surface at the rate of 3.4 rev/ sec.
We know v = w r
v = linear velocity
w = angular velocity
r = radius of gyration
For a solid cylinder I = ½ mr²
Total kinetic energy of the solid cylinder is
Translational energy + rotational energy
= ½ m v² + ½ I w²
= ½ m (w r) ² + ½ (½ mr²) w²
= ¾ mw² r²
= ¾ x 15 x (3.4) ² x (45x10^-2) ² = 17.56 J
 2) The moment M.I of a body about its centre of mass axis is 5 kg m². Find its M.I about
an axis parallel to its centre of mass axis and at a distance 4 m. Mass of the body is 2
kg.

Moment of inertia of the body about the other axis is

Io = Ic + m x²
Io = 5 + 2 x (4)²
Io = 37 kg m²

HEAT
Relation between co efficient of real expansion and apparent expansion:
ϒr = ϒa +ϒg
ϒr = co efficient of real expansion
ϒa = co efficient of apparent expansion
ϒg = co efficient of volume expansion of the glass
Real cubical expansion of fresh water is more than the saline water.

Anomalous expansion of water: When water is cooled from 4 ◦c to 0 ◦c its volume

increases instead of contracting. This strange behaviour of water is known as anomalous
expansion of water. At 4 ◦c density of water become maximum. For this aquatic life can
survive under frozen lakes.

Melting point of ice: The temperature at which ice starts to melt into water is called the
melting point of ice. By applying pressure and adding impurities we can decrease the
melting point of ice.

Boiling point of water:The temperature at which fresh water starts to boil is called the
boiling point of water. By applying pressure and adding impurities we can increase the
boiling point of water.
Latent heat: The amount of heat required to change the state of any substance is known as
latent heat.
Amount of heat absorbed or extracted by a body of mass m and specific heat s is
H=mst
Where t = change in temperature.

Effect of pressure and impurity on melting point:

Impurities present in a solid organic compound tend to have two effects on the melting
point.
i) Mainly for a substance which decreases in volume on melting its melting point
decreases with increase in pressure and for a substance which increases in volume
on melting its melting point increases with increase in pressure.
ii) They tend to lower the overall melting point of the compound versus the value for
pure material.
iii) They tend to increase the range of the melting point values. Pure compounds tend
to melt very quickly once they reach the correct temperature. Impure compounds
tend to melt more slowly over a larger range of temperature values. Both of these
effects are due to the weakness of the molecular lattice structure of the solid. Pure
solids tend to form stronger lattice bonds that require more heat energy to break
up. Impurities present tends to disrupt these lattice networks, thus requiring less
energy to disrupt them.

Effect of pressure and impurity on boiling point:

Usually the boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in pressure.The temperature at
which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the surrounding pressure or a liquid
starts boiling is called boiling temperature. It is dependent on the atmospheric pressure. The
molecules of the liquid need more energy to break into the gas phase when the more
molecules are hitting the surface of the liquid with more energy. Adding impurities to a
liquid, increases the boiling point of the liquid. This occurs because the presence of
impurities decreases the number of water molecules available to become vaporized during
boiling. Once this occurs, it takes a greater amount of heat to cause the same amount of
impure solution to vaporize as it would take to cause a pure liquid to vaporize, thus raising
the overall boiling point of the liquid. It is also true that impurities do not always increase
boiling point and in certain cases, can actually cause boiling point to decrease.
Significance of high specific heat capacity and high latent heat of vaporization of water:

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance by 1 K (SI unit). It is expressed in the units J/ (kgK).A high specific heat of a
substance means that a large amount of heat is required to raise the temperature of the
substance.
Water is the substance with one of the highest known specific heat capacity at 4186 J/ (kgK).
To raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 Kelvin requires 4.186 KJ of heat. This is mainly
due to the presence of a large number of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water.
Water covers around 70% of the Earth's surface and its high specific heat plays a very
important role as it is able to absorb a lot of heat without a significant rise in the
temperature. When temperatures decrease, the heat which is stored is released, restraining
a rapid drop in temperature. The combined effect of these processes is a buffering of
temperature on the Earth. A relatively constant temperature without spikes and drops is
essential to sustain life, as the most organisms require temperatures to remain within a
narrow range for their survival. The energy required to completely separate the molecules,
moving from liquid to gas, is much greater that if you were just to reduce their separation,
solid to liquid. This is the reason why the latent heat of vaporization is greater that the
latent heat of fusion. The high heat specification of the water plays an important role in life
of earth. Since all organisms are mostly made of water their body temperature is stable
because they are able to resist dramatic changes in their temperatures. Tropical oceans
absorb a great amount heat from the sun. When evaporation occurs in tropical oceans, it
moves to the earth's poles, condenses and forms rain.

