Pradyumn Ugc Net Political Science Book
Pradyumn Ugc Net Political Science Book
Pradyumn Ugc Net Political Science Book
Preface
Acknowledgement
About the Author
UGC NET Political Science December 2023 Question
Paper
UGC NET Political Science June 2023 Question Paper—
Shift 1
UGC NET Political Science June 2023 Question Paper—
Shift 2
UGC NET Political Science 2022 Question Paper—Shift
1
UGC NET Political Science 2022 Question Paper—Shift
2
Chapter 1: Liberalism
Introduction
Origin of Liberalism
Individualism
Types of Liberalism
Classical Liberalism
Modern Liberalism
Libertarianism
Neo-Liberalism
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 2: Conservatism
Introduction
Origin of Conservatism
Tradition
Human Imperfection
Organic Society: Doing One’s Duty
Hierarchy and Authority
Types of Conservatism
Authoritarian Conservatism
Traditional Conservatism
Paternalistic Conservatism
Liberal Conservative and New Right Theory
Neo-Conservatism
Important Thinkers
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990)
Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992)
Irving Kristol (1920-2009)
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 3: Socialism
Introduction
Central argument of Socialist ideology
Early socialists
Robert Owen
Charles Fourier
Saint Simon
Proudhon
Revolutionary Socialism vs Evolutionary Socialism
Types of Evolutionary Socialism
Fabianism
German Social Democracy
Syndicalism
Revisionism
Guild Socialism
Important Authors and Books
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 4: Marxism
Introduction
Central Arguments of Marxism
Key Components of Marxism
1. Class Struggle and Stages of History
2. Base and Superstructure
3. Dialectical Materialism
4. Proletariat Revolution
5. Communism: Classless and Stateless Society
Branches of Marxism and Key Thinkers
1. Classical Marxism
2. Orthodox Marxism
3. Western Marxism
4. Structural Marxism
5. Neo-Marxism
Contribution of Engels and His Books
Contribution of Lenin and His Books
List of Important Books and Authors
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 5: Feminism
Introduction
Central Idea
Origin and Development
Key Components of Feminist Theory
Patriarchy
Personal is Political
Sex and Gender
Equality Feminism vs Difference Feminism
Types of Feminism
Liberal Feminism
Socialist Feminism
Radical Feminism
Black feminism
Transfeminism
Post-feminism
List of Important Books & Thinkers
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 6: Ecologism
Introduction
Key components of Ecologism
Types of Ecologism
Shallow Ecology vs Deep Ecology
Gaia Hypothesis
Books and Authors Related to Ecologism
Rachel Carson
Ernst Friedrich Schumacher
Arne Naess
Murray Bookchin
Caroline Merchant
Rudolf Bahro
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 7: Multiculturalism
Introduction
Central Arguments of Multiculturalism
Key Components of Multiculturalism
Identity Politics and Politics of Differences
Politics of Recognition
‘Melting Pot’ vs ‘Salad Bowl’ (Cultural Mosaic)
‘Unencumbered Self’ vs ‘Encumbered Self’
Differentiated Citizenship and Differentiated Rights
Pioneers of Multiculturalism and Key Concepts
Will Kymlicka
Charles Taylor
Tariq Modood
Bhikhu Parekh
Stuart Hall
Isaiah Berlin
James Tully
Criticism of Multicultural Theory
Thinkers and Key Concepts
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 8: Post-Modernism
Introduction
Central Argument of Post-Modernism
Deconstruction
Productive Difference
Important Thinkers and Books
Thinkers and Key Concepts
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 9: Concept of Liberty
Introduction
Definitions of Liberty
Ancient and Modern Liberty: Benjamin Constant
Two Concepts of Liberty: Isaiah Berlin
J. S. Mill’s Views on Liberty
Harold J. Laski’s Views on Liberty
Macpherson’s Views on Liberty
Atlantic Charter and Four Freedoms
Important Books and Authors
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 10: Concept of Equality
Introduction
Rousseau’s Views on Types of Inequality
Basis Conception of Equality
Important Definitions of Equality
Different Dimensions of Equality
Formal Equality
Legal Equality
Political Equality
Substantive Equality
Difference Between Equality and Equity
Equality of Opportunity vs Equality of Outcomes
Important Thinkers and Works
R. H. Tawney
Bentham
Michael Walzer
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 11: Justice
Introduction
Important Definitions of Justice
Procedural Justice vs Substantive Justice
Important Theories of Justice
Utilitarian Theory of Justice
Distributive Theory of Justice
Entitlement Theory of Justice
Communitarian Theory of Justice
Feminist Perspective of Justice
Concept of Global Justice
Amartya Sen’s Theory of Justice
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 12: Concept of Rights
Introduction
Important Definitions
Group Rights Theory
Human Rights and Three Generations of Rights
Three Generations of Rights — Karel Vasak
Emerging Fourth Generation of Human Rights
Rights As ‘Trumps’
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 13: Democracy
Introduction
Some Important Definitions Of Democracy
Six Models of Democracy by David Held
Types of Democracy
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 14: Power
Introduction
Relation Between Power and Authority
Conventional View of Power
Non-Conventional View of Power
Elite Theory vs Pluralistic Theory of Power
Postmodern Theory of Power
Important Definitions
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 15: Citizenship
Introduction
Important Definitions
Who is a citizen?
Theories of Citizenship
Liberal Theory of Citizenship
Libertarian Theory of Citizenship
Marxist Theory of Citizenship
Communitarian View of Citizenship
Feminist View of Citizenship
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Previous Years’ Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 1: Confucius
Introduction
Components of Confucian Political Theory
The Idea of the Commonwealth
Benevolent Government
Rule of Virtue
Meritocracy in Government
Transfer of Political Power
Importance of Education
The Five Relationships
Literary Sources of Confucius’s Thought
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 2: Plato
Introduction
Theory of Ideas and Forms
Theory of Soul to Theory of Justice
Key Principles of Ideal State
Theory of Education
Communism Of Wives And Property
Types of Government
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter3: Aristotle
Introduction
Differences in Political Perspectives
Theory of State
Theory of Constitution
Theory of Citizenship
Theory of Slavery
Concept of Justice and Equality
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 4: Niccolò Machiavelli
Introduction
Impact of Renaissance
Idea of Human Nature
Advice to the Prince
Concept of Dual Morality
Concept of Secularism
Republicanism and the Idea of Liberty
Famous Quotes by Machiavelli
Commentaries on Machiavelli
Books of Machiavelli
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 5: Thomas Hobbes
Introduction
Impact of the English Civil War
Social Contract Theory
Humans in the State of Nature
Laws of Nature
Social Contract and Creation of Absolute Sovereign
Individualism in Thomas Hobbes’s Philosophy
Views on Liberty and Self-Preservation Rights
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 6: John Locke
Introduction
Idea of Human Nature and State of Nature
Need of Contract and State
Social Contract
Idea of Fiduciary Trust
Theory of Property
Three Types of Power
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 7: Rousseau
Introduction
Views on Enlightenment
State of Nature
Noble Savage
‘Amour De Soi’ vs ‘Amour Propre’
Rise of Inequality and Private Property
On Property
Social Contract
(i) General Will
(ii) Popular Sovereignty
(iii) Principle of Direct Democracy
Women as Sexual Being
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 8: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Introduction
Dialectical Idealism
Philosophy of History
Theory of State
Idea of Universal Class
Book List with Important Information
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 9: Mary Wollstonecraft
Introduction
Thoughts on Education
Support for Liberalism and Egalitarian View
A Vindication of the Rights of Women
List of Books with the Central Idea
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 10: John Stuart Mill
Introduction
Concept of Liberty and Harm Principle
Revision of Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill as a Feminist
Representative Government
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 11: Karl Marx
Introduction
Capitalism and Freedom
Communist Manifesto and Revolution
Ideology and Religion
Marx on State
Asiatic Mode of Production
Young Karl Marx vs. Mature Karl Marx
Commentaries on Karl Marx
Famous Quotes of Karl Marx for Exam
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 12: Antonio Gramsci
Introduction
Difference Between Karl Marx’s & Antonio Gramsci’s
Thoughts
Concept of Hegemony
Civil Society vs Political Society
War of Position vs War of Movement
Organic Intellectuals vs Traditional Intellectuals
Historical Relativism vs Historical Materialism
Workers Council
Important Writings And Works
Gramsci’s Essays
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 13: Hannah Ardent
Introduction
Existentialism and Criticism of Western Political
Thought
Theory of Totalitarianism
Theory of Action
Theory of Power
Views on Revolution
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 14: Frantz Fanon
Introduction
Post-Colonial Dilemma
Colour Hegemony
Violence in Colonial Rule
Manichaeism
Dehumanization Thesis
Dimensions of Decolonization
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Chapter 15: Mao Zedong
Introduction
Major Contributions to Marxist Theory
Permanent Revolution
Antagonistic and Non-Antagonistic Contradictions
People’s War
New Democracy
Other Important Concepts
Important Works of Mao Zedong
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Chapter 16: John Rawls
Introduction
Theory Of Justice
Original Position
Veil of Ignorance
Maximin Principle
Reflexive Equilibrium
Principles Of Justice
Lexical Order
List of Important Writings and Books in Chronology
Important Terms And Key Concepts
Most Expected Practice Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
Previous Years’ Questions
Answer Key
Explanation for Selected Questions
List I List II
(A)Liberation (I)Shared
understanding and
common meaning,
based on shared
history, culture or
worldview
(B)Communitansim (II) No need for
members to sha
common culture
history, worldvie
language or valu
system
(C)Liberal Nationalism (III) Moral concern fo
one another as f
and equal citizen
(D)Multiculturalism/Difference (IV) Shared national
theory based on a
common history
language and
culture
11. The theory that argues, ‘countries are more likely both to become
democratic and to stay democratic as they develop economically’,
is known as
(a) Dependency theory
(b) World systems theory
(c) Classic Modernization theory
(d) Theory of underdevelopment
13. Who said that statement ‘think and act in terms of interest defined
as power’?
(a) Morgenthau
(b) George F. Kennan
(c) Harold Nicholson
(d) Henry A. Kissinger
16. Who among the following thinkers are associated with participatory
democracy?
(A) Carole Pateman
(B) Ian Shapiro
(C) Benjamin Barber
(D) Jurgen Habermas
(E) C.B. Macpherson
(a) A, B and C only
(b) A, B and D only
(c) A, C and E only
(d) A, C and D only
17. Aristotle criticized popular rule on the grounds that the masses
would resent the wealth of the few, and too easily, fail under the
sway of the following:
(a) The king
(b) The leading citizens
(c) The demagogue
(d) None of the given options
18. Find out the correct one with regard to Atul Kohli’s distinction
between pro-market and pro-business State intervention in India in
the 1980s.
(A) Pro-business strategy mainly supports established producers
(B) Pro-business supports new entrants and consumers
(C) Pro-market strategy supports established producers
(D) Pro-market strategy supports new entrants and consumers
(a) B only
(b) C only
(c) A and C only
(d) A and D only
20. Name the country that does not fall within the ‘Asian Tiger’
economies:
(a) South Korea
(b) Singapore
(c) Hong Kong
(d) Burma
21. Who among the following thinkers is not associated with Feminist
Theory?
(a) Susan Sontag
(b) Carole Pateman
(c) Martha Nussbaum
(d) Judith Butler
24. Which of the following concepts are not related to John Rawls?
(a) Justice as fairness
(b) Distributive Justice
(c) Class in itself
(d) Veil of ignorance
26. Find out the correct one with regard to ‘Failed State.’
(A) Sierra Leone is a failed state.
(B) A failed state is unable to provide the functions that define them
states.
(C) A failed state is able to coerce the inhabitants.
(D) A failed state is able to successfully control the inhabitants.
(a) C only
(b) D only
(c) B and C only
(d) A and B only
30. Which one of the following is not the key element of direct
democracy?
(a) Referendum
(b) Recall
(c) Filibustering
(d) Plebiscite
34. Under which of the following articles of the Indian Constitution, the
state legislature have the power to make provisions with respect to
elections to such legislature?
(a) Article 324
(b) Article 326
(c) Article 328
(d) Article 352
37. Find out the books written by Mahatma Gandhi given below:
(A) Modern India
(B) Constructive Programme
(C) India’s Struggle for Independence
(D) Why socialism
(E) Hind Swaraj
(a) A only
(b) D only
(c) C only
(d) B and E only
38. Match the past interventions with the year in which they took place
39. Find out the correct one with regard to the 108th Amendment Bill,
2008:
(A) Reservation of seats reserved for scheduled caste shall be
women shall cease to exit 15 years after the commencemen
this bill.
(B) It seeks to reserve one-third of all seats for women in the
Sabha only.
(C) One-third of the total number of seats reserved for sched
castes shall be reserved for women of this group in legisla
assemblies only.
(D) Reserved seats may be allotted by rotation to different constitu
in the state or UTs.
(a) A and B only
(b) B only
(c) A and D only
(d) C only
40. Which event led George W. Bush to transform his foreign policy
into one of global power projection and interventionism?
(a) 26th November
(b) 11th September
(c) 5th December
(d) 11th October
List I List II
(A)Scientific (I)Decision making
management process involves three
theory phases- Intelligence
activity, design activity
and choice activity
(B)New public (II) The development of a tru
management science of work, which in
effect will benefit both the
workers and manager alik
(C)Human (III) Government should be
relations continuously engaged in
theory improving the quality of it
services and thereby
adjusting with demands.
(D)Rational (IV) Organization is to be view
decision- as a social system and
making internal elements play an
theory important role in the over
organizational output
42. Who has stated that religion is the real criterion of Manu’s state
policy?
(a) Nalini Sinha
(b) Satyamitra Dubey
(c) Mahendra Prasad Singh
(d) Himanshu Roy
50. Find out the different waves of democratic transition given below in
ascending order:
(A) First reverse wave
(B) First waves of democratization
(C) Second wave of democratization
(D) Second reverse wave
(E) Third wave of democratization
(a) A, B, C, D, E
(b) B, A, C, D, E
(C) E, D, C, A, B
(d) C, B, E, B, A
54. Who found eight distinct meanings for the term ‘Balance of
Power’?
(a) Iris L. Claude, JR
(b) Ernist B. Haas
(c) Richard Coleden
(d) Alfred Vagdt
56. Which of the following arguments can we associate with ‘right’ wing
political forces?
(A) To what extent are people poor because of their own choice
opposed to unequal opportunities?
(B) Are we helping the victims of unequal circumstances if
redistribute money to the poor?
(C) Has the welfare state helped the poor overcome
disadvantage and participate in society?
(D) Are the sources of social ills like poverty, homelessness,
school drop-out rates, and so on so complex that state attemp
solve them will generally fail and often worsen the problem?
(a) A, B and C only
(b) A, D and E only
(c) A, C and E only
(d) A, B and D only
List I List II
(A)Antiono (I)On human
Gramsci conduct
(B)Robert (II) Prison notebook
Puthnam
(C)Michael (III) The protestant ethics and the spirit of
Oakeshott capitalism
(D)Max Weber (IV) Bowling Alone: the collapse and reviv
of American community
61. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion A and
the other is labelled as Reason R.
Assertion (A): contracting out and public-private partnerships
are now part of the really of public services and decision-making in
many continues.
Reason (R): There is a divorce between the complex reality of
decision-making associated with governance and the normative
codes used to explain and justify government.
In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate
answer from the options given below:
(a) Both A and correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and correct and R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is correct but R is not correct
(d) A is not correct but R is correct
62. Who among the following has started the self-respect movement
as part of social reform?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay
(c) E.V. Ramaswami Naicker
(d) Swami Vivekananda
63. The true beginning of the modern state system marked the end of:
(a) Fifty Years War
(b) Thirty Years War
(c) One Hundred Years War
(d) Ten Years War
64. Find out the correct one with regards to constructive argument on
democracy.
(A) Constructivist argument treats culture as something tha
objective and inherited.
(B) Constructive argument states that culture exists prior to,
remains unchanged by political interaction.
(C) Constructive argument treats culture as something tha
constructed or invented rather than inherited.
(D) Constructive argument claims that culture has a casual effect.
(a) A, B, C only
(b) D, C, B only
(c) C and D only
(d) A and B only
65. Who among the following came out with an innovative idea of
‘constructive conflicts?
(a) Mary Parker Follett
(b) Woodrow Wilson
(c) Max Weber
(d) Henry Fayol
67. Which two countries navies are jointly patrolling the Malacca
straits?
(a) India-Japan
(b) India-United States
(c) India-Australia
(d) India-Singapore
70. With which country India sign the declaration to promote the
building of a harmonious world of durable peace and common
prosperity through developing the strategic and cooperative
partnership for peace and cooperative partnership for peace and
prosperity?
(a) United States
(b) China
(c) United Kingdom
(d) Japan
List I List II
(A)Administration in developing countries: The theory (I)Herbert
of prismatic society Simon
(B)Administrative behaviour (II) Ger
E.
Cai
(C)The dynamics of public administration: Guidelines (III) Fre
to current transformation in theory and practice W.
Rig
(D)The human problem of an industrial civilization (IV) Elto
May
74. Which year did Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visit China?
(a) 2006
(b) 2007
(c) 2008
(d) 2009
77. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion A and
the other is labelled as Reason R
Assertion (A): ‘Ahimsa’ was complementary to Gandhi’s model
of conflict resolution that was certainly the most original and
creative model of social change and political action.
Reason (R): This was a theory of politics that gradually became
the dominant ideology of a national political movement in which
Gandhi reigned Supreme.
In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate
from the options given below:
(a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are correct and R is not the correct explanation o
(c) A is correct but R is not correct
(d) A is Not correct but R is correct
79. Match the following organization with the year it was established in
List I List II
(A)SCO (I)1967
(B)BRIC (II) 2006
(C)ASEAN (III) 1957
(D)EEC (IV) 2001
83. Which of the following statements is/are not correct regarding the
ICT-based e-Governance?
(A) E-governance reduces the cost of government
(B) E-governance reduces the transparency of government
(C) E-governance increases citizen’s input into government
(D) E-governance increases bureaucratic red-tapism
(a) A, B and C only
(b) B and D only
(c) B, C and D only
(d) A and C only
85. Who among the following Vice-Presidents of India later became the
President of the country?
(A) Dr. Sarvapali Radhakrishnan
(B) V .V . Giri
(C) Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
(D) B. D. Jatti
(E) R. Venkataraman
(a) A, B and E only
(b) C and D only
(c) A, B and D only
(d) A, B, C, and E only
93. What is it that the ‘New Right’ does not associate with ‘self-
supporting’ as a civic virtue?
(a) Citizenship
(b) Full member of a society
(c) Being a career-oriented selfish person
(d) Full filing the obligation to support oneself
94. How does the market inculcate civic virtue according to ‘New Right’
theorists?
(a) By acceleration trade and commerce
(b) By offering gainful employment
(c) By encouraging to be self-supporting
(d) By punishing those who are unemployed
96. Which of the following is the reason for the formation of G20?
(a) World financial crisis
(b) Asian financial crisis
(c) African financial crisis
(d) European financial crisis
97. What is the significance of the recently concluded G20 summit?
(a) Consumers on a framework for sustainable balanced growth
(b) Women led development process
(c) Emergence of Global South as one voice
(d) All of the above options
Answer Key
3. Who among the following has used the terms internal restriction and
external restriction in the discourse of multiculturalism?
(a) Bhikhu Parekh
(b) Will Kymlicka
(c) Okin
(d) B. Berry
4. For whom among the following M.B. Foster has stated that his
political thought represents more of a Pagan revival than a
Protestant religion?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Hobbes
(c) Bentham
(d) J.S mill
11. Who among the following categorized laws into two types: the
Shariat and the Zawabit?
(a) Dara Shukoh
(b) Basava
(c) Abul Fazl
(d) Zia Barani
12. When did M.N. Roy dismantle his Radical Democratic Party?
(a) 1940
(b) 1945
(c) 1948
(d) 1950
13. Why Robert Nozick agrees with anarchist assertions regarding the
position of State?
Pick the incorrect argument.
(a) It is intrinsically immoral.
(b) It maintains monopoly on the use of force.
(c) It violates individual rights.
(d) It’s motive is welfare of citizens.
17. Which are the six minority religious communities Notified by the
National Commission for Minorities (NCM) setup by the Union
Government Under the National Commission for Minorities Act
1992?
(a) Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Zorastrians, Sindhis
(b) Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Sindhis
(c) Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Sindhis, Bahais, Jews
(d) Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Zorastrians and Jains
18. Who among the following conducts the elections at polling station?
(a) Polling Agent
(b) Presiding Officer
(c) Returning Officer
(d) Revenue Officer
21. Which one of the following is not a principle among the originally
framed six principles of ‘Citizen’s Charter Movement’?
(a) Choice
(b) Value
(c) Accountability
(d) Quantity
28. Which of the following is the first state to bring Social Audit Law?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Meghalaya
(c) Tripura
(d) Chhattisgarh
32. When did a Female Police Personnel from India took part in ‘first-
ever peace keeping operations’?
(a) January 2007
(b) February 2008
(c) January 2006
(d) February 2009
35. In which conference the decision to set up World Bank was taken?
(a) New York
(b) Bretton Woods
(c) Massachusetts
(d) Paris
54. Which of the following is/are true about amendment of RTI Act in
2019?
(A) From a fixed term of five years, now the commissioner holds o
at the pleasure of Government
(B) Now, there can be more than 10 central Informa
Commissioners.
(C) Now, the salaries and allowances of Commissioner are
decided by the government.
(D) Now, the age of retirement of chief Information Commissione
be 62 years.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) C only
(b) A and B only
(c) A and C only
(d) A and D only
56. Which of the following are not the features of Cold War?
(A) There was nuclear arms race.
(B) There was a propaganda war.
(C) There was economic blockade against the non-aligned countrie
(D) The third world countries were directly involved in it.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B Only
(b) B and C Only
(c) C and D Only
(d) B and D Only
57. Given below are two statements: One is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Ever since the end of World War II, International
environment has been dominated by the American relations with
the Soviet Union Characterized as Cold War.
Reasons (R): The Cold War coloured not only American and
American aligned nations’ relations with the Soviet Union and the
latter’s allies but relation of the U.S and its allies with other non-
aligned nations, as well.
In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer
from the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
List I List II
(A)Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri (I)Indira
Lanka Gandhi
(B)Shimla Agreement (II) Rajiv Gand
(C)Lahore Declaration (III) Atal B.
Vajpayee
(D)Act East Policy (IV) Narendra M
96. What is the main reason for a major role of Public Administration in
future?
(a) Scientific thinking among people
(b) Citizens are static
(c) Citizens are more active due to political complexity
(d) Fall of relation between state and citizen
97. Who among the following has identified the transition of Public
Administration to a profession?
(a) Dwight Waldo
(b) Woodrow Wilson
(c) Lynn
(d) F. M. Marx
98. Which among the following statements are not related to the
transition of the discipline of Public Administration?
(a) Accurate self-definition
(b) Changes in the modern life
(c) Extensive scientific recognition
(d) Economic and Financial Crisis of the Markets
99. Given below are two statements: One is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): In future, Public Administration will be assessed
with scientific tools viz. performance indicators and high standards
of theory.
Reasons (R): The impact of public choice and NPM is more on
the present day Administration.
In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate
answer from the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explana
of (A)
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct
(d) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct
100. Identify the correct option among the following statements related
to the discipline of Public Administration.
(A) Public expects good and skillful administrator
(B) Public expects quality of services
(C) Public expects effective management of institution
(D) Public wants to continue with the present model of bureaucracy
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and C only
(b) A, B and D only
(c) A, C and D only
(d) B, C and D only
Answer Key
______________
* This question is dropped and marks are provided to all aspirants
Hints and Explanations
2. ’A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ is a feminist text published in
1792 that argues for women’s education and equal rights. Sophie i
used as an example of how women are often raised to be decorative
objects rather than educated individuals. Wollstonecraft argues tha
women should be given the same opportunities as men to develop
their minds and contribute to society.
26. Lasswell (1956) divided the process into seven different stages,
each with a specific policy-making function: intelligence,
recommendation, prescription, invocation, application, appraisal,
and termination.
30. U.S. - India Peaceful Atomic Energy Co-operation Actis also known
as the Hyde Act, named after its sponsor, Congressman Henry
Hyde. The act outlines the terms and conditions for the United
States to provide nuclear technology and fuel to India for peaceful
purposes, while also ensuring that India adheres to non-
proliferation standards.
40. Gramsci, Poulantazs, and Mao Zedang all believe that the
superstructure is relatively autonomous. Louis Althusser, on the
other hand, believed that the superstructure is determined by the
economic base and is not autonomous. Gramsci believed that the
superstructure has a degree of autonomy and can influence the
economic base. Poulantazs believed that the state and ideology
have relative autonomy from the economic base. Mao Zedang
believed that the superstructure can play a leading role in social
change.
68. Statement (I) correctly states that the President serves for a five
year term but can continue to be in office until the successor
assumes office. This is in accordance with Article 56 of the Indian
Constitution. Statement (II) correctly states that the Constitution is
silent on who performs the duties of the Vice-President when a
vacancy occurs in the office before expiry of his term. This means
that there is no clear provision in the Constitution for such a
situation and it is left to the interpretation of the government and
judiciary.
1. Rights are what we may expect from others, and others from us
who said it?
(a) Hobhouse
(b) Laski
(c) Green
(d) Plato
11. Who opined that an ideal constitution keeps the political elite in
good moral shape and provides lasting political excellence?
(a) Alexis de Tocqueville
(b) Aristotle
(c) Dicey
(d) Bryce
12. Who gave the ideal of a world economic system comprising three
concentric rings of the core, a semi–periphery and a periphery?
(a) Arghiri Emmanuel
(b) Immanuel Wallerstein
(c) Andre Gunther Frank
(d) Samir Amin
13. Which of the following acts abolished the Diarchy System in the
Provinces and introduced the provincial autonomy?
(a) Government of India Act 1909
(b) Government of India Act 1919
(c) Government of India Act 1935
(d) Government of Indian Independence Act 1947
14. Which of the following is not correct regarding original jurisdiction
of the Supreme Court?
(a) A dispute between the Government of India and one or m
states.
(b) A dispute between two or more states.
(c) Article 32 of the Indian Constitution gives us extensive orig
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in regard to the enforceme
Fundamental Rights.
(d) ‘The Supreme Court has also a wide original jurisdiction ove
Court and Tribunals.
19. Who among the following is associated with the Supreme Court’s
judgement on live streaming of SC case proceedings?
(a) Indira Jai Singh
(b) Mukul Rohatgi
(c) Ram Jethmalani
(d) Kapil Sibal
22. Which of the following are the trends noticed by the Fred Riggs in
Comparative Public Administration?
(a) Shift from Empirical to Normative
(b) Shift from Ideographic to Normative
(c) Shift from Ecological to Non–Ecological
(d) Shift from Ethical to Rule–based Studies
25. Who among the following was the first President of National
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission?
(a) Justice V. Balakrishna Eradi
(b) Justice K.S. Paripoornan
(c) Justice Suhas C. Sen
(d) Justice D.P. Wadhwa
32. Who among the following said, ‘Problem solving theory takes the
world as it finds it, with the prevailing social and power
relationships and the institutions into which they are organized, as
the given framework for action’?
(a) Robert W. Cox
(b) Andrew Linklater
(c) John Maclean
(d) Mark Hoffman
34. Who has argued that the state seeks to maximize power instead of
security?
(a) Kenneth Waltz
(b) Jack Snyder
(c) Stephen Van Evera
(d) John Mearsheimer
35. With which writer do you associate the phrase ‘Anarchy is what
states make of it’?
(a) Alexander Wendt
(b) John Ruggie
(c) John Mearsheimer
(d) Thomas Risse
36. When did the 26/11 terrorist attacks in Mumbai take place?
(a) 2007
(b) 2008
(c) 2009
(d) 2010
38. When did India participate in NAM summit for the first time?
(a) 1961
(b) 1981
(c) 1963
(d) 1971
39. In which of the following year the Act East Policy was announced?
(a) 1991
(b) 1982
(c) 1992
(d) 2014
43. Which of the following concepts has not been used by C.B.
Macpherson?
(A) Developmental Democracy
(B) Associational Capacity
(C) Extractive Capacity
(D) Cultural Democracy
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) C, D and B only
(b) D, C and A only
(c) D, B and A only
(d) A, B and C only
48. Which of the following information is/are exempted from RTI act
without any exception?
(A) Information that would enhance financial accessibility
government department.
(B) Information pertaining to deliberation at cabinet meetings.
(C) Information which would impede the process of investigation.
(D) Judicial records pertaining to appointment of judges.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, C and D only
(b) A, B and C only
(c) B, C and D only
(d) A, B, C and D
51. Which of the following are the Anti Goals of New Public
Administration?
(A) Anti Positivism
(B) Anti Technical
(C) Anti Hierarchical
(D) Anti Values
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and D only
(b) B, C and D only
(c) A, B and C only
(d) A, B, C and D
53. Which of the following UN offices are involved in the promotion and
maintenance of international peace?
(A) Security Council
(B) Secretary General
(C) General Assembly
(D) ECOSOC
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and C only
(b) B, C and D only
(c) A, B and D only
(d) A, C and D only
57. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): The Ethics of care is a moral approach that is
contrasted with justice.
Reason (R): Men in general seem to employ their reasons to
justify prejudices.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
58. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Justice for all is compatible with equality.
Reason (R): Justice requires positive liberty.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explana
of (A).
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct.
(d) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct.
59. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): In Satyagraha, there was not even the remotest
idea of injuring the opponent.
Reason (R): In Passive resistance, there was always an idea of
harassment against the other party.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
60. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Authority demands unconditional, unquestioning
obedience and can therefore engender a climate of deference,
abdication of responsibility and an uncritical trust in the judgement
of others.
Reason (R): Authority is a threat to reason and critical intellectual
understanding.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
61. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Health issues are central to MDGs.
Reason (R): Three out of 08 goals in MDGs are health related
issues.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
63. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): The United States of America become a more
dominant power after Second World War.
Reason (R): After the Second World War, most of the imperial
powers declined.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is NOT the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
List I List II
(A)Appropriation (I)Consists three
Bill types of
expenditure
(B)Vote of (II) Financial Grants given to the
Credit executive to meet urgent financi
requirements
(C)Charged (III) Non–Votable Expenditure from
Expenditure Consolidated Fund
(D)Vote on (IV) A grant in–advance to the Centr
Account Government
List I List II
(A)Concept of Vote Bank (I)Narayan
Guru
(B)Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana (II) Mangoo Ram
Yogam Mugowalia
(C)Ad Dharm (III) M.N. Srinivas
(D)The Self Respect Movement (IV) Ramaswamy
Naicker
86. What is the correct order in which the following terms are
enshrined in the preamble of the Constitution?
(A) Equality
(B) Liberty
(C) Justice
(D) Fraternity
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C, D
(b) C, B, A, D
(c) B, A, C, D
(d) D, A, B, C
96. The Gap between Governance and Government has widened due
to __________.
(a) Control Mechanism
(b) Policy making techniques
(c) Involvement of more actors in the allocation of resources
(d) Lack of space for markets and civil society
98. Which of the following is/are correct that redefine public policy and
governance?
(A) Issues of urbanization and environmental debates
(B) Debates on forms of governance
(C) Status of rhetoric and cliche
(D) Strengthening of state autonomy
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C and D.
(b) B, C and D only.
(c) A and B only.
(d) C and D only.
99. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Public policy education is necessary to
professionalize the bureaucracy.
Reason (R): Public policy education needs strong links between
research and policy making process.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explana
of (A).
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
100. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Neo–Liberal paradigm was founded on the
narrative of the inefficient state.
Reason (R): Neo–Liberal paradigm is inclusive in nature.
In light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explana
of (A).
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
Answer Key
______________
* This question is dropped and marks are provided to all aspirants
11. In his book, Politics, Aristotle argued that the ideal constitution is
one that keeps the political elite in good moral shape and provides
lasting political excellence. He believed that this could be achieved
by a system of checks and balances, in which no one group or
individual has too much power.
17. Granville Austin was an American political scientist who wrote the
book, ’The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation,’ which is
considered a seminal work on the Indian Constitution. In the book,
he described India’s constitutional edifice as a “seamless web”
because of the interdependence and interconnectedness of its
various provisions and institutions.
19. Indira Jai Singh is an Indian lawyer and politician who has been a
vocal advocate for the live streaming of Supreme Court case
proceedings. In 2018, she filed a petition in the Supreme Court
seeking a direction to the court to live stream its proceedings. The
Supreme Court, in its judgment in Indira Jai Singh vs Supreme
Court of India, held that live streaming of court proceedings is a
step in the direction of transparency and greater access to the
justice system.
10. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s paper ‘Small Holdings in India and their
Remedies’ is related to:
(a) Indian Agrarian system
(b) Indian Political system
(c) Indian Education system
(d) Indian Culture only
12. Who among the following was the Chairman of the Advisory
Committee of the Constituent Assembly?
(a) Rajendra Prasad
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Vallabhbhai Patel
(d) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
18. Which among the following ideas are part of Cultural Revolution?
(A) Children are the masters of new society.
(B) Only the poor peasants can and must be the basic force to
relied upon the land reforms.
(C) Under feudal domination marriage is barbaric and inhu
institution.
(D) The women are reserve for home making.
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C Only
(b) A, C, D Only
(c) B, C, D Only
(d) A, B, C, D Only
19. Who among the following looks at revolution as a ‘Sweeping
fundamental change in the predominant myth of Social order’?
(a) Newmann
(b) S. P. Huntington
(c) T. S. Kuhn
(d) G. S. Pete
21. Who among the following coined the term ‘ecology’ in 1866?
(a) Ernst Heackel
(b) F. Riggs
(c) R. A. Dahl
(d) Houghton Miffin
23. Who among the following identified two types of inequality: natural
inequality and conventional inequality?
(a) Thomas Hobbes
(b) John Locke
(c) J. J. Rousseau
(d) Montesquieu
24. Arab Spring began in which country
(a) Libya
(b) Syria
(c) Egypt
(d) Tunisia
28. In which case the Supreme Court of India ruled that the provision
of Judicial review comes under an essential feature of the Indian
Constitution?
(a) S. R. Bommai case
(b) Golaknath case
(c) Minerva Mills case
(d) Indira Sahani case
30. Article 169 of the constitution makes the provision for the abolition
or creation of:
(a) Legislative Councils in state
(b) Specifies the number of seats for the Rajya Sabha
(c) All India Services
(d) None of the above
48. Who among the following is the author of the book ‘Introduction to
the study of Law of the constitution?
(a) A V. Dicey
(b) Jermy Waldron
(c) Stephen M. Griffin
(d) Gordon Scoll
49. ‘It is getting harder to run a constitution than to frame one’? Who
made this statement?
(a) L. D. White
(b) Ronald Reagan
(c) Woodrow Wilson
(d) Margret Thatcher
51. Who wrote the paper entitled. “A Discourse on the Moral Effects of
the Arts and Science”?
(a) Dante Alighieri
(b) St. Thomas Acquinas
(c) John Locke
(d) Jean Jacques Rousseau
79. Who amongst the following is the editor of the book “The Indian
Paradox”?
(a) Rajeev Bhargava
(b) Myron Weiner
(c) Subhash Kashyap
(d) Granville Austin
94. The annual meeting 2019 of World Economic Forum was held in
which of the following countries.
(a) USA
(b) Britain
(c) Switzerland
(d) Australia
Answer Key
______________
**For this question, marks will be awarded to all the candidates who appeared for the
examination.
UGC NET Political Science
2022 Question Paper—Shift 2
2. In which year did Pandita Ramabai open her Sharda Sadan (Home
for Learning)?
(a) 1889
(b) 1798
(c) 1898
(d) 1857
6. Which theory of Rights claims that Rights are inalienable and canno
be separated or taken away from the individual as they are inheren
and prior to society and state?
(a) Theory of Natural Rights
(b) Theory of Legal Rights
(c) Theory of Contractual Rights
(d) Theory of Social-Welfare Rights
14. How many new languages were added by the 92nd Constitutional
Amendment, 2003?
(A) 1.3
(B) 2.4
(C) 3.2
(D) 4.5
15. Consider the following movements. Arrange them in chronological
order
(A) Naxalbari Movement
(B) Kheda Movement
(C) Champaran Movement
(D) Khilafat Movement
Choose the correct answer from the options given below
(a) C, B, D, A
(b) A, B, C, D
(c) D, C, B, A
(d) B, C, A, D
16. The rise and growth of the concept of New Public Administration
can be traced to:
(A) Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Services – 1967
(B) Minnowbrook Conference II – 1988
(C) Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of P
Administration – 1967
(D) Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence – 1971
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) B, C and D only
(b) A, B and C only
(c) A, B and D only
(d) A, C and D only
17. Which of the following functions have been laid down in the 12th
Schedule of the Constitution of India for municipalities?
(A) Urban poverty alleviation
(B) Planning for economic and social development
(C) Roads and Bridges
(D) Public safety services
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C and D
(b) A, B and C only
(c) A, C and D only
(d) A and B only
18. Which of the following principles are correct with regard to liberal
democracy?
(A) Government by consent
(B) Public Accountability
(C) Suitable for Socialism
(D) Constitutional Government
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and D Only
(b) A, C and D Only
(c) B, C and D Only
(d) A, B and C Only
19. The book Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History was written by:
(a) M. K. Gandhi
(b) J. L Nehru
(c) V. D. Savarkar
(d) M. N. Roy
II.1948–1970
2. Era of Challenges
24. In which one of following years, the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Yojana (BBBP) was launched?
(a) 2012
(b) 2013
(c) 2014
(d) 2015
25. Which among the following are included in Nine Pillars of Digital
India?
(A) Information for all
(B) Early harvest programme
(C) Electronic manufacturing
(D) Connect only metro cities of the country
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) B, C and D only
(b) A, C and D only
(c) A, B and C only
(d) A, B, C and D
II.3rd
2. List of Official Languages Schedule
29. Which ones are true about the Passive Resistance and
Satyagraha?
(A) Passive Resistance is equivalent to Satyagraha.
(B) Passive Resistance is not afraid of the physical strength w
Satyagraha is afraid of physical strength.
(C) Passive Resistance is negative in practice whereas Satyagrah
positive morality.
(D) Passive Resistance is weapon of the weaker sections, Satyag
never desires to terrorise the opponent.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and D only
(b) A and B only
(c) C and D only
(d) B and C only
30. Which of the following statements are correct with regard to Swami
Vivekanand?
(A) He was the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhans
(B) In 1893, he proceeded to participate in the Chicago Parliame
Religions
(C) He never visited U.S.A.
(D) He said that Man is not higher than all animals
(E) He was the founder member of the Arya Samaj
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) C and D only
(b) D and E only
(c) A and B only
(d) A and E only
34. Which among the following languages are conferred with classical
language status?
(A) Sanskrit
(B) Tamil
(C) Kannada
(D) Hindi
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C and D
(b) A, B and C only
(c) B, C and D only
(d) A and B only
35. Which of the following is NOT correct about the Comptroller and
Auditor General of India?
(a) The salary and other conditions of service of the CAG sha
determined by the Parliament by law.
(b) The CAG shall not be eligible for further office either under
Government of India or under any state government,
retirement.
(c) The administrative expenses of the CAG office shall be cha
upon the Consolidated Fund of India.
(d) The reports of the CAG relating to the accounts of the Union s
be submitted to the Parliament.
List I List II
II.New International
2. Marshall Plan Economic Order
List I List II
47. Who among the following brought logical positivism in the study of
policy making and the relation of means and ends?
(a) P. H. Appleby
(b) Yehezkel Dror
(c) Herbert Simon
(d) Dwight Waldo
1. Canada I.1993
2. India II.1995
62. Who among the following is the author of the book, The Ideal of
Nationalism?
(a) R. Muir
(b) G.P. Gooch
(c) Hans Kohn
(d) C.J.H. Hayes
63. Arrange the following stages of human history given by Karl Marx
(A) Slave Society
(B) Primitive Society
(C) Communist Society
(D) Feudal Society
(E) Capitalist Society
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C, D, E
(b) B, C, D, E, A
(c) B, A, D, E, C
(d) D, C, B, A, E
75. Which of the following functions should the state perform in the
view of Individualist writers?
(A) Maintenance of internal law and order
(B) To make rules regarding property
(C) Protection from foreign aggression
(D) To implement such mutual agreements which are legally valid
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) B, C and D only
(b) A, C and D only
(c) A, B and C only
(d) A, B and D only
87. Who among the following authored the book ‘The Rights of Man’?
(a) J. S. Mill
(b) Thomas Paine
(c) Thomas Hill Green
(d) John Locke
91. Which will be the unit for conducting survey for beneficiaries and
voluntary teachers?
(a) School
(b) Family
(c) Village
(d) District
93. As per the 2011 census, the absolute number of male non-literates
of the country at the age of 15 year and above is
(a) 9.80 crore
(b) 8.90 crore
(c) 8.09 crore
(d) 9.08 crore
94. In how many years the target for Foundational literacy and
Numeracy’ of 5 crore be completed?
(a) 3 years
(b) 4 years
(c) 5 years
(d) 6 years
Answer Key
______________
**For this question, marks will be awarded to all the candidates who appeared for the
examination.
UNIT I
Political Theory
Chapter 1: Liberalism
Chapter 2: Conservatism
Chapter 3: Socialism
Chapter 4: Marxism
Chapter 5: Feminism
Chapter 6: Ecologism
Chapter 7: Multiculturalism
Chapter 8: Post-Modernism
Chapter 9: Concept of Liberty
Chapter 10: Concept of Equality
Chapter 11: Justice
Chapter 12: Concept of Rights
Chapter 13: Democracy
Chapter 14: Power
Chapter 15: Citizenship
CHAPTER 1
Liberalism
INTRODUCTION
Liberalism is a school of thought, which stands for a society where the
state will be means for the ends of an individual. Individual liberty and the
idea of human rationality is the core value of liberal thought. It stands on
the political principle of a constitutional government and consent-based
governance. The beauty of liberal political thought is the changes and
variations it has gone through with the advent of time while keeping intact
the idea of individual liberty. It started with the classical liberal idea of a
minimal government and moved towards the idea of modern liberalism or
welfarism.
Origin of Liberalism
Liberal thoughts originated during the seventeenth-century against
the idea of absolute authority (Monarchy) based political system
and against feudal economic and cultural setup in Europe.
Thinkers like John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire and many
more contributed to the development of an early liberal idea.
As a proper political ideology, it became famous in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
Individualism
Individual liberty became the core of liberal philosophy because, in the
monarchy and feudal society, people does not have opportunities for their
individual development, the merit of a person was not respected,
distribution of property is birth based acquired by aristocrats and noble
classes. The liberal philosopher had the vision to create a society in
which people will be free to achieve any end in life according to their
capability and merit. According to them, people own nothing to society
and the state, as was said by J. S. Mill—‘Over himself, over his own
body and mind, the individual is Sovereign.’
Contract Philosophy
John Locke presented a social contract theory to identify the reason
and objective behind the formation of the state. He said in the absence of
a state (state of nature) people had the natural right to life, liberty, and
property, but the protection of these rights was not ensured in a natural
society. He said people created a civil society and formed a state for the
protection of their natural rights. Hence, the role of the state needs to be
limited and the state will work according to the consent of the citizens.
Liberal philosophers challenge the medieval thought of the Divine
Theory of State and imagined a political society that trusts in the rational
capabilities of individuals and with this contract philosophy establish rule
of law (Constitutional). Rule of law prevents the misuse of power by the
government and ensures a limited government.
TYPES OF LIBERALISM
Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism is based on the idea of the Natural Right
Theory. It originated during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries and reached its climax in the nineteenth century.
According to early liberal thought, human is naturally born with
rational capabilities and hence they have the natural right to life,
liberty, and property.
According to them, the state is created for the protection of the
natural rights of people and hence, the role and scope of the
state’s power need to be limited.
The classical view of liberalism originated against the system of
theocracy, monarchy, and feudalism. So, it wants the state to
remain away from the economic sphere and supports the idea of
Laissez-faire (Free-market economy) which is propagated by
Adam Smith.
It promotes the idea of the state as a necessary evil and
represents a notion of negative liberty.
The main proponents of classical liberalism are—John Locke,
Montesquieu, Voltaire, Adam Smith, Thomas Paine,
Thomas Jefferson, David Ricardo, and Tocqueville.
Modern Liberalism
Modern Liberalism denotes a shift of liberal philosophy from a
negative to a positive view of the state. It originated during the
twentieth-century.
Modern Liberal thinkers suggested that social welfare is also
important along with the restrictive role of the state for achieving
individual liberty.
Modern Liberalism includes the classical view of individual liberty
with the modern aspect of social welfarism. It recommended a
positive role of the state in arranging socio-economic conditions for
the realization of liberty.
Modern Liberalism stands for the idea of positive liberty, it is also
known as social liberalism or positive liberalism.
Instead of non-interference in the market (Laissez-faire), it
supports the idea of economic management which is inspired by
Maynard Keynes.
The main proponents of modern liberalism are—T. H. Green,
Hobhouse, J. A. Hobson, John Rawls, and Ronald
Dworkin etc.
Libertarianism
In the twentieth-century, we have seen the tendency of welfarism
and overarching power to state in the name of the welfare of
citizens, libertarianism thought developed as a critique of these
tendencies.
Libertarian thinkers revived the classical liberal idea of a minimal
state and the conception of negative liberty.
According to them, the state should leave people alone, personal
responsibility will automatically lead people towards success.
The difference between classical liberalism and libertarianism is
that classical liberalism was developed against the old system like
theocracy, monarchy, and feudalism. On the other hand,
libertarianism was developed as a critique of the idea of modern
liberalism, the positive role of the state and welfarism.
Some libertarian thinkers like David Friedman also reached the
extreme idea of liberty and supported the anarchist perspective
(anarcho-capitalism).
The main proponents of libertarianism are—Ludwig Von
Mises, Murray Rothbard, Friedrich Hayek, David
Friedman, Milton Friedman, and Robert Nozick etc.
Neo-Liberalism
Neo-Liberalism is an updated version of liberal philosophy, which
was developed during the late twentieth century and is a
hegemonic view of global order in the twenty-first century.
It has the ingredients of classical liberalism, as well as
libertarianism and supports the idea of a minimal state and free
market economy, but it also trusts state in leading the free market
reforms in a country.
In 1991 India adopted the new economic policy of liberalization,
privatization and globalization which is a living example of a neo-
liberal perspective.
Neo-liberalism does not completely reject welfarism in state policy,
it trusts the state with the responsibility of progressive taxation for
ensuring basic living standards and human dignity.
Neo-liberalism is not totally different from libertarianism, it is an
extended branch of libertarian philosophy with minor progressive
tendencies.
In the government of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and the
presidency of Ronald Regan in the USA introduced the neo-
liberal theory of the state.
4. Who said: ‘Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individua
is sovereign.’?
(a) Bentham
(b) J. S. Mill
(c) T. H. Green
(d) Harold J. Laski
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(b) a–4, b–2, c–1, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
7. Who of the following has said, ‘I detest what you say but will defend
to the death your right to say it.’?
(a) Tocqueville
(b) Montesquieu
(c) Thomas Paine
(d) Voltaire
10. Who used the term ‘Possessive Individualism’ to criticise the early
Liberal thoughts?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) B. Macpherson
(c) Thomas Paine
(d) T. H. Green
11. The present-day liberals, who are known as Positivist Liberals are
in favour of:
(a) Pushing the state out of the economic field
(b) Doing away with the state’s interference in the economic spher
(c) State regulation of the economic conditions in the interest
workers
(d) State regulation to protect the interests of the capitalists
Thinkers Books
Thinkers Concept
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(b) a–4, b–2, c–1, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
17. Two statements are given below. One is an Assertion (A) and the
other is a Reason (R):
Assertion (A): Libertarian thinkers revived the classical liberal
idea of a minimal state and conception of Negative liberty.
Reason (R): Modern Liberalism recommended a positive role of
the state in arranging socio-economic conditions for the realization
of liberty.
Choose the correct answer below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
18. Two statements are given below. One is an Assertion (A) and the
other is a Reason (R):
Assertion (A): Classical view of liberalism originated against the
system of theocracy, monarchy, and feudalism.
Reason (R): Neo-Liberalism support the view of positive liberty.
Choose the correct answer below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Thinkers Books
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand used this term for the first time in 1818,
during the Bourbon Restoration, to counter the momentum of French
Revolution. As a political ideology, conservatism represents a thought
which desire to conserve the establish institution and political system and
always is very skeptical about the changes. According to Michael
Oakeshott, “To be conservative…is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to
prefer the tried to untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the
limited to the unbounded and, the near to the distant”. Conservatism takes
its inspiration from Hobbesian human state of nature. Historically, it is
associated with right wing politics. It supports for tradition, a belief in human
imperfection, and an attempt to uphold the organic structure of the society.
ORIGIN OF CONSERVATISM
During the 19th century, conservative philosophy was developed in Europe
as counter to changes and reforms brought by modern political ideologies,
like liberalism and socialism. Conservatism challenged the French
revolutionary principle of liberty, equality and fraternity and stood in defense
of an authoritative and traditional socio-political order. A modern
conservatism perspective was born from the idea of Edmund Burke, who
advocated not having a blind resistance to change, but rather a prudent
willingness to ‘change in order to conserve’. Although conservatism is not a
progressive ideology, but still it became a major trend in political parties
around the world.
Figure 2.1 Key Components of Conservatism
Tradition
A central theme of conservatism is its defense of tradition. This emphasis
on tradition reflects their religious faith. If the world is thought to have been
fashioned by a creator, traditional customs and practices in society will be
regarded as “God given”. Tradition in this sense, reflect accumulated
wisdom of the past. The institutions and practices of the past have been
‘tested by the time’ and should therefore be preserved for the benefit of the
living and generations to come. Burke, for example, described society as a
partnership between ‘those who are living, those who are dead and those
who are to be born’. For conservative tradition it provide a sense of identity.
Human Imperfection
O’Sullivan narrates conservatism as a ‘philosophy of human imperfection’.
Hobbesian notion of imperfection in human nature became the foundation
for conservative theory to counter the reform and revolution. Conservative
thinkers have little trust in the rational capability of human and hence want
to maintain the institution and society which are already time tested and old.
Organic Society: Doing One’s Duty
Conservatives believe that human beings are dependent and security-
seeking creatures, thus cannot exist outside society. Individualism is part of
social group that nurture him/her such as family, friends or peer group,
workmates or colleagues, local community and even the nation.
Conservatives believe that a society in which individual know only their
rights, do not acknowledge their duties, would be rootless and atomistic.
Hence, it is the bond of duty and obligation that hold society together and
ensure the liberty.
TYPES OF CONSERVATISM
Authoritarian Conservatism
Authoritarianism believes in the practice of government ‘from above’, in
which authority is exercised over a population with or without its consent.
Authoritarian conservatism wished to restore absolute power to hereditary
monarchy. Tsar Nicholas of Russia propagated the thought of “orthodoxy,
autocracy and nationality’ as a challenge to the French Revolution’s liberty,
equality and fraternity”. The idea of Joseph De Maistre, António de Oliveira
Salazar and Engelbert Dollfuss represents authoritarian conservatism.
Traditional Conservatism
Traditional conservatism is also known as classical conservatism. It
emphasizes the importance of transcendent moral principles, customs,
conventions and traditions. Traditionalist defends classical western
civilization. They are committed to hierarchic and paternalistic values.
Oakeshott is one of the most important proponents of traditionalism.
Paternalistic Conservatism
Paternalism literally means to act in a fatherly fashion. As a political
principle, it refers to power or authority being exercised over others with the
intention of conferring benefit or preventing harm. Social welfare and laws
such as the compulsory wearing of seat belts in cars are examples of
paternalism.
Neo-Conservatism
Originated as an ideology during 1970s in USA. It represents the
combination of political individualism with traditional conservatism. They
believe that current crisis in society is due to declining influence of culture
and religion. It was originated as a counter to communism and stalinism.
Irving Kristol, Francis Fukuyama and Nathan Glazer are few neo-
conservatives.
IMPORTANT THINKERS
2. Two statements are given below. One is the Assertion (A) and other i
Reason (R):
Assertion: Traditional conservatism is based on the political
philosophy of Aristotle and Edmund Burke.
Reason: Traditionalists emphasize the bonds of social order and the
defence of ancestral institutions over what it considers excessive
individualism.
Choose the correct answer below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Thinkers Books
Codes:
(a) a-4, b-1, c-2 , d-3
(b) a-2, b-1, c-4 , d-3
(c) a-3, b-1, c-4 , d-2
(d) a-2, b-3, c-1 , d-4
B. Irving Kristol
C. Joseph de Maistre
D. Louis blanc
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
Thinkers Ideas
Codes:
(a) a-1, b-2, c-3 , d-4
(b) a-2, b-1, c-4 , d-3
(c) a-3, b-1, c-4 , d-2
(d) a-2, b-3, c-1 , d-4
Codes:
(a) a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4
(b) a-2, b-1, c-4, d-3
(c) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2
(d) a-2, b-3, c-1, d-4
13. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): The institutions and practices of the past have been
tested by time.
Reason (R): According to conservative thinker’s tradition values
practices and institutions does not generate a sense of identity.
Choose the correct option:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Socialism evolved in response to the social and economic conditions created
in Europe by the expansion of industrial capitalism in the 19th century.
Socialism has traditionally been characterised as ideological opposition to
capitalism and an endeavour to provide a more humanitarian and socially
worthwhile alternative. The basic, and defining value of socialism is equality,
particularly social equality. Robert Owen was the first to adopt the term
Socialist in his Cooperative Magazine in 1827.
It is said that socialism is like a hat that has lost its shape because
everyone wears it. There are numerous socialist models, and these models
differ from country to country.
Robert Owen
He believed that Industries andFactories could liberate mankind from
poverty and ignorance. He suggested manufacturing be organized on
cooperative rather than competitive principles.
He also urged public agencies to establish “villages of collaboration” to
employ the unemployed.
Owen was also a vocal supporter of the right to work.
Charles Fourier
He disliked the division of labour because it divided work into minute
repetitive activities.
Unlike Owen, he was a critic of big industries. Community and small-
scale industries are the way forwards for a socialist society.
Saint Simon
In contrast to Fourier, Saint-Simon was a man of science, industry, and
vast administration.
His opinion that there is room only for one class in society, that is the
workers. Non-workers are layouts and should be weeded out, made
him a socialist. Wages should be determined by one’s ability to labour.
Proudhon
He was the one who expressly referred to the property as theft and
engaged in a heated debate with Marx. He wrote “Philosophy of
Poverty”, to which Marx responded in “Poverty of Philosophy”.
He is also famously known as social anarchist because he rejected the
centralised structure of state and called for a nationwide network of
decentralised worker cooperatives that can bargain for reciprocal
exchange of products and services.
Fabianism
Fabian socialism or Fabianism was first developed in England by the
Fabian Society (founded in 1884) from which it derived its name.
According to them, socialism will emerge spontaneously in a gradual
manner from liberal capitalism.
The unique aspect of Fabianism is socialism through the middle class.
The educated section of the middle class will take up the responsibility
of developing awareness.
They based their economics on the Ricardian law of rent rather than on
the labour theory of value.
Main Proponents: G.B Shaw, Graham Wallas, Sydney Webb, Beatrice
Webb, G.D.H Cole etc.
Syndicalism
Syndicate is a French word for workers union. It is framed by the ideas
of Auguste Blanqui, and Fernand Pelloutier.
Syndicalism stood for ‘socialization without the state’.
They are also influenced by Georges Sorel, the author of Reflections
on Violence.
They accepted the class struggle theory of Marx. According to them,
there is no need for a political state, only an economic state is enough.
It demands that labour unions be completely independent of political
parties.
According to them a strong labour union, can protect the interest of
working class form the capitalist exploitation.
Revisionism
It was popular in Germany. The revisionist school was led by Eduard
Bernstein (1850-1932).
Bernstein suggested that revolution is neither possible nor needed. He
also rejected Marx’s materialist interpretation of history.
Working class should adopt the “parliamentary road to socialism”.
Since they are in majority, they can get their interest fulfilled even
through institutional methods.
Bernstein counter the futuristic claims of Karl Marx by saying that
“Peasants do not sink; middle class does not disappear; crises do not
grow even larger; misery and serfdom do not increase” (Evolutionary
Socialism; 1898)
Bernstein insisted on viewing socialism as a movement rather than an
end goal.
Guild Socialism
2. Legal
3. Economic
4. Political
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2 and 3
10. In whose opinion there is room for only one class in society i.e., for
workers?
(a) Charles Fourier
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Saint- Simon
(d) G.D.H Cole
11. Which among the following type of socialism, supports the idea of
labour association and union to achieve socialism society in England?
(a) Fabianism
(b) Guild socialism
(c) Revisionism
(d) German Social Democracy
12. Who criticized Marxist theory by saying that “Peasants do not sink;
middle class does not disappear; cries do not grow even larger,;misery
and serfdom do not increase” ?
(a) Ferdinand Lassalle
(b) Eduard Bernstein
(c) G.D.H Cole
(d) Sydney Webb
13. “Utopia” book is considered as the first socialist work. It was authored
by:
(a) Robert Owen
(b) Thomas More
(c) Louis Blanc
(d) P J Proudhon
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
As the name suggests, marxism draws its roots and shoots from German
philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883). It emerged as a reactionary thought
against the social and economic inequalities created by the rise of industrial
capitalism in Europe. It attracted the focus of people towards the problem of
haves and have nots and the division of Western society into two classes
called Capitalists (bourgeoisie) and Workers (proletariats). With the
publication of Communist Manifesto (1848) Marx and his lifelong co-author
Friedrich Engels brought a new challenge to well established ideas of
liberalism in the form of a proletariat revolution for change in the basic
structure of society. As a counter to the early socialist (Utopian socialism)
views, a scientific perspective of socialism was developed by Marx & Engels
in the middle of 19th century, which later became the bedrocks of marxism as
an ideology.
Marxism got practical shape only after the death of Marx when in 1917
Russian revolution got success under leadership of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
Throughout history it kept flourishing and evolving from classical marxism to
structural marxism to neo-marxism to new left but the basic idea of a
‘stateless and classless society’ (communism) and ‘outcome model’ of
equality remain the central themes of marxism.
3. Dialectical Materialism
The concept of “Dialectical Materialism” by Marx in his book “Das Kapital” is a
criticism of Hegel’s “Dialectical Idealism”. He borrowed Dialectics from Hegel,
but unlike Hegel’s claim of idealism as the moving force of history, he
considered matter as the essence of universe. Dialectical materialism
provides the philosophical base to the “theory of marxism”. Marx used it to
explain the contradiction that are available in capitalist society which indicates
the path for social change and it would lead human society to a perfect social
order (communism), where the material distribution will be in harmony and
won’t create class division. Engels in “Anti-Duhring” (1878) presented three
laws of Dialectical Materialism:
4. Proletariat Revolution
Revolution by the working class is the central theme of marxism. As Marx
believed there can be no birth without blood, social revolution led by the
proletariat is the only way out from capitalist exploitation. Through
“Communist Manifesto” (1848) Marx appealed, “workers of the word, unite!
You have nothing to lose except your chains and a world to win.” Later on
idea of proletariat revolution got modified by different scholars according to
their needs, like Lenin in “Bolshevik Revolution” (1917) called parties as
“Vanguard of Revolution” whereas in case of colonies of Asia, Africa, and
Latin America he suggested “Two-Step Revolution”, Leon Trotsky theorized
“Permanent Revolution” and Mao Zedong marched for “Continuous
Revolution”.
1. Classical Marxism
Classical Marxism represents the time and space during the lifetime of Marx
and Engels. Mostly emphasizing on economic critique to the early capitalist
scholars like Adam Smith and David Ricardo and providing social and political
arguments like proletariat revolution, classless and stateless society and class
struggle.
2. Orthodox Marxism
Based on one of the ideas of second international (1889), orthodox marxism
was a period of early practical application of marxist ideas in the sphere of
socialist and labour movements. The word “orthodox” represents emphasis
upon crude concepts like historical materialism and dialectical materialism.
Key thinkers related to orthodox marxism are- Karl Kautsky , Georgi
Plekhanov, Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, Hal Draper and Rudolph Hilferding. Later
on different sub-branches like Luxemburgism (Spontaneous Revolution),
Stalinism (Communism in one backward state), Trotskyism (Communism for
Everywhere) etc.
3. Western Marxism
Western marxism originated around 1923 with the work of György Lukács and
Karl Korsch. They presented marxism as a self-conscious transformation of
society. The “Prison Notebook” by Gramsci was also considered as a
important contribution to the idea of western marxism. The western marxists
focuses on the problems of superstructures, because their attention centers
on culture, philosophy, and art. It tried to save marxism from the idea of crude
economic determinism.
4. Structural Marxism
Developed against the instrumentalist ideas of early marxism, structural
marxism uses theory of structuralism to show that marxist understanding of
state is based on the different structures of society. Where instrumentalists
like Ralph Miliband understood state as a direct instrument of bourgeoisie,
Nicos Poulantzas took the structural view of the state. This difference of
opinions led to the famous miliband-poulantzas debate in Marxism. Most
prominent structural marxists include Louis Althusser and Maurice Godelier.
5. Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism emerged during the mid-20th and late 20th century. Inspired
from the ideas of Marx, Gramsci, Hegel and Sigmund Freud, some thinkers in
Frankfurt University starting a critical stream of studies to revamp the principle
of marxism according to the realities of new world order. They dropped the
crude scientific orientation, the prominence of working class and economic
determinism from marxist philosophy and focused on the part of human
emancipation. They tried to understand the new form of exploitation that
human society is experiencing in the post-capitalist era or welfare states.
Important thinkers related to neo-marxism are – Jurgen Habermas, Herbert
Marcus, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Erich Fromm, Walter Benjamin,
and Frederick Pollock.
b. Historical materialism
c. End of ideology
d. The nanny states
e. The dictatorship of proletariat
(a) a and b
(b) b and c
(c) a, b and e
(d) a, c and e
3. Who among the following has held that, “What is good for the ruling
class, is alleged to be good for the whole of society with which the ruling
class identifies itself.”?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) V.I. Lenin
(c) Friedrich Engels
(d) Mao Zedong
(a) a, d, c, e, b
(b) a, c, e, d, b
(c) a, c, d, b, e
(d) e, a, b, c, d
Idea Thinker
a. Hegemony 1. Eric Fromm
b. Fear of freedom 2. Lenin
c. Vanguard of revolution 3. Gramsci
d. Communism in one 4. Stalin
country
Codes:
(a) a-iii, b-i, c-iv, d-ii
(b) a-i, b-iv, c-iii, d-ii
(c) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
(d) a-ii, b-iv, c-i, d-iii
13. The chief exponents of Classical Marxism & Orthodox Marxism are:
(a) Marx, Lenin, Herbert Marcuse
(b) Mao Zedong, Habermas, Engels
(c) Marx, Rosa Luxemburg, Mao Zedong
(d) Marx, Herbert Marcuse, Rosa Luxemburg
14. Which among the following books is not co-authored by Marx &
Engels?
(a) The Communist Manifesto
(b) The Holy Family
(c) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(d) The German Ideology
15. Which among the following neo-marxist thinker analysed the role of
capitalism on music?
(a) Max Horkheimer
(b) Herbert Marcuse
(c) Theodor W. Adorno
(d) Erich Fromm
17. In which book Karl Marx popularized the slogan “from each according
to his ability, to each according to his needs”?
(a) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(b) Wage Labour and Capital
(c) Value, Price and Profit
(d) Critique of the Gotha Program
B. August Bebel
C. Walter Benjamin
D. Frederick Pollock
Choose correct option from code:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
Thinkers Works
Thinkers Works
a. G.V Plekhanov 1. Man for himself
b. Erich Fromm 2. Dialectic of
enlightenment
c. George Lukacs 3. History and class
consciousness
d. Theodor W. Adorno 4. Fundamental probl
of Marxism
Codes:
(a) a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4
(b) a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3
(c) a-4, b-1, c-3, d-2
(d) a-2, b-3, c-1, d-4
Answer Key
3. Friedrich Engels in his famous book “The Origin of the Family, Privat
Property and the State” stated this statement to express the dominanc
of the ideology of Capitalist class in a capitalist state.
INTRODUCTION
Feminist thoughts are available in the political domain since the eighteenth-
century, but as a political ideology, it received acceptance during the
twentieth-century and is hence considered a part of contemporary political
thought. The term ‘feminist’ was first used as a medical term to describe either
the feminization of men or the masculinization of women. In the modern
sense, the term feminism is invariably linked to the women’s movement and
its attempt to advance the social role of women in human society.
CENTRAL IDEA
Feminists are of opinion that women are pushed into a
disadvantageous situation by society, just because they are women
and not due to a lack of capabilities or anything else.
This sex-based discrimination created a gendered society, where
males are the oppressor and women are oppressed, this disadvantage
can and should be overthrown.
They are against the supremacy of men and the subjection of women.
Personal is Political
Politics has usually been understood as an activity that takes place within a
‘public sphere’ of government institutions, political parties, and pressure
groups, etc. Family life and personal relationships have normally been thought
to be part of a ‘private sphere’ and therefore to be non-political. Women,
restricted to the private role of housewife and mother, are in effect excluded
from politics. Feminists, therefore, challenge the divide between ‘public man’
and ‘private women’ and proclaim that ‘the personal is political.’ Women’s
oppression is also a type of political relation and hence political theory need to
redefine the scope of the word ‘political.’
TYPES OF FEMINISM
Liberal Feminism
Early feminism, particularly the ‘first wave’ of the women’s movement,
was deeply influenced by the ideas and values of liberalism.
Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women should be entitled to the
same rights and privileges as men on the ground that they are human
beings.
The philosophical basis of liberal feminism lies in the principle of
individualism, a belief that the human individual is all important and
therefore that all individuals are of equal worth. Hence, the demand for
legal and political equality and equal rights was the chief concern.
Key proponents—Mary Wollstonecraft, J. S. Mill, Betty
Friedan, and Carole Pateman, etc.
Socialist Feminism
The central theme of socialist feminism is that patriarchy can only be
understood in light of social and economic factors.
For socialist feminists, sexual oppression is every bit as important as
class exploitation.
The ‘bourgeois family’ is patriarchal and oppressive because men wish
to ensure that their property will be passed on only to their sons.
The core goal of socialist feminism was to restructure economic life to
achieve gender equality.
Key Proponent—Charles Fourier, Friedrich Engels, August
Bebel, Juliet Mitchells, and Sheila Row Botham.
Radical Feminism
The central feature of radical feminism is the belief that sexual
oppression is the most fundamental feature of society and other forms
of injustice—class exploitation, racial hatred, and so on are merely
secondary.
Radical feminism wanted to reshape society entirely, they refer to
patriarchy as a systematic, institutionalized, and pervasive process of
gender oppression.
Female liberation thus requires a sexual revolution in which these
structures are overthrown and replaced.
Radical feminism seeks radical transformation of all spheres of life.
Key Proponent—Virginia Woolf, Simon de Beauvoir,
Shulamith Firestone, Kate Millett, Germaine Greer, and
Eva Figes, etc.
Black Feminism
Black feminism centres on the experiences of black women,
understanding their position in relation to racism, sexism, and classism
as well as other social and political identities.
The core goal of black feminism is to counter interconnected racial,
gender, and class structures.
According to Bell Hooks race, gender, and class discrimination are
all aspects of the same system of hierarchy, which she named
‘imperialist white supremacist capitalist patriarchy.’
Key Proponent—Sojourner Truth, Anna Julia Cooper, and Bell
Hooks, etc.
Trans Feminism
Transfeminism mainly advocates the rights of transgender, especially
transwomen, to identify as their preferred gender rather than the one
they were assigned at birth based on their biological sex.
Its central theme is the rejection of the binary conception of gender.
Key Thinkers—Emi Koyama and Sandy Stone, etc.
Post-feminism
Post-feminism started during the 1980s.
Post-feminism counter the classical feminist idea of considering
women as a victim of patriarchy. It recommends that women need to
plan a greater role to create their place in society.
Key Thinkers—Camille Paglia and Naomi Wolf, etc.
Postcolonial Feminism
Postcolonial feminism, also known as Third World feminism, draws on
postcolonialism, which deliberates experiences undergone during
colonialism, including “migration, slavery, overpowering, resistance,
representation, difference, race, gender, place and responses to the
influential discourses of imperial Europe.” Postcolonial feminism
focusses on racism, ethnic issues, and the long-lasting economic,
political, and cultural effects of colonialism, inextricably bound up with
the unique gendered realities of non-White non-Western women.
Key Thinkers—Gayatri Spivak, Chandra Mohanty etc.
3. Who said, ‘within the family, he is the bourgeois, and the wife represent
the proletariat.’?
(a) Elshtain
(b) Friedrich Engels
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Friedan
Thinkers Relation
a. Kate Millett 1. The Personal is
Political
b. Second Wave 2. Power-structured
relationship
c. Betty Friedan 3. Socialist Feminist
d. Juliet Mitchell 4. National Organizat
of Women
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Books Author
s
A. The Feminine i) Betty Friedan
Mystique
B. Sex and Destiny ii) Germaine Greer
C. Women and War iii) J. B. Elshtain
D. The Second Sex iv) Simon de Beauvoi
8. The First time the right to vote to women was given in which year?
(a) 1894
(b) 1893
(c) 1920
(d) 1918
Thinkers Works
a. Carole Pateman 1. Women, Resistanc
and Revolution
b. Shulanith Firestone 2. The Dialectic of Se
c. Germaine Greer 3. The Female Eunuc
d. Sheila Rowbotham 4. Sexual Contract
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
Thinkers Books
a. Sojourner Truth 1. Woman Hating
b. Germaine Greer 2. Public Man, Private
Woman
c. Jean Bethke Elshtain 3. Ain’t I a Woman
Thinkers Books
d. Andrea Dworkin 4. Sex and Destiny
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–1, c–2, d–3
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–4, c–2, d–1
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Ecologism or Green Political Theory has been regarded as a distinctive
ideological tradition since the 1970s. Ecologism was viewed as an ideology
due to three main theoretical developments. First is the ecocentric ‘worldview,’
second is anthropocentrism or human-centred biasness and third is the
emergence of ‘deep’ ecology.
The term ‘ecology’ was coined by the german zoologist Ernst Haeckel
in 1866, in his work ‘German Morphology (1866).’ Ecologism as a political
term has been increasingly in use especially in the year the 1960s, by the
growing green movement. As a new political ideology, it is based on the
position that the non-human world is worthy of moral consideration and that
this should be considered in social, economic, and political systems.
Rachel Carson’s ‘Silent Spring’ is often considered the first book to
draw attention to a developing ecological crisis. Other important early works
included Ehrlich and Harriman’s ‘How to be a Survivor (1971),’
Goldsmith et al.’s ‘Blueprint for Survival (1972),’ the unofficial UN report
‘Only One Earth (1972),’ and the Club of Rome’s ‘The Limits to Growth
(1972).’
TYPES OF ECOLOGISM
I. Eco-Socialism: the core theme of eco-socialism is the idea that
capitalism is the enemy of the environment, whilst while socialism is its
friend. This variant of ecologism is usually associated with Marxism.
Rudolph Bahro (1982) argued that ‘the root cause of the
environmental crisis is capitalism.’ This type of ecological thought
could be seen amongst the German Greens.
II. Eco-Anarchism: Anarchists believe in a stateless society, in which
harmony develops out of mutual respect and social solidarity amongst
human beings. They have also advocated the construction of
decentralized societies, organized as a collection of communes or
villages, a social vision to which many deep ecologies are also
attracted, and recognized by the high degree of self-sufficiency.
Murray Bookchin’s ‘Our Synthetic Environment(1975),’ can be
seen as a prominent publication in this regard.
III. Eco-Feminism; The basic theme of this type of ecologism is that
ecological destruction has its origin in patriarchy. Mary Daly in
‘Gyn/Ecology (1979)’ argued that women would liberate themselves
from patriarchal culture if they aligned themselves with ‘female nature.’
It is argued that women are creatures of nature, and men are
creatures of culture: their world is synthetic or literally man-made, a
product of human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.
1. Support environment
Environment conservation is in the
conservation only for human
interest of all living species.
interest and needs.
GAIA HYPOTHESIS
A UK atmospheric chemist, inventor, and environmental thinker, James
Lovelock is best known as the inventor of the ‘Gaia Hypothesis’ in the
1970s. According to Gaia Hypothesis, the ‘Earth’s biosphere, atmosphere,
oceans, and soil exhibit precisely the kind of self-regulating behaviour that
characterises other forms of life.’ James Lovelock developed that the
planet itself is alive with stones, rivers, and mountains, often conceived of as
‘Mother Earth’ and gave it the name ‘Gaia’, after the ‘Greek goddess of the
Earth.’ Gaia also contains a revolutionary vision of the relationship between
the animate and inanimate world. This theory suggests that the health of the
planet matter more than that of any individual species presently living on it.
