BIO 111 LECTURE NOTES: CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room" is the basic structural, functional, and biologica l
unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the
"building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology or cellular biology. Cells consist
of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins
and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; includ ing
bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). The number of cells in plants and animals
varies from species to species, it has been estimated that humans contain somewhere around 40
trillion (4×1013 ) cells Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with
dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.
Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells
inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias
Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more
cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that
all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.
Cell Theory
In the late 1600’s, an English scientist named Robert Hook was the first to observe plant cells with
a crude microscope. Then, almost a century and a half later, in the 1830’s two German scientists
proposed that all living things are composed of cells (Their names were Mathias Schleiden and
Theodor Schwann). A German pathologist named Rudolph Virchow extended this idea by
contending that cells arise only from other cells. Since the late 1800’s, cell research has seen
astounding gains and provided us with four concepts collectively known as cell theory, stated as
follows:

1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. When you define cell
properties, you define the properties of life.
2. The activity of an organism depends on both the individual and the collective activities of
its cells.
3. According to the principle of complementarity of structure and function, the biochemical
activities of cells are dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the relative number of their
specific sub-cellular structures.
4. Continuity of life from one generation to another has a cellular basis.

Cells are the basis of life. Some connect body parts and store nutrients, others fight disease and
transport gases. Some cells gather information and control certain body functions, while specialized
cells are used for reproduction. There are trillions of cells in the human body. These include over
200 different cell types that vary greatly in size, shape, and function. Red blood cells are disc-
shaped, nerve cells branch, and kidney tubule cells are cubed. These are just a few examples of the
shape cells take. Cells vary in length as well – ranging from 2 micrometers in the smallest cells to
over a meter in the nerve cells you wiggle your toes with. Generally, a cell’s shape reflects its
function. For example, the epithelial cells that line the inside of your cheek are flat and fit closely
together like floor tile, forming a living barrier that protects underlying tissues from bacterial
invasion. Regardless of the type, all cells are mainly composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,

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oxygen, and trace amounts of a few other elements. In addition, all cells have the same basic parts
and some common functions.

Figure: Types of human cells

Three basic parts of a cell

1. The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.
2. The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures that
perform specific cell functions.
3. The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities. Typically the nucleus resides
near the cell’s center.

Figure: Onion (Allium cepa) root cells in different phases of the cell cycle
(drawn by E. B. Wilson, 1900)

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 A eukaryotic cell (left) and prokaryotic cell (right)

Types of cells
Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or
multicellular.

Prokaryotic cells

Figure: Structure of a typical prokaryotic cell (Bacteria)

Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life. Prokaryotic cells were
the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell
signaling. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles
such as a nucleus. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct
contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most
prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. A prokaryotic
cell has three architectural regions:

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  Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered
by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a
capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are
exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea) which only possess
the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior
of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of
peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also
prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a
hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell
wall.
 Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and
various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually
circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete
bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which
causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid.
Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.
 On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not
present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communica t io n
between cells.

Eukaryotic cells
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about
fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in
volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is
compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which
specific activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses
the cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus) ".
Other differences include:
 The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in
the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes,
which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell
nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as
mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in
chemosensation, mechanosensation, and chemosensation. Each cilium may thus be "viewed
as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling
pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell
division and differentiation."
 Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers
and flowering plants. Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.

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 Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals
Typical size ~ 1–5 µm ~ 10–100 µm
nucleoid region; no
Type of nucleus true nucleus with double membrane
true nucleus
linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone
DNA circular (usually)
proteins
RNA/protein coupled in the RNA synthesis in the nucleus
synthesis cytoplasm protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40S
Cytoplasmic highly structured by endomembranes and a
very few structures
structure cytoskeleton
flagella made of flagella and cilia containing microtubules;
Cell movement
flagellin lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin
Mitochondria none one to several thousand
Chloroplasts none in algae and higher plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms
Organization usually single cells
with specialized cells
binary fission (simple mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division
division) meiosis
Chromosomes single chromosome more than one chromosome
Membranes cell membrane Cell membrane and membrane-bound organelles

Subcellular components
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates
what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell.
Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume. All cells (except red blood
cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for
hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the informa tio n
necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also
other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary cellular components, then
briefly describes their function.
Membrane: The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds
the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while
in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and
protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of
phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer
is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this

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membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move differe nt
molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable,
in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited
extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow
cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.
Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles
in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth
and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filame nts
and microtubules. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a
cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less
well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. The subunit
protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called. The subunit of microtubules is a
dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary
among the cell types in different tissues. But some of the subunit protein of intermediate filame nts
include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins),
and neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).
Genetic material: Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biologica l
information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for informa tio n
transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation. Prokaryotic genetic material is
organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside
a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochond r ia
and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the
mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear
DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of
sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear
DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes
for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs. Foreign genetic
material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called
transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it
is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.
Organelles
Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more
vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney,
with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have
organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound. There
are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically
solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be

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numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and
surrounds the organelles.
Eukaryotic
Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found
in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA
replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from
the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates
and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or
interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA,
called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is
translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus
where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: generate energy for the cell. Mitochondria are self-
replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of
all eukaryotic cells. Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's
energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular
nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by
binary fission, like prokaryotes. Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and
they capture the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for
molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to
molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which
has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which
lacks ribosomes. The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release.
 Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package
the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases).
They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house
these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.
 Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organizer: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a
cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the
Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell
division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in
the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
 Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water. They are often
described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most
notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there
is too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those
of animal cells.

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Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
 Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each
consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used
to synthesized proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or
bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell
membrane in prokaryotes).
Structures outside the cell membrane
Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These
structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the
semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be
carried across the cell membrane by export processes.
Cell wall: Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to
protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of
protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of differe nt
materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin
and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.
Prokaryotic
Capsule: A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall.
The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus
anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining
protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between
the cells for observation.
Flagella: Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from
cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and
thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea
and a different type is found in eukaryotes.
Fimbria: A fimbria also known as a pilus is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface