EDUCATIONAL ROBOTICS

The robotic
What is robotics
What is a robot
Robot types
The future of robots
Robot Applications
Educational robotics
Didactic unit

Electricity and electronic

Voltage, Current and Power AC alternating current and DC direct
current The tester or multimeter
The breadboard or breadboard
The electrical resistance
The LED diode
Series, parallel and compound circuits Electronic components
Didactic unit

Parts of a Robot
Power or energy sources
Structure or chassis
The actuators
the sensors
Programming and the robot brain
Didactic unit

Introduction to graphical programming of Robots.

Algorithms
Robot graphic programming flowcharts
Didactic unit

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Design, construction and programming of a teaching robot
Control system or CPU of the robot (Penguin Module)
Display system (LED module)
Example 1 of programming and connection of the modules
Sound system (buzzer module)
Example 2 of programming and connection of the modules
Locomotion system (engine module) construction of the chassis or structure
Example 3 programming and connection of the modules
Sensor system (sensor module) touch sensors
Example 4 programming and connection of the Light sensor modules
(light module)
Example 5 programming and connection of the Infrared sensor modules
(IR module)
Example 6 programming and connection of the modules

Final project of the course.

Problem statement:
Final Report recommendations

THE ROBOTIC

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WHAT IS ROBOTICS
The term "Robotics" was coined by Isaac Asimov to describe robot technology. He himself
predicted years ago the rise of a powerful robotics industry, a prediction that has now come
true. Recently there has been an explosion in the development and industrial use of robots such
that it has reached the point of speaking of the "robot revolution" and the "age of robots."

Robotics is defined according to the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language as follows:
Technique that applies computing to the design and use of devices that, instead of people,
perform tasks or jobs, generally in industrial facilities.

Defining robotics as the science and technology of robots, robotics combines various disciplines
such as: mechanics, electronics, computing, mathematics, physics, artificial intelligence and
control engineering, to carry out the design, construction and programming of robot
applications.

WHAT IS A ROBOT
The word robot was used for the first time in 1921, when the Czech writer Karel Capek (1890 -
1938) premiered his work Rossum's Universal Robot (RUR) at the National Theater in Prague. Its
origin is from the Slavic word robota , which refers to work performed in a forced manner. The
plot was simple: the man makes a robot, then the robot kills the man. (see fundamental laws of
robotics)

figure 1: android robots: in many cases they are the first images
What comes to mind when we talk about robots

Most Robotics experts will affirm that it is difficult to give a universally accepted definition. The
definitions are as disparate as is demonstrated in the following relationship:
○ Electronically controlled mechanical device, capable of moving and executing
Automatic various actions, following an established program.
○ Machine that in appearance or behavior imitates people or their actions, such as, for
example, the movement of its limbs
○ A robot is a machine that does something automatically in response to its environment.

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 ○ A robot is a handful of motors controlled by a computer program.
○ A robot is a computer with muscles.

SOME TYPES OF ROBOT

From a very general point of view, robots can be of the following types:

Androids
Androids are gadgets that look and act like human beings.

Figure 2: Android Robot

Mobiles
Mobile robots are equipped with legs, wheels or tracks that enable them to move according
to their programming.

Figure 3: Mobile robot

Industrial
Industrial robots are mechanical and electronic devices designed to automatically carry out
certain manufacturing or handling processes.

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 Figure 4: Industrial robot

Doctors
Medical robots are, fundamentally, prostheses for physically disabled people that adapt to
the body and are equipped with powerful control systems.

Figure 5: Medical robot

Polyarticulated
Under this group are robots of very diverse shapes and configurations whose common
characteristic is that they are basically sedentary and have many joints.

Figure 6: Polyarticulated robot

Zoomorphic
Zoomorphic robots, which considered in a non-restrictive sense could also include androids,
constitute a class characterized mainly by their control systems.

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 locomotion that imitate various living beings.

Figure 7 Zoomorphic robot

Hybrids
These robots correspond to those that are difficult to classify whose structure is located in
combination with any of the previous ones already exposed.

Figure 8: Hybrid Robots

In our environment there are many types of robots, most can be classified as static, some of
them we can mention: ATMs, Traffic lights, surveillance cameras, etc.

THE FUTURE OF ROBOTS

In Isaac Asimov's robot stories, he envisions a future world in which safety rules exist so that
robots cannot be harmful to human beings. For this reason Asimov proposed the following three
laws of robotics :

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 1st.- A robot cannot harm a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
be harmed.

2nd.- A robot must obey the orders given by human beings, except when such orders are
against the first law.

3rd.- A robot must protect its own existence as long as this protection does not conflict
with the first and second law.

Without reaching science fiction, for now we would like robots to have the following
characteristics:

• Self-employed, who could carry out their task independently.

• Reliable, who always carried out their task in the expected way.
• Versatile, they could be used for various tasks without the need for modifications to
their control.

ROBOTS APPLICATIONS
• In industry they are used to do dangerous jobs such as arc welding, spot welding or the
implementation of harmful inhalant substances. They are also used for spray paint
application, heavy transport, material grinding or plastic molding.

• In medical laboratories they are used to perform repetitive tasks of measuring weight,
amount of matter, pH, etc. Robots have three advantages over human work: greater
productivity, greater quality control and reduction of human exposure to harmful
substances.

• In agriculture they are used to spy on sheep, others to cut pigs.

• In space research activity, robots have been and are used, the information collected
from the planets with unmanned probes such as Galileo, which investigated Jupiter;
They are the product of robot measurements, today we have the Curiosity robots,
among others that are currently in some corner of our galaxy.

• In education they are used to teach and bring students into contact with new
technologies.

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EDUCATIONAL ROBOTICS

Educational robotics are the set of pedagogical activities that support and strengthen specific
areas of knowledge and develop skills in the student, through the conception, creation,
assembly and operation of robots.
Educational robotics gives us a creative way to use technology to implement our own creations
and solutions based on our ingenuity and skill; so as not to become only consumers of
technology. It reinforces the vision of using the computer as a tool to solve problems and
supports the promotion of research and self-learning, which are fundamental axes for success in
training.

An important virtue of educational robotics is the possibility of being a support tool to

consolidate knowledge related to different areas of science (Electronics, mathematics, Physics,
Mechanics, etc.).

The teacher is in charge of developing projects and activities that strengthen and reveal the
students' attitudes, knowledge and skills with respect to robotics and related sciences.

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 Electricity and electronic.
THE VOLTAGE
Voltage is the physical quantity that, in an electrical circuit , drives electrons along a conductor.
That is, it conducts electrical energy with greater or lesser power.

Voltage and volt are terms in homage to Alessandro Volta, who in 1800 invented the voltaic cell
and the first chemical battery.

Voltage is a synonym for tension and potential difference. In other words, voltage is the work
per unit charge exerted by the electric field on a particle to move it from one place to another.
In the International System of Units, this potential difference is measured in volts (V), and this
determines the categorization into “low” or “high voltage.” A volt is the unit of electric
potential, electromotive force and voltage. Some common voltages are that of a neuron (75
mV), a non-rechargeable alkaline battery (1.5 V), a rechargeable lithium battery (3.75 V), an
automobile electrical system (12 V), electricity in a house (120 in El Salvador and North America
and 220 in some countries in South America), the rail of a train (600 to 700 V), a high-voltage
electricity transmission network (110 kV) and a lightning bolt (100 MV ).

THE CURRENT
Current or electrical intensity is the flow of charge per unit of time that a material travels
through. It is due to the movement of electrons inside the material. In the International System
of Units it is expressed in C/s ( coulombs per second ), a unit called Ampere (A).
An electric current, since it is a movement of charges, produces a magnetic field , a
phenomenon that can be used in the electromagnet .

The instrument used to measure the intensity of the electric current is the ammeter , placed in
series with the conductor whose intensity is to be measured.

THE ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical power is the rate of energy passage of a flow per unit of time; That is, the amount of
energy delivered or absorbed by an element in a given time. The unit in the International
System of Units is the watt .
When an electric current flows in a circuit, it can transfer energy by doing mechanical or
thermodynamic workhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabajo_(f%c3%adsica) .

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WHAT IS AC ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DC DIRECT CURRENT?

DC direct current is a form of constant electricity , for example when we connect a 1 battery.
5V, all the time the positive terminal will give us 1.5V.
While AC alternating current is a form of electricity that varies over time, as an example, the
wall outlet can deliver 110 V at 60 Hz in some places, which means that the voltage at one
terminal will rise and fall from - 110V to +110 V 60 times in every second, therefore the two pins
of our plug will continue to alternate voltage values and it will not matter which direction we
connect it.

What uses DC and what uses AC?

Figure 10: Graphic diagram of two bulbs connected AC and DC voltage

In many electrical machines you can find both DC and AC versions, choosing the version
depending on the specific advantages and needs without generating any inconvenience, but due
to the increase in the use of electronics and semiconductors (PC's, chips, etc.) its need to use a
nearly constant current the use of direct current has increased

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The tester or multimeter
A multimeter , also called a multimeter , 1 tester or multitester , is a portable electrical
instrument to directly measure active electrical magnitudes such as currents and potentials
(voltages) or passive ones such as resistances , capacities and others. Measurements can be
made for direct or alternating current and in various measurement ranges each. There are
analog ones and later digital ones have been introduced whose function is the same (with some
added variants).

Use of the tester or multimeter

The tester has a knob that allows us to select the type of measurement we want to perform. We
can divide this into zones as shown in the following image:

Figure 11: Tester or digital multimeter

THE PROTOBOARD

The breadboard is a device widely used to test electronic circuits. It has the advantage that it
allows you to easily assemble a circuit, without the need to solder.
If the circuit under test does not work satisfactorily, it can be modified without affecting the
elements that make it up.
The breadboard has a large number of holes where the terminals of the elements that make up
the circuit can be easily inserted. Almost any type of electronic component can be connected,
including different sizes of integrated circuits.

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 figure 12: Bredboard or breadboard

The only elements that cannot be connected to the breadboard are elements that have very
thick terminals. These elements are normally connected without problems externally with the
help of cables or "lizards".

Figure x shows a typical breadboard .

Some of these holes are joined in a standardized way that allows easy connection of the
elements of the circuit to be assembled.
In the second diagram you can see that there are some connecting "tracks" (The "tracks" are
located under the white plate).
These "tracks" are horizontal at the top and bottom of the breadboard and are vertical in the
central part of it.
Note: The "tracks" mentioned are flexible metal strips made of beridium-copper

Figure 13: Internal connection of a bredboard

The upper and lower horizontal "tracks" are normally used to connect the
http://www.unicrom.com/Tut_fuentepoder.asppower supply and ground, and are called "Buses"
The integrated circuits are placed in the central part of the breadboard with one row of legs at
the top of the central channel and the other row at the bottom of it. It can be easily seen that
the pins of the integrated circuit connect to a different vertical track.
To make connections, small connector cables of different colors are used between the legs of

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the components.