Emissive power: It is the amount of total radiated energy (heat) emitted from unit area of a
body in unit time at a given temperature.
Emissive power =E=Q/At
where, Q=amount of radiated heat energy, A = area & t= time.
Transfer of Heat: Heat can transfer by the following processes
1) Conduction: In this processheat transfers from hotter portion of the body to relatively
cooler portion. In this process transfer of mass cannot be seen.
2) Convection: In this process particles of the body absorbs heat from hotter portion and
travel to the relatively cooler portion of the body. In this process transfer of mass can
be seen.
3) Radiation: In this processtransfers from the source by emission of electromagnetic
waves. Heat from sun reaches earth in this process.

Trade Winds: The surface of the earth at the equator is heated more by sun rays than poles.
The hot air at equator moves up and sets the region of low pressure at the equator. This
pressure gradient between poles and equator causes the cold air to move from poles to the
equator. Due to rotation of the earth from west to east, the wind from northern
hemispheres appears to come from the northwest and that from southern hemispheres
appears to come from the south-west.

Ocean currents: Ocean currents result from two processes - the action of wind on the
surface of the water, and from variation in water temperature that causes movement- a
process known as convection. Convection occurs because the oceanic waters heat up
becoming less dense. This water moves above the cooler water, and give off its heat to the
surrounding environment. As it cools, it begins to sink, and the process begins again.
Convection results in the continual circulation of ocean water on a global scale.

Conduction of heat through a composite slab:

The amount of heat conducted through the slab is

H = K (Ө1 – Ө2) A t / d
Where
H =Amount of heat conducted through the slab
K = Co efficient oh thermal conductivity
Ө1 – Ө2 = temperature difference of the two faces
A = area of the slab
T = time
d = distance between the two faces of the slab
Kirchhoff’s law of heat radiation: It states that the coefficient of absorption (a) of a body is
equal to its coefficient of emission (e) at any given temperature. i.e; a=e
e=E/Eb=emissive power of the body/emissive power of the black body
e=a= E/Eb or E/a=Eb
It also states that the ratio of emissive power (E) to the coefficient of absorption (a) is the
same for all bodies at a given temperature and it is equal to the emissive power of a perfect
blackbody (Eb) at that temperature.
Prevost’s theory of heat exchange: Every substance at any temperature greater than
absolute zero continuously emits heat radiation energy. The amount of radiation emitted
with increase in temperature of the substance. Suppose a body A at a temperature TA ⁰K is
surrounded completely by another body B at Tb ⁰K temperature and TA ⁰K > Tb ⁰K.
According to Prevost’s theory both A and B emits radiation and the amount of heat
radiation emitted by A is greater than B. Heat exchange between the two bodies continues
until they are in Thermal Equilibrium.

Stefan-Boltzmann law: The rate at which an object of unit surface area whose temperature
is ‘T’ kelvin emits radiation given by E = e σ T⁴ or, E = σ T⁴
Where, e =emissivity of the body, e= 1 for a perfect black body.
E = energy
σ = Stefan’s constant=5.67 x 10 ⁻⁸ watt/m²/K⁴
Wien’s displacement law:
Themaximum radiated wavelength corresponds to a particular temperature of hot body
is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature.

λmax = b/T
Where λmax=maximum radiated wavelength, b= Wien’s constant = 3x10⁻³ m-K
Numerical:
1) Calculate the temperature of the sun whose radiation has maximum energy at
wavelength λ = 5500 Å. Wien’s constant = 0.3 cm deg K

Maximum wavelength λ = 5500 Å = 5500x10^-10 m

Wien’s constant = 0.3 cm deg K =0 .3x10^-2 m deg K

Temperature of the sun is

T= b/λ
T = .3x10^-2 / 5500x10^-10
T = 5454.55 K
 2) Heat is conducted through a slab of K values 0.2 and 0.3 respectively. The thickness
of each layer is 1 cm. If the temperature of the two outer surfaces are 100◦c and 0◦c,
find the temperature of the interface.
Ө = interface temperature
Ө1 = 100◦c
Ө2 = 0◦c
K1 = 0.2
K2 = 0.3
d = 1 cm
The interface temperature is