Rachel Carson
Rachel Carson became increasingly interested in the effects of a wide
variety of pesticides and wrote ‘Silent Spring (1962).’ In it, she marshalled
evidence showing that long-lasting pesticides, such as DDT, had been
destructive for different kinds of living beings, including humans.
Important books by her are:
Arne Naess
Known for his philosophy, Ecosophy T (a philosophy of ecological harmony or
equilibrium, the ‘T’ is for the Tvergastein hut in which he lived in solitude high
on a Norwegian mountain), which was influenced by the ideas of Sponzia,
M. K. Gandhi’s ethic of non-violence and Taoist thought, was based on the
assertion that ‘the Earth does not belong to human beings.’
Important books by him are:
Murray Bookchin
He was a leading proponent of the idea of ‘social ecology.’ He linked the
environmental crisis to the breakdown of the organic fabric of both society and
nature.
His major works in this field include:
Caroline Merchant
Most prominent among the eco-feminist. Her work has highlighted links
between gender oppression and the ‘death of nature.’ She developed a
feminist critique of a scientific revolution that explained environmental
degradation ultimately in terms of the application by men of a mechanistic
view of nature.
Her major works are:
Rudolf Bahro
He is best known for his attempts to reconcile socialism with ecological
theories. His major works in this field such as ‘Socialism and Survival (1982),’
in which he presented capitalism as the root cause of the environmental crisis,
and socialism as its solution. In ‘From Red to Green (1984),’ he argued that
the ecological crisis had become so pressing that it must take precedence
over the class struggle.
Most Expected Practice Questions
1. The club of Rome’s report ‘The Limits to Growth’ book was published i
the year?
(a) 1962
(b) 1970
(c) 1971
(d) 1972
7. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Gaia Hypothesis, the Earth’s biosphere,
atmosphere, and oceans exhibit self-regulating behaviour.
Reason (R): Gaia contains a revolutionary vision of the relationship
between the animate and inanimate world.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Thinkers Books
a. Rachel Carson 1. Ecology of Wisdom
b. Arne Naess 2. From Red to Green
c. Murray Bookchin 3. Silent Spring
d. Rudolf Bahro 4. Ecology of Freedom
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
(b) a–3, b–4, c–1, d–2
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–2, b–3, c–4, d–1
10. Who among the following was influenced by the ideas of Sponzia, M. K.
Gandhi’s ethic of Non-violence, and Taoist thought?
(a) David Ehernfeld
(b) William Morris
(c) Niels Bohr
(d) Arne Naess
11. Who suggests that, if wealth is owned in common it will be used in the
interests of all, which means in the long-term interests of humanity:
(a) Eco-Anarchism
(b) Eco-Socialism
(c) Eco-Feminism
(d) All of the above
12. Which among the following statement is incorrect about Deep Ecology?
(a) Deep Ecology term was coined by Arne Naess
(b) Deep ecology rejects anthropocentrism
(c) It favours ecocentrism or biocentrism
(d) The value of human life is way more important than the life of o
species
C. No Limits to growth
D. Resource Exploitation
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) A and D only
(d) B and C only
Answer Key
12. According to Deep ecology, humans are part of the ecosystem and not
above it, hence the value of human life is equal to the value of the life
of other species. Hence Option D is the incorrect one here.
14. Options A and D represent ecological views but not from the point of
view of environmental ethics. Hence, Answer would be Option B.
CHAPTER 7
Multiculturalism
INTRODUCTION
Multiculturalism was started as a movement for the protection of rights and
liberties of marginalized sections of society in western liberal countries. It is a
contemporary political ideology, and it became popular during the 1970s and
80s. In 1971 Canada was the first to officially adopt the principle of
Multiculturalism as part of Public Policy. Canada’s multicultural policy helped
in protecting the minority french-speaking community of Quebec province.
Multiculturalism as a political ideology originated as a challenge to the idea of
individualism in liberal ideology.
Politics of Recognition
Communitarian thinkers’ critique of liberal individualism help multiculturalist to
raise the aspect of ‘Politics of Recognition.’ The politics of recognition is a
concept developed by Charles Taylor. Charles Taylor says that we do
not become full human agents and define our identity in isolation from others,
rather, ‘we define our identity always in dialogue with, sometimes in struggle
against the things our significant others want to see in us.’ He was trying to
say that culture is an intrinsic part of people living in a political society, hence,
it’s the responsibility of the state to recognize cultural variation. Recognition of
cultural differences give the assurance that the law of the land will not be
universally implemented, rather government will make exception according to
cultural differences. For example, in India Schedule 8 of the Indian
Constitution recognize the 22 languages as an important part of Indian culture
and ensure their protection.
Will Kymlicka
He tries to fit in the ideas of cultural diversity and group-differentiated rights,
within the theory of liberalism. Will Kymlicka believes that ‘liberalism also
contains a broader account of the relationship between the individual and
society—and, in particular, of the individual’s membership in a community and
a culture.’ He mentions five key ethnic cultural groups viz:
Charles Taylor
Charles Taylor is famous for his concept of ‘Politics of Recognition.’
According to him the integrity of cultures is important for a good life. He used
the word ‘Irreducibly Social’ to determine the importance of a culture in a
society. Charles Taylor argues we should adopt the presumption of equal
worth for all cultures. Important books by him are:
Sources of the Self (1989) and
Multiculturalism and the politics of recognition (1992).
Tariq Modood
He is critical for the secularization of society. He said, ‘radical secularism’ can
only be achieved by using illiberal means. According to him, cultural diversity
is important, and he supported the idea of multicultural theory against the
growing opposition due to radical Islamism and the immigration crisis.
Important books by him:
Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity, and Muslims in Britain (2005)
and
Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea (2007).
Bhikhu Parekh
He rejected universalist liberalism and supported the idea of pluralism in
society. He supported the idea of positive discrimination (reservation) for
creating opportunities for cultural minority groups. Important books by him are:
Colour, Culture and Consciousness (1974) and
Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory
(2002).
Stuart Hall
He is one of the most important scholars responsible for the foundation of the
field of cultural studies. He defined cultural identity as ‘a sort of collective “one
true self”…which many people with a shared history and ancestry hold in
common.’ He is also famously known as the ‘Godfather of Multiculturalism.’
An important book by him is:
Questions of Cultural Identity (1996)
Isaiah Berlin
Isaiah Berlin is famous for his idea of ‘Value Pluralism.’ He stands for the
view that different cultures have different social values and this might lead to
conflicts in a society. According to him conflicting ideas, cultures, and values
were core to human life.
James Tully
In his book ‘Strange Multiplicity (1995)’ he countered the idea of modern
constitutionalism which is universalist in nature and rejects the cultural
diversity and self-governance right of the people.
B. Isaiah Berlin
C. Friedrich Nietzsche
D. Martin Heidegger
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
Thinkers Books
Thinkers Books
a. Charles Taylor 1. Strange Multiplicity
b. Tariq Modood 2. Multicultural Odyss
c. James Tully 3. Multicultural Politic
d. Will Kymlika 4. Sources of the self
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–4, b–3, c–2, d–1
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
B. Unencumbered Self
C. Politics of Recognition
D. Individualism
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) B and D only
9. Who said that ‘we define our identity always in dialogue with, sometime
in struggle against, the things our significant others want to see in us’?
(a) Will kymlicka
(b) Charles Taylor
(c) Stuart Hall
(d) Tariq Modood
11. Will kymlicka talked about which of the following rights to achieve
multicultural citizenship?
a. Self-Government Rights
b. Polyethnic Rights
12. Which among the following book is not related to Will Kymlicka?
(a) Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights
(b) Multicultural Odysseys
(c) Rethinking Multiculturalism
(d) Liberalism, Community, and Culture
13. Which among the following statement represent the Metics group?
(a) illegal immigrants and not eligible for citizenship
(b) legal immigrants and eligible for citizenship
(c) immigrants looking for integration
(d) All of the above
16. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Multiculturalism begins with the understanding that
liberal democracies have been able to ensure equal citizenship for all its
members.
Reason (R): Multiculturalism recommends policies that enhance
cultural diversity in society.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
17. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Robert Putnam believes that an increase in cultural
diversity created the problem of social capital.
Reason (R): Barry argues that egalitarian justice is only concerned
with ensuring a reasonable range of equal opportunities.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Thinkers Concept
a. Charles Taylor 1. Group Differentiate
Rights
b. Tariq Modood 2. Value Pluralism
c. Isaiah Berlin 3. Radical Secularism
d. Will Kymlicka 4. Politics of Recognit
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–4, b–3, c–2, d–1
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Thinkers Books
a. Bhikhu Parekh 1. Multiculturalism: A
Civic Idea
b. Tariq Modood 2. Rethinking
Multiculturalism
c. Stuart Hall 3. Politics in the
Vernacular
d. Will Kymlika 4. Questions of Cultur
Identity
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–4, b–3, c–2, d–1
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Post-modernism emerges in the late twentieth-century as a sharp reaction
against the negative consequences of modernity. Post-modernism challenges
some basic assumptions of modernity. Post-modernism first emerges in the
field of art and literature, and later on in other disciplines. It rejects the idea
that there is a single meaning of truth.
It subscribes to the idea that there are multiple truths and multiple realities.
There is no objective reality and rejects the idea of meta-narrative. The term
post-modernism was first used by Jean Francois Lyotard in his book
‘The Post-Modern Condition (1979).’ In Jean Francois Lyotard’s words, it
is ‘incredulity towards meta-narratives.’ It simply means disbelief in ‘any grand
theory.’ Fredrick Nietzsche is known as the father of post-modernism.
Modernism Post-Modernism
DECONSTRUCTION
Jacques Derrida has given the concept of deconstruction in his book ‘Of
Grammatology (1967).’ It is a literary theory which challenges the
interpretation of the text and meaning that was developed in western or we
can say in modern philosophy. According to Jacques Derrida, a particular
text may have multiple meanings. It rejects the binary interpretation of the
world developed by western philosophy like—white/black, masculine/feminine,
cause/effect, right/wrong, and good/bad, etc. It is not always possible that the
other person receives exactly what is being communicated. Hence, it
challenges a definitive interpretation of the text. He suggests double reading.
PRODUCTIVE DIFFERENCE
Gilles Deleuze used the principle of productive difference against the
model of thought given by Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel.
Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel both used the concept of ‘reason’ in
their philosophy to achieve the final objectives of their political philosophy. By
dialectics, G. W. F. Hegel tried to phase out the difference and
contradictions available in an idea to achieve the absolute idea. According to
post-modernism, differences and contractions in thoughts are productive.
Gilles Deleuze declares that difference is thinkable only as repetition
repeating itself, where difference affirms itself in eternally differing from itself.
Its movement is productive, but without logical opposition, negation, or
necessity.
B. Isaiah Berlin
C. Fredrick Nietzsche
D. Martin Heidegger
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
6. Who defined post-modernism as ‘incredulity towards meta-narratives’?
(a) Michael Foucault
(b) Jean Francois Lyotard
(c) Jacques Derrida
(d) Jean Baudrillard
7. Who among the following held the view that ‘God is dead’?
(a) Jean Francois Lyotard
(b) Michael Foucault
(c) Martin Heidegger
(d) Fredrick Nietzsche
Thinkers Works
a. Fredrick Nietzsche 1. Madness and
Civilization
b. Michel Foucault 2. Being and Time
c. Martin Heidegger 3. On the Genealogy
Morals
d. Jean Francois Lyotard 4. Post-Modern
Condition: A Repor
Knowledge
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–2, c–1, d–4
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(d) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
13. Which among the following ideology rejected the principle of universal
theories of history?
(a) Ecologism
(b) Multiculturalism
(c) Post-modernism
(d) Feminism
14. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other is labelled as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): According to Jacques Derrida, a particular text may
have multiple meanings.
Reason (R): Gilles Deleuze declares that difference is thinkable only
as repetition repeating itself, where difference affirms itself in eternally
differing from itself.
Choose the correct option:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
15. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other is labelled as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): Michael Foucault held that we do not discover the
truth, we construct the truth.
Reason (R): Michael Foucault supported the idea of enlightenment
and structuralism.
Choose the correct option:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Liberty is so essential to human life, that hundreds of arguments against it
won’t be well enough to convince humans to compromise it. Caudwell says,
‘Liberty is a concept about whose nature men have quarrelled perhaps more
than about any other.’ Individual liberty is one of the central pillars of Liberal
Political Thought. Greek Political Thought refused to accept the notion of
individual liberty against society and state, but in modern times principle of
liberty is the central idea to put the interest of the individual ahead of society
and state. The term ‘Liberty’ and ‘Freedom’ have almost similar meanings, but
still, they were used separately to express the ideological differences between
Liberal and Socialist Thought. ‘Freedom’ is the state of being free from any
oppression, while ‘Liberty’ is the freedom to act in one’s own way.
DEFINITIONS OF LIBERTY
Thomas Hobbes—‘By liberty is understood…absence of external
impediments, which impediments may often part of man’s power to do
what he would do.’
John Locke—‘Where there is no Law, there is no Freedom.’
Rousseau—‘Liberty consists in obedience to General Will.’
Pericles—‘freedom meat advancement and political activity for full
citizen.’
T. H. Green—‘Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying
those things which are worthy of doing and enjoying.’
L. T. Hobhouse—‘The unchartered freedom of one would be the
conditional servitude of all but one, and conversely, a freedom to be
enjoyed by all must impose some restraint upon all.’
Harold J. Laski—‘Liberty is the absence of restraints upon the
existence of those social conditions which in modern civilization are a
necessary guarantee of individual happiness.’
Karl Marx—‘Freedom is the “Recognition of necessity.’
G. W. F. Hegel—‘Liberty is obedience to the law.’
5. Who said, ‘The need for liberty for each is necessarily qualified an
conditioned by the need for liberty for all’?
(a) Thomas Paine
(b) Herbert Spencer
(c) Harold J. Laski
(d) Ernest Barker
B. L. T. Hobhouse
C. Thomas Paine
D. Herbert Spencer
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and D only
(d) C and D only
B. David Friedman
C. Amartya Sen
D. Milton Friedman
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and D only
(d) C and D only
12. Which among the following is important for the realization of liberty
according to Harold J. Laski?
The absence of special privileges.
The presence of rights
Responsible Government
Code:
(a) Only (1) and (3)
(b) Only (2) and (3)
(c) (1) and (2)
(d) All of the above
13. Given below are the two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Negative Liberty of the individual consists in not being
prevented from attaining his goal by other human beings.
Reason (R): Freedom is the absence of restraints. In the context of
the two statements, which one of the following is the correct answer:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
14. Isaiah Berlin’s distinction between Positive Liberty and Negative Liberty
is given in?
(a) Essay on Liberty
(b) Two Essays on Liberty
(c) Three Essays on Liberty
(d) Four Essays on Liberty
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Equality is a contested concept of political theory and it is widely used in
modern political thought but with diverging understandings. In classical
and medieval political philosophy, the principle of equality is not very
well accepted, they had a profound belief in the idea of natural
inequality, for example, Plato’s view that people with higher rational
skill can be part of the Ruling Class, similarly, Aristotle rejected
citizenship to women and slaves. Hence, they didn’t advocate the
principle of equal treatment of people by the State.
Equality got its wing in modern political philosophy. The idea of
Individualism first led to the establishment of Foundational
Equality/Formal Equality. With the advent of time, the concept of
equality has tracked down multiple dimensions and became the dividing
line between the different Schools of Thought.
Natural
Qualities and differences among the
Inequalitie
people like, beauty, intelligence, and
s health, etc. can’t be controlled.
But their discriminating effects can be
minimized.
Inequalities created by society on the basis
Conventio of economic status, sex, colour, caste,
nal race, ethinicity, and religion etc.
Inequalitie The Concept of equality in political theory
s is mainly associated with these kind of
Inequalities.
Formal Equality
It is also known as ‘Foundational Equality.’
This idea was developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries from natural rights theory.
It says all humans are equal by virtue of their shared human
essence and equal rights.
It can be further divided into ‘Legal Equality’ and ‘Political
Equality.’
For example—
the American Declaration of Independence (1776) declares ‘All
men are created equal.’
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)
states ‘Men are born and remain free and equal in right.’
Legal Equality
It is part of formal equality. This concept of legal equality says that all
the citizens in the state are equal in the eyes of the law. Law and
judiciary will not discriminate based on wealth, colour, caste, religion,
and creed. Thinkers—Ernest Barker, J. R. Lucas, A. V. Dicey,
Ivor Jennings, John Locke, Bentham, and John Austin, etc.
Political Equality
It implies equal political rights for citizens. The doctrine of political
equality is based on the conception of individuals as rational beings,
capable of political judgment irrespective of any disparities. Political
rights are given in democratic states, common people can’t participate in
a dictatorial state. Political Equality ensures things like universal
suffrage, the Right to Contest Election, etc.
Substantive Equality
The idea of Substantive Equality is different from the formal perspective
of equality. It tries to reduce those inequalities which are popularly
present in society, despite the availability of foundational equality by the
law of the state. It can be divided into two types i.e. Social Equality and
Economic Equality.
Social Equality
The concept of social equality came as a revolt against social
inequalities. Discrimination within a society is based on class, caste,
religion, colour, and creed, etc. It stands on the idea that there are
differences in society, but they should not be attached to the idea of
inferiority and superiority among the people. Some of the important
characteristics of social equality are:
Economic Equality
Economic equality is the basis of all equality because where there are
poor and rich within a society legal, political, and social equality is not
possible. Rousseau said ‘the poor and rich are simultaneously
dangerous for equality and the whole society.’ It mainly stands for the
view that no individual in the society should feel that because of
economic causes he/she is unable to have social, moral, mental, and
physical development. Economic equality means every person should
have equal chances to earn his livelihood. The key characteristics of
economic equality are:
R. H. Tawney
In his book ‘Equality (1931),’ he counters the capitalist order of
society and recommended that equality can be achieved by
spreading wealth evenly among social classes.
R. H. Tawney suggested that government bring laws that
would impose income limits on all individuals.
Bentham
He was the first thinker to give the concept of political equality
(one person, one vote).
He used the concept of his utilitarian theory also his principle of
utility presupposes that ‘one man is worth just the same as
another man’ and so there is a guarantee that in calculating the
greatest happiness ‘each person is to count for one and no one
for more than one.’
Michael Walzer
In his famous book ‘Sphere of Justice,’ he tried to explain that
equality can’t be achieved by simply equal distribution of goods to
all. People from different cultural communities have different
values for the same good, and hence ensuring equality while
recognizing cultural differences is a complex phenomenon.