The electrical resistance

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of current .
Discovered by Georg Ohm in 1827, electrical resistance has a conceptual resemblance to friction
in mechanical physics. The unit of resistance in the International System of Units is the ohm (
Ω ). To measure it in practice there are various methods, among which is the use of an
ohmmeter (TESTER).

An equation to determine the resistance is given by:

R = V/I Resistance(R) is equal to voltage(V) divided by current(I)

This equation is known as Ohm's law.

Another method to determine the value of a resistor is by color coding.

Colored bands are painted on these resistors. Each color represents a number that is used
to obtain the final value of the resistor .
The first two bands indicate the first two figures of the resistor value, the third

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 band indicates how many zeros must be increased to the previous value to obtain the final
value of the resistor .

Figure 14. Color code for resistors

Example: If a resistor has the following color bands:

red yellow green gold

2 4 00000 5%
- The resistor has a value of 2400,000 Ohms +/- 5%

- The maximum value of this resistor is: 25200.000 Ω

- The minimum value of this resistor is: 22800.000 Ω

- The resistor can have any value between the calculated maximum and
minimum.

The colors of the resistor bands do not indicate the power it can dissipate, but the size of
the resistor gives an idea of the maximum dissipation it can have.
Commercial resistors dissipate 1/4 watt, 1/2 watt, 1 watt, 2 watts, etc.
The larger the resistor, the more power (heat) dissipation.

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The LED diode

Figure 15. LEDs of different colors

An LED, short for Light-Emitting Diode, is a semiconductor device (diode) that emits quasi-
monochromatic light , that is, with a very narrow spectrum, when it is directly polarized and
crossed by an electric current. The color (wavelength) depends on the semiconductor material
used in the construction of the diode, and can vary from ultraviolet, passing through the visible
light spectrum, to infrared, the latter receiving the name IRED (Infra-Red Emitting). Diode).

The physical operation consists of an electron passing from the conduction band to the valence
band, losing energy. This energy manifests itself in the form of an emitted photon, with a
random amplitude, direction and phase.

Symbolic representation of the LED diode

Figure 16. Scheme and image of an LED diode

The semiconductor device is commonly encapsulated in a plastic casing of greater resistance
than the glass casing usually used in incandescent lamps. Although the plastic can be colored, it
is only for aesthetic reasons, since this does not influence the color of the light emitted. Usually
an LED is a light source composed of different parts, which is why the intensity pattern of the
emitted light can be quite complex.

To obtain a good light intensity, the current that passes through the LED must be chosen well;

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The operating voltage ranges from approximately 1.5 to 2.2 volts, and the range of intensities
that must flow through it goes from 10 to 20 mA for the red diodes, and from 20 to 40 mA for
the other LEDs.

The first LED that emitted in the visible spectrum was developed by General Electric engineer
Nick Holonyak in 1962.

Calculation of the limiting resistance of the LED diodes.

RESISTANCE _ BATTERY VOLTAGE -LED VOLTAGE

LIMITER LED CURRENT

Series, parallel and compound circuits.

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 Figure 18. A) series circuit, b) Parallel circuit c) Mixed circuit.

Figure 19. A) Direct connection of one LED, B) Direct connection of several LEDs in series,
C) Connection of several LEDs in parallel and directly

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Typical electronic components used in robotics

Figure 20. Image with various electronic components

An electronic component is a device that is part of an electronic circuit . It is usually encapsulated ,

generally in a ceramic , metal or plastic material, and ends in two or more terminals or metal pins.
They are designed to be connected together, normally by welding, to a printed circuit , to form the
aforementioned circuit.
We must differentiate between components and elements. Components are physical devices, while
elements are models or idealized abstractions that constitute the basis for the theoretical study of
the aforementioned components. Thus, the components appear in a list of devices that form a
circuit, while the elements appear in the mathematical developments of circuit theory .

Classification

Depending on the criteria chosen, we can obtain different classifications. The most commonly
accepted ones are detailed below.

1. According to its physical structure

• Discrete : they are those that are encapsulated one by one, such as resistors ,
capacitors , diodes , transistors , etc.

• Integrated : they form more complex assemblies, such as an operational amplifier or a

logic gate , which can contain from a few discrete components to millions of them.

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 They are called integrated circuits .

2. Depending on the base manufacturing material.

• Semiconductors.
• Non-semiconductors .

3. According to its operation.

• Active : provide electrical excitation, gain or control.
• Passive : they are responsible for the connection between the different active
components, ensuring the transmission of electrical signals or modifying their level.

4. Depending on the type of energy.

• Electromagnetic : those that take advantage of the electromagnetic properties of
materials (mainly transformers and inductors ).
• Electroacoustic : they transform acoustic energy into electrical energy and vice versa (
microphones, speakers , horns , headphones, etc.).
• Optoelectronics : transform light energy into electrical energy and vice versa ( LED
diodes, photoelectric cells , etc.).

Semiconductor components

A semiconductor is a substance that behaves as a conductor or as an insulator depending on the

temperature of the environment in which it is located.

Active components
Active components are those that are capable of exciting the circuits or achieving gains or control
thereof. They are mainly electric generators and certain semiconductor components. The latter, in
general, have a non-linear behavior, that is, the relationship between the applied voltage and the
demanded current is not linear.
Currently there is a large number of active components, and it is common for an electronic system
to be designed from one or several active components whose characteristics will condition it. This is
not the case with passive components.

Passive components
They are those that do not need a power source for their correct operation. They do not have the
ability to control the current in a circuit. The passive components are divided into:

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Linear passive components:
Capacitor , Inductor or Coil, Resistor or Resistance. Switches , fuses and connectors also belong to
this group.