K1 (Ө1 – Ө) A t / d = K2 (Ө – Ө2) A t / d

K1 (Ө1 – Ө) = K2 (Ө – Ө2)
0.2 (100-Ө) = 0.3 (Ө -0)
Ө = 40◦c

SOUND:
Types of wave motion:
1) Longitudinal waves
2) Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves:

1) In longitudinal wave the direction of vibrationof the particles is parallel to the

direction of the propagation of the wave.
2) Longitudinal wave propagates through medium by compression and rarefaction.
3) It can travel through solid, liquid and gaseous medium.
4) Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised.
5) Sound wave, Ultrasonic wave are longitudinal waves.
 6) Transverse waves:

1) In transverse wave the direction of vibration of particles is perpendicular to the

direction of the propagation of the wave.
2) Transverse wave propagates through medium by creating crest and troughs.
3) It can travel through solid, liquid and gaseous medium and also without any medium
(EM waves).
4) Transverse waves can be polarised (EM waves).
5) Tidal waves, EM waves, light waves etc. are transverse waves.
Characteristics of wave motion:
Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of the vibrating particles from on either side
from their mean position.
Time period: It is the time taken by the wave to complete one full cycle.
Wave velocity: This is the distance traveled by the wave per unit time in the medium.
Wave frequency: This is the number of full oscillations completed by the wave in per
unit time.
Wave length: This is the distance between two nearest points which are in the same
phase of vibration.
Relation between wave velocity (v), wavelength (λ) and frequency (n) of a wave is
v=nλ
Newton’s formula for finding the speed of sound in air: According to Newton the
propagation of sound through air is an isothermal process so there is no change in
temperature during this process and the speed of sound is v = √(P/ρ)
Where p= pressure of the air = 1.013x10⁵ N/m²
d = density of the air =1.293 Kg/m³
Using this formula the calculated speed of sound wave in air is 280 m/s but the
experimental value is 332 m/s.
Laplace’s correction: Laplace modified Newton’s formula by suggesting that the
propagation of sound wave through air is not an isothermal process since air is a bad
conductor of heat. This is an adiabatic process and the speed of sound in air is
v = √(ϒP/ρ)
ϒ=1.4
Where ϒ = ratio of specific heats.
Using this formula the calculated speed of sound wave in air is 332 m/s.

Factors affecting the speed of sound in air:

Pressure: The speed of sound in air is
v = √(ϒP/ρ)
At constant temperature for a fixed mass of gas its density remains constant. Again ϒ is a
constant for a fixed gas so speed of sound does not depends on pressure.
Temperature: Speed of sound increases with increase in temperature. Speed of sound is
proportional to the square root of absolute temperature.
v = √(ϒP/ρ)
v = √(ϒPV/M)
v = √(ϒRT/M)
Speed of sound in air at t ◦c temperature is given by
V’ = V +0.61t
Where V’ = speed of sound in air at t ◦c temperature
V= speed of sound in air at 0 ◦c temperature
Density: The speed of sound in air is
v = √(ϒP/ρ)
So if density decreases speed of sound in air increases and vice versa.
Humidity: Air density is inversely proportional to humidity. So if atmospheric humidity
increases density decreases and speed of sound in air increases.
Factors affecting the speed of sound in sea water:
Pressure: The speed of sound in seawater is
v = √(B/ρ) B= Bulk Modulus
Speed of sound in seawater is proportional to its pressure.
Temperature: Speed of sound in seawater is proportional to temperature. The speed of
sound in seawater increases with increase in temperature and vice versa
Salinity: Speed of sound in sea water increases with increase in salinity and vice versa.
Depth: The speed of sound in seawater is
v = √(B/ρ)
Speed of sound in seawater is proportional to its pressure and pressure increases with
increases in depth. As a result speed of sound in seawater increases with depth and vice
versa.
Speed of sound in seawater:

A source of sound is placed at some depth from the horizontal level of seawater. A receiver
of sound is also placed at the same depth from the horizontal level of seawater. When the
speaker emits sound waves it travels through the seawater and reached to the receiver of
sound. The horizontal distance between the speaker and the receiver is fixed. Now, by
knowing the horizontal distance between the speaker and the receiver and calculating the
time taken by the sound to reach from the speaker to the source the speed of sound can be
calculated. So, the speed of sound in seawater = distance between the speaker and the
receiver / time.
Siren: A siren is a device which can generate sound of a desired frequency.