Michael Walzer said social goods (rights, health, wealth, and
education, etc.) have different meanings to different societies. So,
each social group will have its own principle to distribute goods.
7. Match List - I with List - II and give the correct answer from the
codes:
List-I (Equality) List-II (Related Ideas)
(a) Equal (i) Eradicating specia
privileges
(b) Uniformity (ii) Most vital form of
equality
(c) Formal equality (iii) Regimentation an
social engineering
(d) Equality of outcomes (iv) Identical physical
characteristics
Codes :
(a) (a) → (iii), (b) → (iv), (c) → (i), (d) → (ii)
(b) (a) → (iii), (b) → (i), (c) → (ii), (d) → (iv)
(c) (a) → (iv), (b) → (ii), (c) → (iii), (d) → (i)
(d) (a) → (iv), (b) → (iii), (c) → (i), (d) → (ii)
12. Consider the following statements and choose the correct one
regarding Equality:
i. Equality of outcome implies that all runners finish the race in
together
ii. Equality of opportunity does not legitimise unequal outcomes
iii. Equality of outcome wishes to ensure economic equity in soci
iv. Equality of opportunity wishes to ensure economic equalit
society.
Code:
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (ii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(d) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
14. Who said, ‘There must be sufficiency for all before there can be
superfluity for a few’?
(a) John Rawls
(b) Harold J. Laski
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Ernest Barker
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13.
(d) (b) (d) (d) (b) (c) (b)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14.
(a) (b) (b) (c) (a) (a) (b).
CHAPTER 11
Justice
INTRODUCTION
The concept of justice is an integral part of political philosophy. Since
ancient times scholars argued about the conception of justice. Plato’s
‘Republic’ is one of the classical texts where we have seen diverse
conceptions of justice. Aristotle also presented his vision of
‘Proportional Justice’ in his work ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ and in ‘Politics’
book. The idea of justice initially started as a philosophical view based
on morals and ethics. In modern political thought, it moved towards the
idea of liberty and equality of citizens in the eyes of the state. In
contemporary political thought, justice is concerned with the allocation of
goods, services, opportunities, benefits, power, and honours in society.
Communitarian thought
Distributive justice
Complex equality
8. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
List-1 List-2
a. justice as one 1. Plato
person, one duty, one
class, one work
b. justice as fairness 2. Aristotle
c. justice as 3. John Rawls
proportionate equality
d. justice as interest of 4. Thrasymachus
the strong
Codes:
A b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(a) 2 1 3 4
(a) 2 1 4 3
(a) 1 3 2 4
11. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3
(d) 3 4 2 1
12. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 2 1 4 3
(d) 3 4 2 1
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
A state is known by the rights it maintains, proclaimed Harold J. Laski. The
philosophy of rights is the best contribution of liberal theory to political
science. The bedrock of rights lies with the US Declaration of Independence
(1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
(1789). Rights are termed as guarantees provided to individuals ‘against the
arbitrary action of their state and government’. However, this individualistic
notion of rights which emerged from the writings of Thomas Hobbes and
John Locke soon got new iterations and today we are having multiple
theories and understandings of rights.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Harold J. Laski - ‘Rights are those conditions of life, without which no man,
in general, can seek to be at his best.’
T. H. Green - ‘Rights are powers necessary for the fulfilment of man’s
vocation as a moral being.’
J. S. Mill - ‘If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would
be no more justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power,
would be in silencing mankind.’
There are two broad categories of rights: negative rights and positive
rights. Negative rights reflect the influence of the concept of negative liberty
on the framework of rights. They are also known as ‘exclusionary’ rights
because they treat individuals as completely sovereign whereas positive
rights emphasize the need for state action to ensure the proper enjoyment of
rights. Hence, examples of negative rights include the right to free speech and
expression and the right to carry guns in America, and examples of positive
rights may consist of the right to free education and the right to equal pay for
equal work etc.
RIGHTS AS ‘TRUMPS’
Liberal egalitarian thinker Ronald Dworkin provided rights as the supreme
ideals, and they are irreplaceable and cannot be superseded by any other
rational argument. According to Ronald Dworkin, no social norm or goal
could precede rights. Rights are an inalienable and non-separable part of
humanity and stand above all other non-right objectives e.g. social prestige or
traditions.
6. ‘To deny people their human rights are to challenge their very humanity
Who said this?
(a) M. K. Gandhi
(b) Nelson Mandela
(c) Martin Luther King Jr.
(d) Abraham Lincoln
3. Group rights means the specific right of a group which are not availa
other group.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) None
8. According to Natural Rights Theory, rights are provided against:
1. State
2. Society
3. Fellow individuals
10. United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in:
(a) 1945
(b) 1947
(c) 1948
(d) 1949
Theory Thinkers
a. Legal Rights Theory 1. Thomas Hobbes
Theory Thinkers
b. Natural Right Theory 2. Holland
c. Functional Right 3. Joseph Raz
Theory
d. Multicultural Theory of 4. Harold J. Laski
Right
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–2, c–1, d–4
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(d) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–4, c–1, d–2
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(d) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
13. The statement ‘Rights emanate from the moral character of man’?
(a) Functional Theory of Rights
(b) Legal Theory of Rights
(c) Utilitarian Theory of Rights
(d) Moral Theory of Rights
14. Who among the following are supporters of the ‘Legal Rights Theory’?
A. T. H. Green
B. John Austin
C. John Salmond
D. Immanuel Kant
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
15. Consider the following statements and choose the incorrect ones
regarding Rights:
i. They are recognized by society.
ii. Rights are conditional upon the performance of duties and obligatio
iii. They are only essential for the individual.
iv. Restrictions cannot be placed on the exercise of the rights.
Code:
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (iii), and (iii)
(d) (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv)
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 12. 14. 15.
(d) (c) (d) (c) (a) (c) (b)
2. 5. 8. 11.
13. (d)
(a) (c) (d) (b)
3. 6.
9. (b)
(b) (b)
15. Option (iii) is incorrect because rights are also useful for social
development and not just for an individual. Option (iv) is also incorrect
because restrictions can be placed on the rights of people for the
greater interest of society. The question is asking to select the incorrect
option. So, the answer will be B.
CHAPTER 13
Democracy
INTRODUCTION
The term democracy and the classical conception of democratic rule are
firmly rooted in Ancient Greece. The core element of democracy is self-
rule. The Greek historian Herodotus used the term ‘democracy’ in the
fifth-century BCE to mean ‘rule by the people.’ This term is derived from a
combination of two Greek words: ‘demos’, meaning ‘the people’ and
‘kratien’, meaning ‘to rule.’ However, the modern understanding of
democracy, on the other hand, is dominated by the sort of electoral
democracy that has emerged in the industrialized West, generally
referred to as liberal democracy. Democracy is not just a form of
government, it’s a way of associated living in which we respect and
tolerate diversity and share power with each other in the process of
decision-making.
Components of Democratic Culture:
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
Direct Democracy: Direct democracy is a system of government in
which all public decisions are made at regular meetings by the whole
body of citizens. It is also referred to as Participatory Democracy.
Aristotle defined direct democracy as ‘all commanding each and each,
in turn, commanding all.’ Rousseau propounded the idea of direct
democracy as a popular sovereign in a modern sense. According to him
‘only with the participation of people that general will can be filtered.’ In a
direct democracy, the State and society become one. The major
supporters of Direct Democracy were: Rousseau, Benjamin Barber,
Nancy Fraser, and M. K. Gandhi etc.
In a direct democracy, the following principles apply:
1. People are sovereign,
2. Sovereignty is inalienable and cannot be represented,
3. People must express their general will and make decisions directly
through referendums, and
4. Decisions will be made by majority vote.
6. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the
code given below:
Assertion (A): The system of democracy recognises the equality
of all people and stands for the government of the common people.
Reason (R): It is commonly believed that government is largely
controlled and managed by the ‘power elite.’
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
9. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
a b c d
( 4 3 2 1
a , , ,
)
( 2 1 3 1
b , , ,
)
( 2 4 1 3
c , , ,
)
( 4 2 3 1
d , , ,
)
11. Who said, ‘Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible,
but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.’?
(a) Rawls
(b) Reinhold Niebuhr
(c) Friedrich Nietzsche
(d) Isaiah Berlin
12. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): The idea of democratic citizenship comes very
close to the concept of participatory democracy.
Reason (R): Democracy citizenship is intended to introduce an
element of full-fledged political participation.
Choose the correct option:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explana
of (A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Politics is considered as the study of ‘shaping and sharing of power.’ Power is
one of the most fundamental concepts in political science. It holds the same
status in political science as money has in economics. In a general sense
concept of power links, to the ability to achieve the desired outcome
sometimes referred to as power. At an individual level, it is the individual’s
ability to impose one’s will on others. At a global level, it is the ability of a
nation or country to conduct its affairs without interference from other
countries in global politics.
Power has three important ingredients:
(a) Force,
(b) Influence, and
(c) Authority.
Pluralist Elitist
Important Definitions
H. Lasswell and A. Kaplan—‘Political science is ‘the study of the shaping
and sharing of power’
Hobbes—‘There is a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and
restless desire for power after power that ceased only in death.’
Bertrand Russell—‘Power denotes the ability of a person to fulfil his
desires or to achieve his objectives.’
H.V. Wiseman—‘Power is the ability to get one’s wishes carried out despite
opposition.’
Hannah Arendt—‘Only power but never violence can create legitimate
authority.’
Robert M MacIver—‘Power is the capacity to command services or
compliance of others.’
Nietzsche—‘Power is a capacity to define reality.’
Lord Acton—‘Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely.’
Pareto—‘History of mankind is nothing but a graveyard of the aristocracy.’
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 2 3 1 4
, , ,
(b) 3 2 4 1
, , ,
(c) 1 3 4 2
, , ,
(d) 4 2 1 3
, , ,
8. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the code
given below:
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 4 3
, , ,
(b) 1 4 2 3
, , ,
(c) 4 2 1 3
, , ,
(d) 1 2 3 4
, , ,
11. Which among the following statements are related to the Non-
Conventional View of Power?
(a) Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely.
(b) Power is the ability to get things done by others even against
wish.
(c) each of us is powerful and powerless at the same time.
Code:
(a) Only (a) and (c)
(b) Only (b)
(c) Only (c)
(d) All of the above
12. Who among the following are not supporters of the Elite Theory of
Power?
A. C. Wright Mills
B. Robert Dahl
C. Robert Michel
D. Gramsci
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and D only
(d) C and D only
Theory Thinkers
a. Pluralist Theory of 1. Hannah Arendt
Power
b. Sociological view of 2. Robert Dahl
power
c. Participative view of 3. Mosca
power
d. Elite Theory of Power 4. Michel Foucault
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–2, c–1, d–4
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(d) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
14. The statement ordinary people do not enjoy power as an individual, but
as a member of a particular association or interest group is related to:
(a) Sociological Theory of Power
(b) Marxist Theory of Power
(c) Elite Theory of Power
(d) Pluralist Theory of Power
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Citizenship denotes the status of an individual as a full and
responsible member of a political community. It is the status of a
person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal
member of a sovereign state or a nation.
Citizenship is the relationship between an individual and the
state. Thus citizens must fulfil their duties and obligations toward
the state as the state grants them civil, political, and social rights.
Hence citizenship implies a two-way relationship between an
individual and the state.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Aristotle—‘who has the power to take part in the deliberative or
judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of
that state.’
Gettel—‘Citizenship is the status of an individual due to which
he enjoys civil and political rights in the state and is ready to fulfil
his obligations.’
Harold J. Laski—‘citizenship is the contribution of one’s
instructed judgment to the public good.’
William Boyd said that ‘citizenship consists in the right ordering
of loyalties.’
T. H. Marshall defines Citizenship as, ‘full and equal
membership in a political community.’
WHO IS A CITIZEN?
There are two types of citizenship.
1. Citizenship by birth (Jus Sanguinis)—if one or both of a
person’s parents are citizens of a given state, then the person
may have the right to be a citizen of that state.
2. Born within a country (Jus Soli)—those people which are born in
the given state will automatically become citizens of that state.
This form originated in England.
THEORIES OF CITIZENSHIP
6. Match List – 1 with List – 2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
Codes.
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
, , ,
(b) 2 1 3 4
, , ,
(c) 2 4 1 3
, , ,
(d) 3 4 2 1
, , ,
10. Assertion (A): Marxist theory argues that rights which are
connected to citizenship are the by-product of class conflict.
Reason(R): Marxist thinkers believe that a state is a tool for the
exploitation of the lower class.
(a) Both are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) R is true but A is false
12. Who defines a citizen as sharing ‘in the civic life of ruling and
being ruled in turn.’?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Cicero
(c) Plato
(d) Socrates
13. Who suggests that the state should go for differentiation between
Men and Women to understand the disadvantages that women
face and should try to compensate for disadvantages?
(a) M. P. Follett
(b) Iris Marion Young
(c) J. S. Mill
(d) Mary Wollstonecraft
14. Match List – 1 with List – 2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
List-1 List-2
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
, , ,
(b) 2 1 4 3
, , ,
(c) 2 4 1 3
, , ,
(d) 3 4 2 1
, , ,
15. Which among the following theory rejected the concept of formal
equality as a basis of citizenship?
(a) Marxist Theory of Citizenship
(b) Liberal Theory of Citizenship
(c) Feminist Theory of Citizenship
(d) Pluralist Theory of Citizenship
Answer Key
1. Who among the following held the view that political theory was
political science in the full sense and there could be no science
without theory. … so political theory may legitimately and accurately be
used as synonymous with political science? (2015)
(a) Germino
(b) Wolin
(c) Crick
(d) Hacker
4. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2015)
Assertion (A): Rule of law implies equality of all in the eyes of law.
Reason (R): Class and caste distinctions dilute the efficacy of
equality.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(d) (R) is correct, but (A) is false.
6. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2016)
Assertion (A): Karl Marx was not the first socialist writer of the 19th
century.
Reason (R): The idea of the class war was spread by St. Simon and
Guizot.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the right explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the right explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
14. Karl Marx, the founder of Marxism, formally was the citizen of
which one of the following countries? (2018)
(a) Germany
(b) France
(c) UK
(d) None of the above
16. Who among the following holds the view that democratic parties
are really oligarchical structures ? (2018)
(a) Robert Michels
(b) Robert Dahl
(c) Harold Lasswell
(d) C Wright Mills
17. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
Author Books
(A)Robert A. Dahi i.Democracy and Disagreement
(B)Iris Marion Young ii.Discursive Democracy: Politics,
Policy and Political Science
(C)John Dryzek iii. Inclusion a
Democrac
(D)Amy Gutmann & iv. Democracy and its Critics
Dennis Thomson
Codes:
(a) (A)-(iv), (B)-(iii), (C)-(ii), (D)-(i)
(b) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iv)
(c) (A)-(iii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(d) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
21. Who among the following said, “Political behavior stands for both
an intellectual tendency and a concrete academic movement”?
(2019)
(a) Dahl
(b) G.A. Almond
(c) Arthur Bentley
(d) David Easton
22. Among the following who is associated with the revival of Political
Theory ? (2019)
(a) David Easton
(b) Lucian Pai
(c) Sydney Verba
(d) Voegelin
24. Given below are the two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer
from the codes given below. (2020)
Assertion (A): Behavioural political theory sought to eliminate the
role of values and make Political Science a pure science and
quantitative.
Reason (R): Political Science, being a social science, can never be
value-free as it deals with human beings who are value - bound.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Directions: Read the passage and answer the 5 questions below: (2020)
From this perspective of democracy, representation can help or hurt
democracy, even if representation cannot be democratic since it cannot
replicate the demos. But the phenomenon of representation reflects an
emotional roller — coaster — great hopes during an election campaign; great
disappointment from the work of governments in office. This problem stems in
part from the fact that representative government and the demos potentially
operate at cross — purposes. The office of a representative results from
elections, which elevate a set of political rulers above the ruled in order to
make the laws. In office, they make compromises to get legislative business
done. Representatives may feel proud of what they accomplished, because
they made the decisions that led to the compromise. But citizens can’t take
pride in legislative work. and they mostly suffer the consequences required by
the compromise. That doesn’t mean representatives always will be scorned;
as mentioned above, their office enables them to undertake political initiatives
not viable during an election campaign or to protect minorities whose needs
may have been neglected.
That said, the necessary activity of legislative compromise takes place
above the heads and behind the backs of the people. As such, it contradicts
the ‘Athenian and Aristotelian understanding of democracies as political
orders that depend on the deliberative and decisive power of citizens (i.e., the
demos) acting with authoritative power. Citizens of the Athenian democracy
were said to rule and be ruled in turn. but in every case their power required
the political presence and deliberative action of citizens.
32. What takes place above the heads and behind the backs of the
people?
(a) Executive arrogance
(b) Judicial activism
(c) Parliamentary sovereignty
(d) Legislative compromise
33. Why could have representatives felt proud of what they accomplished?
(a) They made the decisions for their followers
(b) They made the decisions that led to the compromise
(c) They made a level jump in their career progression
(d) They made their adversaries compromise with their core values
35. The idea of right against the government becomes very useful when
the society is divided into majority and minority on the basis of
(a) Caste
(b) Class
(c) Race
(d) Religion
38. The rights that can be curtailed to achieve common welfare may be
called as:
(a) Strong rights
(b) Fundamental rights
(c) Human rights
(d) Weak rights
39. The immigrating ethnic cultural groups which never get opportunity
to become citizens under multiculturalism are called: (2020)
(a) Metics
(b) National minorities
(c) Immigrant groups
(d) Isolationist ethno-religious groups
42. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from codes
given below (2020)
List I List II
(Concept) (Thinkers)
Codes:
(a) a-1, b-2, c-4, d-3
(b) a-2, b-4, c-1, d-3
(c) a-3, b-1, c-2, d-4
(d) a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2
43. Match the items of List-I with items of List-II by selecting the correct
answer from the codes: (2020)
List I List II
(Thinker) (Theories)
(A)Mao Tse (i)Proletarian
Tung Dictatorship
(B)Lenin (ii) Cultural Revolution
(C)Marx (iii) One Country Socialism
(D)Stalin (iv) Communist Part as the Vanguard of
proletariat
Codes:
(a) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
(b) (A)-(iii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(c) (A)-(iv), (B)-(ii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
(d) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(iii), (D)-(i)
44. Ideology which does not accept the three rights of individual - Life,
Liberty and property, is (2020)
(a) Classical Liberalism
(b) Utilitarianism
(c) Neoliberalism
(d) Marxism
46. Which of the following are the schools of “New Right Ideology”?
(2021)
(A) Austrian school
(B) Chicago school
(C) Frankfurt school
(D) New York school
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and D only
(c) B and C only
(d) A and C only
List I List II
(A)Catherine I.Feminism is for
MacKinnon Everybody
(B)Susan Moller II.The Dialectic of Sex
Okin
(C)S. Firestone III. Toward a Feminist Theo
of State
(D)Bell Hook IV.Justice, Gender and the
Family
50. Prior to Marx, which political thinker had a gender bias in his/her
writings?