Optoelectronic components

Optoelectronic components are those that transform light energy into electrical energy, called
photosensitive , or electrical energy into light, called electroluminescent .

Below is a table with electronic components

Scheme Image Description

Yo Resistance, it has two terminals without polarity.

--
M
Ceramic or Non-Polarized Capacitor. It has two
terminals and no polarity.

Electrolytic or Tantalum Capacitor. It has two

i _p ।
terminals and polarity. The encompassing terminal
--
is the negative one, while the small central one is
the positive one.

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 Talking. It has two contacts, with polarity. The
positive is usually marked in red or with a (+) sign
while the negative is in black or with a (-) sign.
•

%
1- LED diode. It normally has two contacts. It has
polarity although like any diode it is called anode
and cathode. The cathode must go to the positive
and the anode to the negative for the LED to
illuminate.

Switch. It has only two terminals without polarity.

Variable Resistor, Potentiometer or Trimpot. It has

•
Yo three terminals, two of which are the ends of the
resistor and the central one is the cursor that
moves along it. In potentiometers they are usually
T in that order, while in trimpots it varies depending
on their type.

a
Battery. It has two terminals. The positive is
indicated with a sign (+), the one left unindicated is
_ the negative. Although at first glance the largest
plate is the positive and the small one is the
negative.

n
2
1
3
3
Triac. It has three terminals. Two are where the
current passes (AC). These have no polarity. The
remaining one is the control one. Its position and
encapsulation varies depending on the device.

Thyristor. It is usually called a controlled diode.

$
g8 Its terminals are anode, cathode and gate. Its
capsule and pinout changes depending on the
component.

Diode. It has two terminals, with polarity. One is

T
- the anode and is usually represented in the
package by a ring. The other is the cathode.

Zenner diode. Same as previous.

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Transformer. The number of terminals varies

g
depending on how many windings and sockets it
has. There are at least three for autotransformers
and four or more for transformers. They do not
have polarity although they do have magnetic
orientation of the windings.

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 PNP Bipolar Transistor. It has three terminals. One is the base,

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which appears on the left, alone. Another is the emitter, which
appears on the right, above, with an arrow towards the center.
The last one is the collector, which appears on the right, below.

NPN Bipolar Transistor. The base is alone on the left side. The

—6 emitter is on the right side downwards with an arrow, but in

n
this case facing outwards. The collector is on the upper right
side.

<
HDH Quartz crystal. It has two terminals without polarity.

11 Grounding and mass, respectively.

D- •
Operational Amplifier. It basically has three terminals. Two
inputs, one of which is inverting (marked with a -) and the other
is non-inverting (marked with a +). The third is exit. Additionally,
it has two power terminals and may have other connections to,
for example, manage gain.

Yo 2
Coil or inductor over air. It has two terminals that have no
polarity. It is armed in the air, without a core. It may have
intermediate windings.

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Relay. It has at least four terminals. Two of them are to control
the coil that moves the key. The other two (or more) are from
the key itself.

■
Piezzo player or buzzer. It has two terminals. It has no polarity.

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 an
Fuse. It has two terminals and has no polarity.

d
7 segment display. Generally, in LEDs, each segment is
TO represented by a letter. The decimal point is considered a
separate segment. They have nine or more contacts, depending
F I.B. on the manufacturer. There is nothing standard about these
g
displays so it is necessary to consult the data sheet for each
AND c particular device.
=D-"ado

Engine. It has two contacts unless otherwise indicated on the

4 circuit. When they are alternating, they do not have polarity.
When they are continuous, the polarity is indicated with a + and
•8.

a-
\.

V\
*

Opto coupler with Darlington transistor. It generally has five

connections even if the capsule is a 6-pin DIL. Two are for the
g $ control LED and three are for the darlington transistor.

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Parts of a robot

• The energy sources

• The structure or chassis
• The actuators
• The sensors
• Intelligence (Programming)

PROGRAMMING

The energy sources

Commonly called power sources, we will generally use batteries. These provide the electrical energy
necessary to generate movement through DC motors and for the operation of electrical circuits.

The structure or chassis

It is the skeleton or chassis of the robot. It shapes and supports the rest of the parts that make up the
robot. The materials used are very varied and the shape depends on the imagination and functionality
that the manufacturer will give to its robot.

In this book, emphasis is placed on the use of recycled materials since they are easy to find,
economical, and generate in the student the habit of caring for nature and the environment.

The chassis can have varied geometric shapes, specially built and/or made by the student himself.

The actuators
They are the elements that allow the robot's actions to be controlled; these can be arms, legs,
wheels, or any system that comes into contact with the environment to manipulate or transform it.

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These devices that allow the robot to modify and interact with the environment. They are also the
elements that serve to transmit movement between its parts.
Turning and displacement movements, for example, are carried out with gears, pulleys, belts,
wheels, etc.

figure x. Pulleys and gears

N1 and N2 speeds
D1 and D2 Diameters

DC motor is an actuator commonly used to convert electrical energy into mechanical (motion) .

There are two main types of movement:

• Locomotion: change the position of the robot.
• Manipulation: moving objects.

The sensors

They are electronic elements that provide information to the robot so that it can know the situation
in the environment. These allow the robot to perceive the environment and its state
There are many sensors, among them we can mention touch sensors, light sensors, ultrasound
sensors, temperature sensors, humidity sensors, etc.