Construction: It has a circular disc of large diameter with a ring of equally spaced holes, a
horn funnel, an air rotor, main air valve and air supply mechanism etc.
Working: In a siren a jet of air can be blown through a nozzle of a pipe against any one of
the circular series of the holes and at the same time it can be rotated by a motor. The motor
is connected with a revometer i.e; a device by which number of rotations per sec can be
calculated.
Now if the disc rotates ‘p’ rotations per sec and there are ‘m’ number of holes against which
air is blown, the frequency of the sound is N = m × p
Characteristics of sound:
Intensity: Intensity of sound is defined as the sound energy flowing per unit area per unit
time. Intensity of sound depends on sound energy, sound energy flowing time etc.
Intensity = sound energy / area x time
I=E /A × t = P/A
In SI system unit of intensity is Watt/m²
Relation between Intensity and Sound level:
Sound level = 10 log₁₀ (I/Io)
Where I = Intensity of sound
Io = Zero level intensity
In SI system unit of sound level is decibel (dB).
Characteristics of musical sound:
1) Loudness: Loudness is proportional to the intensity. Intensity is subjective.It depends
on the listener.The sound intensity must be factored by the ear's sensitivity to the
particular frequencies contained in the sound.

2) Pitch: Pitch of the sound depends on its frequency. Two sources having same
loudness and quality may be have different pitch. Pitch of a sound also depends on
the relative motion between the sound source and the listener.

3) Quality: Quality of sound allows us to distinguish between two sources of sound

having same pitch and loudness. It is the distinguishable characteristics of a tone.
This is due to difference in number, order and relative intensities of overtones of the
note. It also depends on damping factor of instrument.

Factors affecting the Loudness of sound:

1) Amplitude of sound wave: Loudness of sound is directly proportional to the

square of the amplitude of vibration.
2) Distance between the source and listener: Loudness is inversely proportional to
the distance between sound source and listener.
3) Area of the vibrating source: Loudness of sound increases with increase in the
area of the vibrating body.
4) Density of the medium: Loudness of sound increases if the medium density
increases.
5) Presence of resonant bodies: Presence of resonant bodies can increase loudness
of sound.
6) Motion of the medium: Loudness of sound increases if the wind and sound
directions are same.

Doppler Effect:
Due to the motionof the source of sound and the observer the frequency of the sound
reaches to the observer changes from its actual frequency, this effect is known as Doppler
effect.
N’ = *(V + Vo) / (V - Vs)] N
Where N’ = Frequency of the sound heard by the observer
N = actual frequency of the sound
Vo = velocity of the observer, Vs = velocity of the source of sound
V = velocity of the sound in that medium
Numerical:
1) Determine the speed of sound in air at 30◦c temperature if at 0◦c the speed of sound in
air is 340 m/s.
V’ = speed of sound in air at 30◦c temperature
V = speed of sound in air at 0 ◦c temperature =340 m/s
t = 30◦c V’ = V +0.61t
V’ = 340 + 0.61x30
V’ = 358.3 m/s
2) Find the Intensity of 48dB sound.

I = Intensity of sound
Io = Zero level intensity = 10⁻¹² W/m²
Intensity of 48dB sound is
Sound level = 10 log (I/Io)
48 = 10 log (I/10⁻¹²)
I = 1.22 x 10⁻¹⁰ W/m²

3) A car is moving at a speed of 20m/s along a straight road with its 900Hz horn blowing. A
man standing at the side of the road. What frequency will he hear as the car is
i) approaching and ii) receding him. The velocity of sound is 345m/sec.
N’ = Frequency of the sound heard by the observer, N = actual frequency of the sound =
900Hz, Vo = velocity of the observer = 0, Vs = velocity of the source of sound = 20m/s,
V = velocity of the sound in that medium = 345 m/s
i) Frequency of the sound the man will hear is
N’ = N (V + Vo) / (V - Vs)
N’ = 900(345+0) / (345-20)
N’ = 955.38Hz
ii) Frequency of the sound the man will hear is
N’ = N (V + Vo) / (V +Vs)
N’ = 900(345+0) / (345+20)
N’ = 850.68Hz