(a) Hegel
(b) J. S. Mill
(c) Plato
(d) Mary Wollstonecraft
51. Write the full name of Engels’ book “Origins”?
(a) The origins of Family and the State
(b) The origins of Family and Private Property
(c) The origins of the Family, Private Property and the State
(d) The origins of Family and State Property
List I List II
Author Books
(A)E. F. I.The Silent Spring
Schumacher
(B)James II.The Turning Point
Lovelock
(C)F. Capra III. Gaia: A New Lo
at Life on Earth
(D)Rachel IV.Small is Beautiful: A Study of
Carson Economics as if People Mattered
63. Which one of the following theories is NOT related to Marx? (2021)
(a) Theory of Alienalism
(b) Theory of Surplus Value
(c) Dictatorship of Proletariat
(d) Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
64. Who among the following are not supporters of positive liberty?
(2021)
(A) T. H. Green
(B) John Locke
(C) Harold Laski
(D) Jeremy Bentham
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) B and D only
(c) A and C only
(d) C and D only
69. “Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun”, whose statement
is this? (2021)
(a) Stalin
(b) Mao Zedong
(c) Machiavelli
(d) Hobbes
70. Which one of the following is NOT the basic feature of Post-
Modernism? (2021)
(a) It believes in deconstruction
(b) It is concerned with the concept of feminity
(c) It challenges the accepted theory of International Relations
(d) It is incredulity towards metanarrative
Answer Key
1. In his 1963 article “The Revival of Political Theory” Dante Germino hel
the view that political theory was political science in the full sense an
there could be no science without theory. … so political theory ma
legitimately and accurately be used as synonymous with politica
science.
Hence, the answer will be A.
21. David Easton has said that, “Political Behaviour stands for both an
intellectual tendency and a concrete academic movement”. David
Easton started the concept of behaviouralism in the study of political
systems. Thus, option D is the correct answer.
27.
68. In his classic text “Elites and Society”, Tom Bottomore poses
fundamental questions about the theory and ideology of elites. While a
number of theorists have studied the “power elite,” the Marxist notion of
a ruling class, many more have followed the theories of Pareto and
Mosca, who use the term “elite” to critique Marxism, the very
philosophy from which this concept first originated. Their theories thus
exemplify the complexities and slipperiness particular to this
sociological term.
Hence, the correct answer will be C.
UNIT II
Political Thought
INTRODUCTION
Confucius is considered China’s first philosopher. In Ancient China during
the times of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 256 BC), the political and social
order was going through a phase of decay. Confucius during this phase
tried to restore the Chinese social as well as political system by proposing
the ideas of moral leadership. He is also known as Kung Fu-Tzu (Kong
Fu-Zi) meaning ‘Master Kung.’ He was born in China in 551 BCE. His
thought marks the beginning of the philosophy of Confucianism.
Confucianism is a tradition of ethical and political thought which presents a
close connection between politics and ethics.
Although he was like a teacher to traditional Chinese society, but his
moral philosophy remains the dominant pillar of the political system in
China for almost 2000 years. In the twentieth-century we have seen the
demise of Confucianism from mainland China after the advent of
Communism. Currently, the value of Confucianism is preserved by political
thinkers in Taiwan and Hongkong.
BENEVOLENT GOVERNMENT
According to Confucius, benevolence means ‘to return to the observance
of the rites through overcoming the self.’ In his book, ‘Analects’ Confucius
explained the significance of benevolence in a human as well as in an
institution. Confucius contends that benevolence is not only a matter of
overcoming oneself but also an attitude ‘to love your fellow men.’ He said a
benevolent person is one who follows the Golden Rule i.e. ‘would not do to
others what he himself does not wish others do to him,’ and he would ‘help
others to establish themselves in the same way he wishes to establish
himself.’
A benevolent government will minimize punishment and taxation,
ensure food security, education and employment, a well-field system, and
land demarcating. It will ensure the openness of markets and protect the
people from invasion and unjust war. Confucius’s idea of government is
based on the ‘service conception of authority.’ He determined the legitimacy
of a government based on the commitment to serve the people. If a king is
benevolent and won, the trust of the people by best service then it doesn’t
matter whether he is elected as the selected king. According to
Confucius, a benevolent government can be established by a benevolent
monarch. One who has actualized the sovereign virtue of benevolence in
his every behaviour, he will be recognized as a true gentleman, i.e. ‘Junzi
the Noble Leader.’
Rule of Virtue
In Confucius’s Political Philosophy Rule of Law, constitutionalism, or the
citizen’s participation in the process of governance is not an important
aspect of a political system, for him the goodness of the ruler is everything.
According to him, the virtue that is possessed by the king determines the
destiny of the State. He presented five virtues in general that need to
possess by everyone to ensure a harmonious society:
Benevolence/Humanity (Ren)—Compassion
Propriety (Li)—Social and Moral Behavior
Righteousness/Justice (Yi)—Justice, and morally right.
Wisdom/Knowledge (Zhi)—Familiarity with truth, facts, etc.
Trustworthiness/Integrity (Xin)—Adhering to moral character.
Meritocracy in Government
To ensure that the people responsible for governance are meritorious, in
ancient China various steps are followed in the selection of government
officials. The people with the virtue of filial and incorruptible are
recommended for government positions and first, they serve as junior
officials and after the performance evaluation, they were assigned the
higher positions in government. A system of examination was also
developed in imperial China to determine the meritocracy of officials. Good
command of the Four Books: (the Doctrine of the Mean, the Great
Learning, Mencius, and the Analects) is considered as the most important
qualification to become a government official.
Importance of Education
The pillars on which Confucius built a lofted structure of an ideal society
is ‘Education.’ According to him ‘Education breeds confidence. Confidence
breeds hope. Hope breeds peace.’ He viewed education as central to
achieving proper conduct both within society and in Government. His belief
in education for all, despite of the difference in the status of people.
According to him, a person educated with the moral principles of classical
ideas will be incorruptible. He said if kings are educated then they will have
a just society and their actions will be the guiding principles for the rest of
the people in society. According to him, learning is not enough, if your way
of life is not reflecting your knowledge. In ‘Analects,’ he said that ‘He who
learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great
danger.’ He talked about the ‘Six Arts’ that must be taught to people i.e.
ritual, music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation, but he
considered morality as the most important subject.
Relationship Virtues
Father – Son Filial piety
Ruler – Subject Loyalty
Relationship Virtues
Elder Brother – Younger Brotherliness
Brother
Husband – Wife Love and Obedience
Friend – Friend Faithfulness (One of Equality)
These relations are based on the idea that there are inferior and superior
roles. Each person must fulfil their role without question. This helps society
free itself from chaos. According to Confucius, ‘A country would be well-
governed when all the parties performed their parts aright in these
relationships.’ For Confucius, the father and the son relation is the most
important, because in it the order of society and government is rooted.
3. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the othe
as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Confucius contends that the ‘all under the heaven’
should be common to everyone.
Reason (R): Kings are not the owner of the country, they are
selected by the divine will and trusted by the people to govern the
commonwealth.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
4. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the othe
as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Confucius, benevolence means ‘to
return to the observance of the rites through overcoming the self.’
Reason (R): Confucius’s idea of government is based on the
‘Service conception of Authority.’
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
2. Peaceful Stage
3. Turbulent Stage
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 2, 3, 1
(c) 3, 2, 1
(d) 3, 1, 2
LIST - I LIST - II
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (a) (d) (d) (c) (b) (c)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(d) (b)
CHAPTER 2
Plato
INTRODUCTION
Plato is famously known as the father of political philosophy and his firm
support for ‘idea’ as the source of true knowledge makes him the founder of
philosophical idealism. He was a disciple of Socrates, a staunch critic of
democracy, a great humanist, and a firm believer in man’s rationality. Plato is
known for his elaborate discussions on the Socratic method of dialectics and
for establishing the concept of justice as a cornerstone of political philosophy
in his book ‘Republic.’ The root principle of all his ideas is, he did not merely
interpret the world ‘how it is?,’ rather he dwells deep to find out ‘how it ought
to be?.’ Plato was critical of the then Sophists for their crude ‘rhetoric’ of
realism and advocated the utility of reason. The relevance of Plato could be
understood through these lines of his famous critic Karl Popper: ‘One can
either be Platonic or anti-Platonic but can’t be non-Platonic.’
Allegory of Cave
Plato talked about a hypothetical situation where a few men are kept in a
cave, they are chained and facing towards the wall of cave, and they can’t
look back. In this situation, shadow on the cave’s wall is the only source of
knowledge for them, and they start considering that shadow as the reality.
Plato explained that the knowledge of material world which we consider
as reality is just a shadow of ideas. Through this Plato tried to justify that
the reality we see is just a false and imperfect version of ideas.
As for Plato, ‘the state is individual writ large,’ and the same case also
applies to the broader conception of justice on the level of a city-state. Hence,
essential components of Plato’s justice theory are functional specialization,
non-interference, and following the norm of ‘one virtue—one class—one duty.’
Theory of Education
Rousseau has called ‘The Republic’ as the finest treatise on education to be
ever written. Plato suggested the idea of ‘State Controlled Education’ with
the sole objective to search for the soul or virtues of people for establishing an
Ideal State. Plato has provided for equal and quality state-sponsored
education for all in the society including for the children of producing classes.
Plato’s Theory of Education represents six stages according to the age
group:
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Plato categorises five types of government in the order of best to worst. It
starts with ‘Aristocracy’ at the top and ‘Tyranny’ at the bottom.
Famous Commentaries on Plato:
1. ‘Justice for Plato is at once a part of human virtue and the bond which
joins men together in the states.’—Ernest Barker
2. ‘Virtually all socialistic and communistic thought has its roots in
Plato.’—Maxey
3. ‘Plato may not be everybody’s saint, but undoubtedly, he is
everybody’s teacher.’—R. N. Berki
4. ‘Modern communist totalitarianism has been derived from Platonic
communism.’—Karl Popper
5. ‘Plato is Philosophy and Philosophy is Plato, from out of Plato comes
to all things that are still written and debated among the men of
thought.’—R. W. Emerson
6. ‘Plato’s justice is a bound which holds the society together.’—G. H.
Sabine
Book Author
6. Who said, ‘justice for Plato is at once a part of human virtue and th
bond which joins men together in the states’?
(a) G. H. Sabine
(b) Ernest Barker
(c) Karl Popper
(d) Maxey
11. Who amongst the following stated that ‘One can be either Platonic or
Anti-Platonic but can never be Non-Platonic’?
(a) Aristotle
(b) G. H. Sabine
(c) R. W. Emerson
(d) Karl Popper
12. Consider the following statements and choose the correct one
regarding Plato and his philosophy :
i. Plato was concerned with ‘what is?’ rather than ‘what ought to be?
ii. Reality is the shadow of ideas
iii. In developing his justice idea he used deductive reasoning
iv. Each category of person is assigned a task to which they are natu
suited
Code:
(a) i and iii
(b) i, ii, and iii
(c) ii, iii, and iv
(d) i, ii, iii, and iv
Codes:
(a) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
(b) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(c) a–2, b–3, c–4, d–1
(d) a–4, b–3, c–2, d–1
c.The Laws 3. The order and character of the just city state
Codes:
(a) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
(b) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(c) a–2, b–3, c–4, d–1
(d) a–3, b–4, c–2, d–1
Answer Key
8. Option A is correct because Plato deduced a just state from the Theor
of the Soul. Option D is also correct because Plato believed that th
Communism of Family in Guardian class will create the best race o
administrators. Option B is incorrect because Plato ensured the equalit
of sexes in his Theory of Education. Option C is incorrect becaus
according to Plato Democracy is the worst form. The question is asking
for selecting incorrect statements.
10. Plato believed that a ruler should be a person with superior rational and
intellectual qualities. The best rule according to him is a rule by a
philosopher who understands the concept of Good.
INTRODUCTION
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was an ancient Greek Philosopher. He is
known as the father of political science as well as the father of
comparative politics due to his comparative study of 158 constitutions. He
was an illustrious disciple of Plato but also his biggest critique. He was
also a tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle’s political thought can
be considered conservative, due to his presence for stability over change.
Aristotle believes in the middle path, according to him, the ‘Golden
Mean is the Golden Rule.’
Influence of Plato’s Philosophy on Aristotle:
From Plato, he acquired the understanding that man is social by
nature and must live an associated existence. Society is an
essential component of man’s life.
The opposition to democracy and considering it as a corrupt form
of Government.
An idealistic and moral understanding state, as Plato believed
that the State exists to help individuals achieve moral perfection.
Plato Aristotle
Plato Aristotle
THEORY OF STATE
As Aristotle considered that ‘Man is by nature a political animal,’ and
God has not made humans self-sufficient. Hence, living within an
association is the destiny of a human being (Teleological argument). He
rhetorically said, ‘The man who can live without the state is either a beast
or god but cannot be a man.’
According to him ‘State is a union of families and villages.’ Hence, the
‘State is biggest of all associations.’ Further solidifying the position of the
State, Aristotle claimed that ‘Chronologically man is prior to state but
logically state is prior to man.’ Aristotle establishes that a state is a
natural institution by suggesting the origin of a state lies in the natural
needs of man. He said, that ‘State comes into existence for the sake of
life & continues for the sake of good life.’
THEORY OF CONSTITUTION
‘Good ruler ought to be worldly-wise rather than wise in the world of
ideas.’—Aristotle
Aristotle is known as the father of constitutionalism because he
does not permit the deviation between the constitution and the manner of
government.
There were three major components to the constitutional rule:
First, it was a rule in the general or common interest of the public,
as opposed to a faction or tyrant’s government which is in the
interest of a ruler or a faction,
second, a government could not act in violation of the constitution,
and
third, constitutional government means to rule by consent of
subjects rather than force.
THEORY OF CITIZENSHIP
According to Aristotle, all the residents of a state are not its citizens. In
ancient Greek city-states women, slaves, and aliens were not regarded
as citizens. According to Aristotle citizenship is a duty or responsibility.
It is a duty to participate in the affairs of the states. Aristotle recognized
‘citizenship’ as the privilege of the ruling class. Hence, he excludes those
groups which are not capable of performing these roles:
Women—he believes women are inferior to men. He confines
women within the four walls of the family.
Old People—because of their health conditions they may not be
able to play the required role.
Children—are immature.
Slaves—they lack reason.
THEORY OF SLAVERY
‘For that, some should rule and others be ruled is a thing not only
necessary but expedient; from the hour of their birth, some are marked
out for subjection other for the rule.’—–Aristotle (Politics)
Aristotle justified slavery. According to Aristotle, slavery is natural
and useful. Aristotle’s justification is about natural slaves rather than
legal slaves. Aristotle suggests that nature has created two types of
persons. Those who are physically strong (involve them in the task of
production). Those who are mentally strong (involve them in the affairs of
the state).
According to Aristotle slavery is useful for the master. Master will
have leisure time to develop his virtues. Hence master should treat the
slave properly. It is also useful for the economic system as the slave is
physically strong, he can work for a longer duration. It is good for the
state because the master will get time to participate in the affairs of the
state. It is also good for slaves: It is a necessity for a slave because he
does not have a reason. He requires someone else to guide him. In the
company of a good master, a slave can develop virtue. If a slave
develops the virtue of reason and courage master should set him free.
4. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
List – I List – II
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3
(d) 1 3 2 4
9. Who said, ‘Without the State, Man cannot realize his destiny’?
(a) Socrates
(b) Plato
(c) Aristotle
(d) None of the above
10. Who among the following said that in order of time state is latter
than the family or the individual, but in order of nature, prior to
them?
(a) Cephalus
(b) Thrasymachus
(c) Aristotle
(d) Lacophon
12. Which among the following method is allied with Aristotle’s Theory
of the Constitution?
(a) Deductive Method
(b) Inductive Method
(c) both (A) and (B)
(d) None
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy on 3 May 1469. He
was born at a time of conflict in Florence, Italy, between the republican
leaders and the family of the Medicis, to which Niccolò Machiavelli’s,
especially, had a history of opposition. After years of conflict between
powers, Niccolò Machiavelli was exiled from his country. It was
during this exile that he wrote his most famous work, ‘The Prince’ in 1513
CE, a piece about political power. Niccolò Machiavelli underlined the
importance of politics as a public responsibility and the need for rules and
maxims distinct from those applicable in the private sphere. He was
honoured with the title of being the ‘First modern political theorist and
scientist.’
IMPACT OF RENAISSANCE
The renaissance signified a rebirth of the human spirit in the attainment
of liberty, self-confidence, and optimism. It presents a cultural as well as
social transformation in Italy and then spread to the other part of Europe.
Renaissance revived the spirit of enquiry and humanism which is
reflected in Niccolò Machiavelli. Niccolò Machiavelli thus made
human nature the centre of his philosophy. Niccolò Machiavelli
dreamt of a united, regenerated, and glorious Italy as an example of a
Modern Nation. Italian unification became the chief objective of Niccolò
Machiavelli. Harold J. Laski clearly observed Niccolò
Machiavelli and said, ‘The whole of the Renaissance is in Machiavelli.’
CONCEPT OF SECULARISM
Niccolò Machiavelli separated religion from politics and set the tone
for one of the main themes of modern times, namely the secularization of
thought and life. Niccolò Machiavelli did not accept the role of
religion, especially Christianity, to determine the course of politics as per
the tradition of the Middle Age. Church during Niccolò Machiavelli’s
time had become a corrupt institution. He, therefore, did not want the
church to guide the state. Niccolò Machiavelli made a clear
distinction between distinctions between politics on the one hand and
religion and ethics on the other and in doing so he has accorded a
subordinate position to the latter. Although he was critical of the inclusion
of religion in the State political system, but due to his realistic perspective
he said, ‘There is nothing more important than appearing to be religious.’
He suggested that religion was a disciplinary force and should be used
by the prince to control the people as well as a source to win back
legitimacy. He presented a utilitarian approach towards religion as can be
seen in the thoughts of Kautilya.