Programming and the robot brain

Generally, the brain of a robot is made up of integrated circuits such as microcontrollers,

memories and other control elements, which can be programmed by the robot manufacturer.
There are numerous languages for programming robots Basic, C/C++, Assembly, all of which have
the purpose of telling the robot how to function or how to interact with its environment, helping it
make decisions and carry out coordinated and/or repetitive intelligent activities.
Robots can be programmed through textual commands, or graphically, among others.

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Graphical programming will be used in this book to facilitate students' understanding and
introduce them to textual programming of robots with C/C++.

The program (software) tells the automaton what to do. There are several programming
languages. C/C++,Assembler, etc.

Introduction to graphical robot programming

Algorithm.
It is a method for solving a problem through a series of precise, defined and finite steps. An
algorithm is a series of detailed operations, in other words an algorithm is a set of rules for solving
a certain class of problems and can be formulated in many ways with care that there is no
ambiguity.

Characteristics
• Precise (it must indicate the order of completion in each step and cannot be ambiguous).
• Defined (if followed twice, you get the same result each time)
• Finite (has an end; a certain number of steps).
• It should be simple, readable.
• Modular.

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 • Efficient and Effective.
• It must be developed in the shortest possible time .
• Correct.
• Every Algorithm must have zero or more inputs.
• It must have at least one output and it must be tangible.

Basic example of a basic algorithm for talking on a landline.

Figure x. Algorithm for calling by phone

flowcharts

THE Flowchart or Flow Diagram consists of graphically representing events, situations, movements
or relationships of all kinds, by means of symbols.

Below are their characteristics, types, symbols, design and elaboration.

Depending on its format or purpose, it may contain additional information about the method of
execution of the operations, the itinerary, the forms, the distance traveled, the time spent, etc. It
is important as it helps to designate any graphical representation of a procedure or part of it.

The flow chart helps the programmer to understand the information system according to the
procedural operations included, it will help him to analyze these stages, in order to improve them.

• Conversions (Symbols)
A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm or a part of it. Flowcharts help in

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understanding the operation of control structures.

The advantage of using an algorithm is that it can be built independently of a programming

language, since when it is put into code it can be done in any language.

These diagrams are constructed using certain special use symbols such as rectangles, diamonds,
ovals, and small circles, these symbols are connected to each other by arrows, known as flow lines
. These symbols will be detailed below.

Name Symbol Function

Terminal It represents the beginning and
end of a program. It can also

()
represent a scheduled stop or
interruption that needs to be
made to a program.
Entrance exit Any type of data entry into

Yo
memory from peripherals or
registration of information
processed in a peripheral.

Process Any type of operation that may

cause a change in value,

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 format or position of the
information stored in memory,
arithmetic operations,
transformations, etc.

Decision Indicates logical or comparison

operations between data
(normally two) and depending on

< the result of the same it

determines (normally yes and no)
which of the different alternative
paths of the program should be
followed
Same Page Connector It is used to link any two parts of a
diagram through a connector at

either the output and another connector

at the input. Refers to the
connection on the same page of
the diagram
Direction indicator or line of flow Indicates the direction of

Exit
------• execution of operations
It is sometimes used in place of
the exit symbol. The drawing
represent a bit of a leaf. It is used
to display data or results.

Characteristics

• Synthetic: The representation made of a system or a process should be summarized in a few sheets,
preferably in one. Extensive diagrams make it difficult to understand and assimilate, therefore they
are no longer practical.
• Symbolized: The application of appropriate symbology to system and procedure diagrams prevents
analysts from excessive, repetitive and confusing annotations in their interpretation.
• Visibly to a system or process: Diagrams allow us to observe all the steps of a system or process
without having to read extensive notes.
• Allow the analyst to ensure that he has developed all aspects of the procedure.
• Provide the basis for writing a clear and logical report.

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• It is a means of establishing a liaison with the personnel who will eventually operate the new
procedure.
• Comprehension and interpretation, it allows you to simplify your understanding.
• Diagramming, it is prepared quickly and does not require sophisticated resources.

How is built

• It must clearly indicate where the diagram begins and where it ends .
• Any path in the diagram must always take you to the final terminal.
• Arrange the symbols in such a way that they visually follow the flow from top to bottom and from left
to right.
• Do not use programming lenguague inside of symbol.
• Center the diagram on the page.
• The lines must be vertical or horizontal, never diagonal.
• Do not cross the flow lines using the appropriate connectors without excessive use of them.
• Do not break up the diagram with excessive use of connectors.
• Only a single flow line should reach a symbol. But many flow lines can reach other lines.
• Flow lines must enter a symbol from the top and/or left and exit it from the bottom and/or right.
• Prevent the diagram from exceeding one page; If this is not possible, list and use the corresponding
connectors.
• Use positive logic, that is, carry out processes when the condition is true and express the conditions
clearly.
• Comment in the margin only when necessary.

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Programming
A programming language is an artificial language designed to express processes that can be
carried out by machines such as computers . They can be used to create programs that control the
physical and logical behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human
communication. It is made up of a set of symbols and syntactic and semantic rules that define its
structure and the meaning of its elements and expressions. The process by which the source code
of a computer program is written, tested , debugged , compiled and maintained is called
programming .

The word programming is also defined as the process of creating a computer program , through
the application of logical procedures, through the following steps:

• The logical development of the program to solve a particular problem.

• Writing program logic using a specific programming language (program coding).
• Assembly or compilation of the program until it becomes machine language.

• Testing and debugging the program .

• Documentation development.

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Languages can be classified by

• low level language (assembly)

• high level language (C/ C++, Python)
• highest level language (graphical programming, PYM_BLOCK)

Graphic programming.

