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8 views

Biobp

Uploaded by

navya.si897
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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HISTORY

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (/diːˈɒksɪˌraɪboʊnjuːˌkliːɪk, -ˌkleɪ-/ ⓘ;
[1]
DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains
that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer
carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning,
growth and reproduction of all known organisms and
many viruses.
The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are
composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides.[2]
[3]
Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-
containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A]
or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate
group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain
by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage)
between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the
next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.
The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide
strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A
with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-
stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are
divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the
double-ringed purines. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and
cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.
Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological
information. This information is replicated when the two strands
separate.
Dna fingerprinting
Pg 336

HISTORY
In the year 1935 Andrei Nikolaevitch Belozersky
was able to isolate DNA in its pure form and in
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick explained
double helical structure of DNA. Later in the year
1966, Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Mathaei, and
Severo Ochoa demonstrated and explained about
the genetic codes in the DNA which consisted of
three nucleotide base each of 20 amino acids.
These were among the most important events
before the invention of DNA fingerprinting which
have contributed a lot in finding a DNA profile.
Following are some of the most important events
in the DNA fingerprinting history.

✪ The history begins with the invention of this


technique. Dr. Alec J. Jeffreys in 1984 found out
that there is a repeating sequences in the DNA
known as VNTRs (variable number of tandem
repeats) which can be seen as the bar code in the
X-ray pictures. These sequences were unique and
even a small part of these codes was enough to
determine the identity of an individual.

✪ Firstly DNA fingerprinting was used in the


immigration case. It helped in finding out the
relation between the immigrants with the people
they claim as their close relatives. It was a great
success and was a great event in the history of
DNA profiling.

✪ In 1986, DNA fingerprinting was used in the


criminal case for the first time. At that time,
Richard Buckland was accused for the rape and
murder of two young school girls. The DNA test
was found negative when the semen sample
collected from the two girls did not match with the
accuse’s. He was the first person to be found
innocent with the help of DNA fingerprinting.
Principal pg-338
Technique pg-339
Applications of DNA Fingerprinting
 DNA Fingerprinting is used by scientists to

distinguish between individuals of the same


species using only samples of their DNA. It is
a primary method for identifying an
individual.
1. Forensic Science:
Biological materials used for DNA profiling are:
Blood, Hair, Saliva, Semen, Body tissue cells etc.
DNA isolated from the evidence sample can be
compared through VNTR (Variable number of
tandem repeats) prototype. It is useful in solving
crimes like murder and rape.
2. Paternity and Maternity Determination:
A Person accedes to his or her VNTRs from his or
her parents. Parent-child VNTR prototype analysis
has been used to solve disputed cases. This
information can also be used in inheritance cases,
immigration cases.
3. Personal Identification:
It utilizes the concept of using DNA fingerprints as
a sort of genetic bar code to pinpoint individuals.
4. Diagnosis of Inherited Disorders:
It is also useful in diagnosing inherited disorders in
both prenatal and new-born babies. These
disorders may include cystic fibrosis, haemophilia,
Huntington’s disease, familial Alzheimer’s, sickle
cell anaemia, thalassemia, and many others.
5. Development of Cures for Inherited
Disorders:
By studying the DNA fingerprints of relatives who
have a history of some particular disorder, DNA
prototypes associated with the disease can be
ascertained.
6. Detection of AIDS:
By comparing the band of HIV “RNA” (converted to
DNA using RTPCR) with the bands form by the
man’s blood, person suffering with AIDS can be
identified.
7. Breeding Program:
Breeders conventionally use the phenotype to
evaluate the genotype of a plant or an animal.As it
is difficult to make out homozygous or
heterozygous dominance from appearance, the
DNA fingerprinting allows a fastidious and precise
determination of genotype. It is basically useful in
breeding race horses and hunting dogs.
The 1989 murder of a 14-year-old girl in Las Vegas
has been solved by using what experts say is the
smallest-ever amount of human DNA to crack a case.2
Stephanie Isaacson's murder case had
gone cold until new technology made it
possible to test what little remained of
the suspect's DNA: the equivalent of just
15 human cells.
Police on Wednesday said they had
identified the suspect by using genome
sequencing and public genealogy data.
Her alleged killer died in 1995.
"I'm glad they found who murdered my
daughter," Stephanie's mother wrote in a
statement that was read to reporters at
Wednesday's news conference.
"I never believed the case would be
solved."
Thirty-two years ago, Stephanie's body
was found near the route she normally
walked to school in Las Vegas, Nevada.
She had been assaulted and strangled.
This year, police were able to pick up the
case again after a donation from a local
resident. They turned over the DNA
samples left to Othram, a Texas-based
genome-sequencing lab that specialises
in cold cases.
Typical consumer DNA testing kits
collect about 750 to 1,000 nanograms of
DNA in a sample. These samples are
uploaded to public websites specialising
in ancestry or health.
But crime scenes may only contain tens
to hundreds of nanograms of DNA. And in
this case, only 0.12 nanograms - or about
15 cells' worth - were available for
testing.
Using ancestry databases the
researchers were able to identify the
suspect's cousin. Eventually they
matched the DNA to Darren Roy
Marchand.
Marchand's DNA from a previous 1986
murder case was still on record, and was
used to confirm the match.
He was never convicted and died by
suicide in 1995.
The genomic technology used to solve
the case is the same that was used to
catch the notorious Golden State Killer
in 2018.
"This was a huge milestone," Othram
chief executive David Mittelman told the
BBC.
"When you can access information from
such a small amount of DNA, it really
opens up the opportunity to so many
other cases that have been historically
considered cold and unsolvable."
The company is currently working on
cases dating back as far as 1881.

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