Its main objective is to facilitate the learning of programming physical devices (robots or physical
computing platforms, such as Pinguino). It allows the user to create their own programs to be
executed on the aforementioned platforms, without writing code.
This environment is used in several countries in primary and secondary education to teach
technology, robotics and for the transversal application of technological teaching.

The following image shows the graphical programming environment that will be used in this book
to program educational robots. Its name is PYM_BLOCK, this is a graphical programming
environment, in which the user, using blocks, creates the instructions that the automaton (robot)
will carry out.

Its use and application will be explained as the chapter progresses through simple examples of use
and application to robotics.

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Design, construction and programming of an educational robot.
In order to properly design a robot we must be clear about some characteristics that it will have.

• Control system or CPU of the robot (brain or control system)

• Display system (Actuators)
• Sound system (Actuator)
• Locomotion system. (Actuators)
• DC motor control circuit
• Sensor systems (Sensors)
• Chassis or structure

Control system or CPU of the robot (brain or control system)

The part in charge of processing the information from the sensors, making decisions and
controlling the actuators is the CPU or brain of the robot.
In this book we will analyze the control module called Pinguino which was developed by the
Robotics and Home Automation Association of Spain (ARDE). The design of this module was born
with the idea of being able to make a powerful control device at low cost.

This module is mainly composed of a microcontroller from Microchip, the name of this integrated
circuit is the PIC18F4550, although there are designs with other microcontrollers such as the
PIC18F2520 among others.

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This device has several pins/sockets that can be used as inputs or outputs, all of them can be used
as digital outputs, while some can be used as analog inputs.

Among the outputs are two PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) digital outputs that can be used to
control the speed of the DC motors, or to generate some tones with the buzzer (sound system).

The analog inputs can be used to sense the voltage signals coming from the light sensors, the
digital outputs can be used to control any type of actuator module.

The penguin module has a USB interface to be connected directly to the computer and
programmed using PYM_BLOCK graphical programming software. The power supply is obtained
through the USB cable, although it can also be powered by an external power source.

The following image details the distribution of the pins, and also shows the names of the parts
that make up the penguin module.

ICSP BUS

PIC18F4550-1/P
Microchip

000OOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO

Pins/socket Digital Analog

00 to 06 Entry or Exit Tickets

07 to 22 Entry or Exit ---------------

16 and 17 PWM outputs ------------------------

Display system (Actuators)

The display system will be in charge of showing the state in which our robot is, in this case 4 LED
diodes will be used as shown in the following figure.

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The connection of these LEDs is direct polarization, each of these is activated when 5v or a logic
1 is assigned to the positive terminal.

The function of these will be to show the states or actions that it will perform, for example one
LED will indicate that the robot is on or off, another can indicate a right turn, another a left turn
and the other that it is walking forward.

Example No_1

As a first example of robot programming we will turn on the LEDs of the previous module, for this
it will be necessary to have the following PYM_BLOCK software installed.

Step 1: Connect the modules as shown in the following figure. (respect each of the connections
because if you don't the example will not work)

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Step 2: Connect the penguin module to the PC using the USB cable.

Step 3: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to
Turn the LEDs on and off.

Step 4: Draw another diagram, try generating another sequence of turning the LEDs on and off.

Sound system (Actuator)

The sound system will be made up of a buzzer circuit like the one shown below,

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The buzzer serves to provide our robot with a sound system, which emits a tone depending on
the frequency of the square DC voltage signal at 5V that is provided.

Exit

Example No_2

Step 1: Connect the modules as shown in the following figure. (respect each of the connections
because if you don't the example will not work)

Step 2: Connect the penguin module to the PC using the USB cable.

Step 3: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to do the following.

1. Turn on led 1 and 2

2. Generate a tone
Turn on led 3 and 4

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.
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4. Generate another tone
5. Turn off the LEDs
6. Repeat everything 10 times

Step 4: Draw another diagram, try generating another sequence of turning on and off the
leds and other tones

Locomotion system. (Actuators)

We will start by designing the traction system which will consist of two motors with their
respective tires and a third tire which will be idler.

The drawing of a DC motor is shown in the following image

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Direct current motors , also known as DC motors, work or are powered by direct current such
as that supplied by cells or batteries.

In robotics, direct current motors are frequently used due to the ease of controlling them and
their easy interconnection.

DC motors are commonly used in:

• Variable speed applications . The DC motor is powered by a variable voltage source.
• Applications requiring position control To measure position, the motor has a position sensor

The engines have specifications that must be taken into account when purchasing them. Among
the most important characteristics are: supply voltage, current, torque and speed.

• Voltage refers to the electrical energy necessary to move the motor. Small motors generally
operate in a range of 1.6 to 12 volts. It is important to know the operating voltage of the
motor. If a very low voltage is applied, the motor will not move, but if a voltage higher than
the specified voltage is applied, it will generate heat in the motor that will cause permanent
damage.

• Current: indicates the amount of current that the motor requires from the power supply for
its operation, the current that the motor needs depends on the load applied to it.
• The speed of rotation refers to the number of revolutions made by the motor shaft in a
certain time interval. If measured in rpm (revolutions per minute), the number of
revolutions made by the motor shaft in one minute is counted. The rotation speed depends

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 on the load applied to the motor.
• Torque indicates the force that a motor can exert to lift or move an object a certain distance.
The greater the torque of the motor, the greater the load it can move.
The disadvantage of DC motors , commonly used in robot construction, is their high rotation
speed (between 2000 and 7000 rpm) and low torque . The problem of torque and speed is
solved by using reduction boxes , which consist of a system of gears connected to the motor
shaft and that allow the rotation speed to be reduced and the motor torque to increase. Many
motors already come with their reduction box and are known as geared motors.

DC motors can change the direction of rotation just by changing the polarity of the voltage
terminals of the power source.

What you have to take into account when selecting tires or wheels is grip, so if you are on a flat
and smooth surface the wheels should not skid, if that happens it will be a headache, you have
to use wheels or tires with a type of flexible rubber or soft rubber.

The tires, motors and gearbox are shown in figure #

The module to control the speed and direction of rotation of each motor is shown in the
following image.

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The module uses an integrated circuit called L293D H-bridge.

This module is controlled by 2 PWM outputs from the penguin module that will control the
speed of each motor, while two other pins will control the direction of rotation of motor 1 and
another two will control the direction of rotation of motor 2, the motors are connected to
terminals m1 and m2 of the control module respectively.

The chassis or structures

In the construction of the robot there is an important part that should not be overlooked and think that
anything would be enough, we refer to the chassis or structure of the robot (robot body).

To design this part of the robot, many factors must be taken into account that will make our automation an
intelligent, versatile and functional machine.
Some characteristics to take into account are the following:
• CHASSIS

• MOTORS (SIZE, WEIGHT, SPEED)

• TIRES (SIZE, TYPE OF MATERIAL)

• IDLER WHEEL (SIZE)

• POWER (BATTERIES, WEIGHT, SIZE)

• CIRCUITRY (POSITION, SIZE, FUNCTIONALITY)

The chassis is the structure intended to provide mobility. For its construction, a resistant material must be
chosen (PVC sheet, acrylic, aluminum, wood, etc.) because it is responsible for supporting robot accessories
such as: battery, control circuit, motors, etc. The design given to the chassis will determine the size of the
robot. Generally, it should not be excessively large or excessively small.

In the case of this book, it will be explained how to build and what material to build the different
parts that make up the body of the robot.

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The material used for the construction of the robot chassis will be PVC sheet, since it has ideal
characteristics for the purpose (hardness, easy to cut, low weight, low cost, etc.) although any
other type of material can be used, especially those Easy to acquire, low cost and recycled, and
we can adapt it to our purposes.

The robotics kits explained in this book include the parts to assemble certain chassis, but it is
up to your discretion whether to assemble them or find other alternative ways to do so (it is
recommended to use recycled materials).

Find the appropriate parts and assemble the chassis shown in the image (if you build it
yourself, take into account the size and weight of the modules and batteries, as well as the
functionality it will give to your robot)

EXAMPLE No. 3

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Step 1: Build or assemble a chassis to mount the modules shown in the image below.

Step 2: Connect and mount the modules shown in the following image on the chassis (respect
each of the connections, otherwise the example will not work), take into account that each of
the modules must be well secured. since the robot begins to have movements

Step 3: Connect the penguin module to PC via USB cable.

Step 4: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to do the following.

1 . Turn on led 1 and 2

2 . Generate a power-on tone
3 . Let it move forward
4 . Make it stop
5 let it go back
6 Let him move to the left and then to the right
7 Have it stop and turn off the LEDs, accompanying them with another tone

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8 that repeats indefinitely from 1 to 7

Step 4: Draw another block diagram and use your imagination to make your automata work.

Sensor systems (Sensors)

As we said, the sensors are responsible for providing information to the robot about the
environment, the sensors can be of various types, in this case we will analyze 3 basically.

1. Touch sensors (switch)

2. LDR light sensors
3. IR infrared sensors

1. Touch sensors (switch)

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This sensor is basically a switch that when pressed generates a logic voltage equal to 0 when it
is not pressed and 1 when it is pressed. This voltage can be used by the robot and its brain to
detect if it has come into contact with a surface.
A practical use could be to design a robot that avoids obstacles and its operation would be
that when it encounters an obstacle the robot is able to avoid it.

EXAMPLE No. 4

Step 1: Use the chassis built in example three, mount and connect the modules as you did in
that example

Step 2: Connect and mount the module shown in the following image on the chassis. If
necessary, build other parts for the chassis or use the ones provided.

Step 3: Connect the penguin module to PC via USB cable.

Step 4: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to do the following.

1. Turn on led 1 and 2

Generate a power-on tone

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.
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3. May it move forward
4. Detect if you have come into contact with any obstacles and avoid them
5 repeat indefinitely from 1 to 4

Step 4: Draw another block diagram and use your imagination to make your automata work.

light sensors

This sensor has three photoresistors called LDR, practically these are resistors that vary their
value depending on the amount of light that falls on them.
The next module is made up of 3 LDRs that, together with a potentiometer, can be configured
to act and work according to the desired lightness or darkness.

For example, when we illuminate an LDR with a hand lamp, it will produce a logic voltage 1, a
logic zero will be generated as long as it is not illuminated directly.

A robot that has this sensor can be directed, for example, using a hand lamp. If we point the
light at the right side, the robot will advance to the right. If we point the light at the left side,
it will turn to the left. If We point towards the center and he will walk forward.

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EXAMPLE No.5

Step 1: Use the chassis built in example three, mount and connect the modules as you did in
that example

Step 2: Connect and mount the module shown in the following image on the chassis
If necessary, build other parts for the chassis or use the ones provided.

Step 3: Connect the penguin module to PC via USB cable.

Step 4: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to do the following.

1 . Turn on led 1,2,3 and 4

2. Generate a power-on tone
3. That remains immobile

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 Direct it by means of a lamp

4.

Step 4: Draw another block diagram and use your imagination to make your automata work.

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infrared sensor

This module is mainly made up of 5 individual infrared sensors, each of which is capable of
providing information to the robot about whether it is on a line or not. These sensors produce
a logic 1 when they are on a black line, they produce a logic 0 when they are not.
One application of this sensor is in line following robots.

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EXAMPLE No.5

Step 1: Use the chassis built in example three, mount and connect the modules as you did in
that example

Step 2: Connect and mount the module shown in the following image on the chassis
If necessary, build other parts for the chassis or use the ones provided.

Step 3: Connect the penguin module to PC via USB cable.

Step 4: Draw the following block diagram and program the penguin module to do the following.

1. . Turn on led 1 and 2

2. Generate a power-on tone
3. Be able to direct yourself along a line drawn on the work table or floor
4. Draw a curved line at your workplace, as shown in the following image.

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Step 4: Draw another block diagram, use your imagination to make your automata work.

TOPIC: Design, construction and programming of an educational robot.

General objective: To know the computer science and programming concepts necessary to
start programming educational robots.

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Issue Goals
Teacher activity Student activities

control system or Technical and

Robot brain detailed
Learn to use the explanation of the
penguin module parts that the
module has, the
Learn about the characteristics
functionalities that and
can be given to configurations.
the penguin
module Show each
student a penguin
Know which module
sockets can be
used as inputs or
outputs, whether Explain what is
analog or digital. input and what is
Know the output, what is
distribution of the analog and what
module's sockets is digital.
and pins.
make some basic
application
example
display system Know the use of
LED diodes in Guide the student
robotics in carrying out the
example of use of
Let them learn to the LED module
program a small
LED sequencer Explain the shape
system of the LED circuit.

Use the Explains the use

PYM_BLOCK and operation of
graphic the PYM_BLOCK
programming software
software
Guide the student
and instruct the
student through
the example of
connection and
programming

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 of the module

sound system Know how to

implement a Gives examples of
sound system the use of sound
using a buzzer in automated and
industrial robots.
Let them learn to
program a small Explains how the
LED light different tones are
sequencer system generated and
with sound. how the circuit
works
Use the
PYM_BLOCK Explains the use
and operation of
graphic
the PYM_BLOCK
programming
software
software
Guide the student
and instruct the
student through
the example of
connection and
programming of
the module

locomotion system
Know what a
typical
transportation
system is,

Understand the
function and
characteristics of
DC motors.

deepen knowledge
about graphical
programming
using
PYM_BLOCK

The chassis or structure Build with

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 recycled materials
a functional
chassis to serve
as a structure for
our robot

Know the different

materials that can
be used when
making engine
chassis

Put the students'

imagination into
practice by
designing chassis
from their
imagination.

Sensor system

Understand and
analyze the
different types of
sensors.

Find applications
that can be given
to different men

deepen knowledge
about graphical
programming
using
PYM_BLOCK

put into operation

an autonomous
robot of a
character

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 didactic

FINAL ROBOTICS PROJECT.

Problem statement:

Design, build and program an educational robot that performs some operation, use what you
have learned in this book and the materials and resources that the institution provides, you
can use other materials and resources that you consider necessary, it is recommended to use
recycled materials in the way possible.

Imagination, knowledge and skills must be brought to light in carrying out this robotics
project.

Final report

At the end of the project, a written report of all the work performed is required, which must
contain at least the following parts:

front page
index

Introduction
Project objectives
Theoretical framework

Project development
Construction of the chassis (shape, materials, construction) description of the
resources used (modules, circuits, etc.) Flowcharts and algorithms
Graphic programs used
Images and videos of the project realization
Images and videos of the project working
Application of the project in reality
Conclusions

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Bibliography
Annexes

Make an explanatory presentation of the project in general (you can use any resource.
posters, projector slides, etc.)

Take into account the factors and recommendations detailed in the following table
Factors to take into Description recommendations
account

Cognitive level It refers to the amount of significant

knowledge that the student or students verify if it is possible with
have acquired regarding robotics and the knowledge acquired if
applied sciences in general. it is possible to carry out
the proposed project,
Adapt the project to the
knowledge acquired

Resources and materials Evaluating the available resources is of

available to carry out utmost importance since with them as a To devise a robotics
the project basis we must begin the development of project you have to
the idea of a robotics project. imagine it with the
resources and materials
available, since if you don't
do it that way we will need
to get other things that will
surely mean some
expense.

available financial
resources Most robotics projects require some
Most of the available
investment either in electronic
projects require financial
components or to develop the chassis.
expenses, it is advisable to
With a good design and calculation, the
adjust our idea until we
expenses can be previously estimated
can afford the project.
and thus see the feasibility of the project.

Time and Robotics projects require time, space and

Distributing tasks among
responsibilities dedication, even time outside the
participants helps advance
educational center, sometimes requiring
the project and thus
the intervention of people outside the
reduces execution time
institution.

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Teaching supervision The advice that the decent team provides The constant advice of the
to students is important, as this way any teaching staff is of vital
difficulties that may arise can be importance since they are
corrected along the way. In addition, the ones who have the
teaching intervention must strengthen obligation to direct, advise
the students' projects. and advise the students in
their projects. We must
take into account that
many projects are not
completed because there
has been no
communication between
the teacher and the
students. student

Activity schedules Making and keeping a schedule of

activities or progress allows you to verify Time is a determining
if the goals are achieved in the estimated factor in the development
time. of projects, knowing how
to manage it will ensure
that our project is carried
out within the established
period and that we do not
have to resort to
unnecessary expenses.

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