COMMENTARIES ON MACHIAVELLI
‘It is ironic that everyone is Niccolò Machiavelli in politics, but no
one accepts himself as Machiavellian.’—Dunning
‘Niccolò Machiavelli’s political philosophy was narrowly local and
narrowly dated.’—G. H. Sabine
‘Niccolò Machiavelli was the child of Florence and of the
Renaissance. All the qualities which characterize his city and his
age appear in his own personality.’—W. T. Jones
‘In no system of political philosophy is the influence of the
environment more manifest than in that of Niccolò Machiavelli.
The brilliant Florentine was in the fullest sense the child of his
time.’—Dunning
‘Niccolò Machiavelli of Florence is not dead; he is still alive in the
minds of the leaders of today’s big powers.’—J. R. Hale
BOOKS OF MACHIAVELLI
1. Art of War (1521)—this book is based on war and military in the
west. It explains the relationship between war and politics.
2. History of Florence (1525)—It talks about Niccolò
Machiavelli’s work in the city of Florence and the forces which
shaped its history.
3. The Prince (1532)—is one of the best books written on statecraft
(the art of politics). It was written in 1513 but published in 1932.
Niccolò Machiavelli in ‘The Prince’ gives advice to the prince
(ruler) about ruling the states in a realist manner.
4. Discourses on Livy (1531)—Here Niccolò Machiavelli has
described republicanism. His criticism of feudal order and nobility
is reflected in his book.
5. What was the most important part of human behaviour that Niccolò
Machiavelli considered to understand politics?
(a) Empirical Theory
(b) Empirical Reality
(c) Empirical Thinking
(da) Empirical Reasoning
6. ‘Men sooner forget the death of their father than the loss of thei
patrimony.’
This famous statement is given by whom?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Niccolò Machiavelli
(c) Thomas Hobbes
(d) John Locke
7. Assertion (A): Prince should know the skilful use of both hard
power and soft power.
Reason (R): State can’t be run by only huge armies and
infrastructure.
(a) Both are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both are correct, and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (R) is true, but (A) is false.
9. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
List-1 List-2
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3
(d) 1 3 2 4
10. Who separated religion from politics and criticized the dominance
of the church in the public sphere?
(a) Saint Aquinas
(b) Saint Augustine
(c) Niccolò Machiavelli
(d) Thomas Hobbes
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) is one of the most controversial and
important figures in the history of western political thought. He was an
English-born political philosopher famous for his social contract theory. Due to
his alleged atheism and blasphemy, he was also known as the ‘Monster of
Malmsbury’ as he was born in Malmsbury, England. It was Thomas
Hobbes who expounded the absolutist theory of sovereignty for the first
time. According to G. H. Sabine, Thomas Hobbes was probably the
greatest writer of political philosophy that English-speaking people have
produced. Karl Marx himself is said to have remarked that ‘Thomas Hobbes
was the father of us all,’ because Thomas Hobbes used scientific
principles for developing his political philosophy.
LAWS OF NATURE
Thomas Hobbes presented the idea of the laws of nature to provide the
rationale behind the formation of the State. He claimed that the anarchic
situation in the state of nature, teaches some wisdom to humans, as these
wisdoms are created in natural society and in the absence of the State, they
were called ‘Laws of Nature.’ Thomas Hobbes talked about a total of 19
Laws of Nature which are considered as ‘Articles of Peace.’ The three most
important ‘Laws of Nature’ are:
1. The first law of nature tells us to seek peace and follow it,
2. the second law of nature tells us to abandon natural rights to seek
peace, and
3. the third law of nature tells us to honour their contract, where
covenants (contract) are the most important vehicle through which
rights are laid down.
2. Who expounded the absolutist theory of sovereignty for the first time?
(a) Thomas Hobbes
(b) John Locke
(c) Rousseau
(d) Karl Marx
3. Who said ‘In a natural state, every man is against every man.’?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Vladimir Lenin
(c) Mao Zedong
(d) Thomas Hobbes
5. Who said men are driven by ‘a perpetual and restless desire of powe
after power that ceaseth only in death.’?
(a) Immanuel Kant
(b) Thomas Hobbes
(c) John Locke
(d) Rousseau
8. The theory that Thomas Hobbes refuted in his political philosophy was?
(a) Logic
(b) Divine Right
(c) Speed
(d) Discontinuity
9. How many natural rights did Thomas Hobbes introduced in his boo
‘Leviathan’?
(a) 12
(b) 03
(c) 19
(d) 16
11. Who said, ‘Thomas Hobbes’s scientific method required him to build up
a model of a man and of society and the models he constructed were
bourgeois models’?
(a) W. D. Ross
(b) Ernest Barker
(c) C. B. Macpherson
(d) Maxey
12. Who contends ‘The first maketh men invade for gain; the second, for
safety; and the third, for reputation. The first use Violence, to make
themselves Masters of other men’s persons…the second to defend
them; the third for trifles…’?
(a) John Locke
(b) Niccolò Machiavelli
(c) Thomas Hobbes
(d) Rousseau
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 2
14. After the creation of the state, according to Thomas Hobbes, people
continued to enjoy:
(a) Certain natural rights
(b) Those rights which were granted to them by the sovereign
(c) Those rights which they had retained at the time of the conclusio
the contract
(d) Only those rights which were specified in the contract
15. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Thomas Hobbes, man is so individualist,
he cannot live in peace with other men until and unless there is the
absolute authority.
Reason (R): Sovereign was the result of the contract, thus, not a party
to the contract.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer Key
4. Thomas Hobbes believes that there are only three reasons for whic
men fight: competition, diffidence, and glory. In a natural state, ever
man is against every man. For this horrid situation, the only solution is
commonwealth.
INTRODUCTION
John Locke is an English philosopher known as the ‘Father of Liberalism’
and as the most influential of enlightenment thinkers. His idea of liberalism as
a political and social dimension combines constitutionalism, stability, freedom,
consent, property, and tolerance which has played a crucial role in the orderly
development of Western Democracies. He was an inspirer of both the
European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States. His
political thought was grounded in the notion of a social contract between
citizens and in the importance of tolerance, related to religion. Much of his
works related to politics were accepted in England after the Glorious
Revolution of (1688–89) and in the United States after independence in 1776.
SOCIAL CONTRACT
Social Contract Theory as given by John Locke could find its mentioning in
his famous book ‘Two Treatises on Civil Government (1690)’, wherein he
emphasizes law to be an expression of the will of the people. It was for the
purpose of protection of natural rights that man entered the ‘Social Contract’
so that he yields to the sovereign, not all his rights, but only the power to
preserve order and enforce the law of nature.
People made two contracts, namely social and political contracts. The
‘Social Contract’ was made between the people themselves. They
surrendered only some of their rights—the right of interpreting and enforcing
the law of nature. It was only a partial surrender of their rights. It brought
people out of the natural society and creates a civil society.
The ‘Political Contract’ or ‘Governmental Contract’ was made between the
people and the rule. It was made to enforce the first contract. This contract
needs generational consent. The government is removed by people if they are
not happy with it.
THEORY OF PROPERTY
Instead of emphasizing the natural value of property John Locke prioritized
the labour of the people to add value to the property. He implicitly mentioned
this in his ‘Second Treatise’. The theory is rooted in laws of nature, which
permit individuals to appropriate, and exercise control over, things in the world
like land and other material resources. In other words, John Locke favoured
private property rights. The main features of John Locke’s theory of
property are as follows:
Labour act as a principle of the first appropriation,
properties can be private and common,
the self-ownership of property is created by the related labour,
the government also protects individual ownership or rights to property,
and
divinely ordinated nature of property and labourer.
THREE TYPES OF POWER
In the ‘Two Treatises of Government’, John Locke distinguished between
legislative, executive, and federative powers.
4. The contract through which people surrendered only some of their right
to the community and not to any particular individual is known as?
(a) The Community Contract
(b) The Political Contract
(c) The Judicial Contract
(d) The Social Contract
C. A System of Theology.
D. Some Thoughts Concerning Education.
Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) D, C, B, A
(b) C, D, A, B
(c) B, D, A, C
(d) B, D, C, A
10. The theory that states ‘at birth the human mind is like a “blank slate”
without built-in mental content, and gains all knowledge from sensory
experience’—is termed as a?
(a) Tabula Slate
(b) Tabula Experience
(c) Tabula Rasa
(d) Tabula Knowledge
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (b) (a) (d) (c) (b) (c)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(c) (d)
CHAPTER 7
Rousseau
INTRODUCTION
Born in Geneva in 1712, an accidental philosopher, original thinker, great
advocate of direct democracy, and ardent critic of modernity, Rousseau has
a rare distinction of being a ‘philosopher of equality’. Gaining prominence from
an essay competition of the Academy of Dijon, Rousseau went on to
become an inspiration for the French Revolution of 1789 and ideas of liberty,
equality, and fraternity.
VIEWS ON ENLIGHTENMENT
Rousseau took part in an essay competition in the year 1750 on the topic of
‘Has the Restoration of the Arts and Sciences Had a Purifying Effect Upon
Morals?’ Interestingly, Rousseau went against the question and claimed that
the growth of sciences and arts has contributed to corrupting human
civilization instead of reforming it. This made him popular among literature
galleries and his essay was published in 1750 with the title of ‘Discourse on
the Arts and Sciences’.
In the essay Rousseau has given important arguments against the age
of science and art, he made an appeal for a ‘return back to nature’. This was
in sharp contrast to the enlightenment movement promoted by
contemporaries like Voltaire. As enlightenment believed in the reason for
man, opposing it, Rousseau famously proclaimed that ‘thinking man is a
depraved animal’.
STATE OF NATURE
Rousseau presented his ideas on the ‘state of nature’ first in his book
‘Discourses on Inequality (1755)’ and then in his ‘Social Contract (1762)’.
Noble Savage
According to Rousseau ‘state of nature’ is a state of ‘Idyllic Blissfulness’. He
argued that man was a noble savage in a primitive state of nature, he was
free to choose, consume, and live. The concept of status, power, and
hierarchy all emerged with the rise of society. It was society and science, the
increasing population, and growing conflicts that led to the degeneration of
noble savage. This romantic ‘Natural Man’ who was free and happy was
enslaved by the growth of civilization.
ON PROPERTY
Unlike John Locke, Rousseau doesn’t agree with the point that ‘private
property’ is a natural right. Instead, he argues that private property is a result
of scientific developments and the growth of civilization, it is an evil and has
corrupting effects. This is the reason Colletti called Rousseau the
precursor of Karl Marx. However, despite arguing that private property is a
source of inequality in his ‘Second Discourse’, Rousseau in his ‘Social
Contract’ approved of private property as a medium of reconciliation between
increasing population and scarce resources.
SOCIAL CONTRACT
‘Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.’
These are the opening lines of Rousseau’s ‘Social Contract’. Unlike
Thomas Hobbes’s absolutist monarchy and John Locke’s constitutional
government, Rousseau provides for a sovereign community. It is a mixture
of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, fully absolute but without any face.
b. T. H. Green
2. Parliament Represents Slavery
3. Sovereigns cannot act against ‘General Will’, and if they do so, peo
no right to revolt.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) All of the above
Thinker: Thoughts:
Codes:
(a) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
(b) a–3, b–1, c–2, d–4
(c) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
(d) a–4, b–3, c–2, d-1
13. Who Said, ‘I prefer liberty with danger than peace with slavery.’
(a) Thomas Hobbes
(b) John Locke
(c) Niccolo Machiavelli
(d) Rousseau
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 9. 11. 13. 15.
(d) (d) (b) (b) (c) (d) (c).
2. 5. 8. 10. 12.
14. (a)
(a) (a) (c) (b) (b)
3.
6. (c)
(d)
10. Option 1 is incorrect because ‘Amour di soi’ stands for natural self-love
and not a fully developed idea of the human in a society.
14. Alfred Cobban in his book ‘Rousseau and The Modern State (1934)’
claimed that modern nation-states which are characterized by a
homogeneity of culture and language, by a certain territorial integrity,
and by a state which at least in principle treats all its citizens in the
same way by giving them all equal rights and duties that we are
experiencing in a contemporary time period, it is actually originated
from the social contract principle of Rousseau.
CHAPTER 8
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
INTRODUCTION
Born in 1770, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a philosopher par
excellence. His political ideas are found in his famous work ‘Philosophy of
Right (1821)’. As the official ‘state philosopher’ of the erstwhile German
Kingdom of Prussia, he is known for his political concepts on dialectics of
ideas, civil society, state, and freedom, etc. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel’s philosophically profound political concepts are so timeless and non-
binary that he is equally revered as an inspiration for both, right and left.
DIALECTICAL IDEALISM
For Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ideas represent consciousness or
absolute spirit. It is a reason which makes sense in reality. Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel propounded that ‘real is rational, and rational is real’.
Taking inspiration from Ancient Greek Philosopher Socrates’s claim that ‘an
unexamined life is not worth living’, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
formulated his own way of examining life which was called ‘dialectical
idealism’. According to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, all realities
which we see through our naked eyes are the result of a continuous ‘struggle
between ideas’. Dialectics is a process of exposing contradictions and refining
and removing them to achieve an absolute or perfect form. He provided three
steps of his ‘dialectical idealism’, which include:
1. Thesis: This is the central theme of the discussion, the main argument
2. Antithesis: There exist contradictory ideas for each and every
argument. countering arguments also need to be examined and cross-
examined, and
3. Synthesis: This is the final outcome which emerges from the
struggle between thesis and antithesis.
As a result of these three steps, we are left with three outcomes in each
step namely thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, respectively. A thesis
represents narrative, antithesis represents counter-narrative, and synthesis is
the best possible conclusion which includes important elements of both thesis
and antithesis. However, synthesis is neither the end of dialectical idealism,
nor it is infallible and hence, this circulation of thesis–antithesis–synthesis
keeps running until we find ‘absolute truth’ or ‘absolute consciousness’.
According to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, dialectics is the most
logical apparatus for interpreting history in its true form.
PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel proclaimed that ‘ideas are the true
motor of history’. History is nothing but a continuous corollary of a thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis. Unlike the Indian conception of a negative and
regressive march of history towards Kaliyuga, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel gave a progressive version of history where history is moving towards
a logical and rational conclusion which will bring absolute spirit and absolute
consciousness. He proclaimed Ancient Greece as the starting point of the
history of the state and the European notion of ‘nation’ as the noblest form of
state. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel presented a philosophical
presentation of human society and considered it as a dialectical process. The
stage of history according to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel are:
THEORY OF STATE
‘State is the march of God on earth.’—Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel conceptualized three important
aspects of human life, they are family, civil society, and state. Unlike early
social contractarians like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel doesn’t mingle ‘civil society’ with the ‘state’.
According to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, each of these organs
reflects an idea:
2. Antithesis
3. Synthesis
(a) 1–2–3
(b) 3–2–1
(c) 2–1–3
(d) 3–1–2
2. Science of Logic
3. Phenomenology of Spirit
4. Philosophy of History
(a) 3–2–1–4
(b) 2–3–4–1
(c) 1–2–3–4
(d) 4–2–1–3
11. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel argued that through
the use of the dialectical method he discovered the greatest formula in
the history of philosophy.
Reason (R): It is a mechanism by which history propels itself.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
12. Who did not give to the individual the right to resist or oppose the State
or the Laws made by it?
(a) J. S. Mill
(b) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(c) Mary Wollstonecraft
(d) Karl Marx
13. Who considered material things merely as the cumulative result of the
evolution of absolute ideas?
(a) J. S. Mill
(b) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(c) Mary Wollstonecraft
(d) Karl Marx
14. Match the following list (i) to List (ii) regarding Hegel’s Ideas on Stages
of History :
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Mary Wollstonecraft was born in London, an English writer and
philosopher, who advocated for women’s rights. Her writing advances
atheism, anarchism, and personal freedom. She was considered as the first
feminist writer. Her central idea was that all human beings have God-given
abilities and rights and, considered that both men and women share these
abilities and rights. According to her feminism is a transformative idea that
women are human beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.
She was influenced by the ideas of John Locke, Voltaire, and Thomas
Paine. She is also known as the ‘Child of the French Revolution’.
THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION
A vital concern with education, especially the education of girls and women
runs throughout in Mary Wollstonecraft’s writing. In her first book
‘Thoughts on the Education of Daughters’, she advocates educating children
into the emerging middle-class ethos of self-discipline, honesty, frugality, and
social contentment. Her most important work, ‘A Vindication of the Rights of
Women’, begins as a plea for the equal education of women and includes an
ambitious proposal for a national school system. She was acquainted with the
value of a ‘rational education’ to success and independence for women. She
believed that education should be built on strengthening a women’s
intellectual faculties, particularly by emphasizing the skills of logical reasoning
and abstract thinking through mastery of subjects such as mathematics,
science, history, literature, and language.
In her book ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ she argues that men
and women hold the same type of virtue as one another. Through the
conditions society put on women, Mary Wollstonecraft believed they
were being forced to be weak of the constitution and of mind, through the way
they were socialised and educated. Mary Wollstonecraft stated, ‘I do not
wish women to have power over men but over themselves’. Equality was the
key to the reform of social institutions in general and women in particular.
Therefore, she often quotes that, it is necessary ‘to strengthen the body from
the heart’.
According to Mary Wollstonecraft, it is through education that
emancipation would come. She holds that the end goal with women’s
education is not only a change for women but rather a more virtuous society.
Both of her novels, ‘Mary’ and ‘Maria’, centrally address self-education, while
seeking to fill a pedagogical role in relation to their female readers.
3. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Wollstonecraft believed that education should be
based on women’s reasoning and abstract thinking through mastery of
subjects.
Reason (R): In ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’, she advocated
a proposal for a national school system.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct, and (R) is false.
(d) (A) false, and (R) is true.
10. Which book explores the relation between sublime and sensibility and
subjective experience?
(a) Mary: A Fiction
(b) Maria
(c) Emile
(d) Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (b) (a) (a) (d) (b) (d).
2. 4.
6. (c)
(c) (c)
CHAPTER 10
John Stuart Mill
INTRODUCTION
John Stuart Mill (1806–73) was a British philosopher, economist, and
statesman. As a liberal thinker, his thoughts represent a transition from
negative liberalism towards positive liberalism. On one hand, he is influenced
by utilitarians and on the other hand by idealists like Socrates and Plato.
He is known as both the advocate of liberty and at the same time Ernest
Barker called him the ‘prophet of empty liberty’. John Stuart Mill is a
proponent of representative democracy, yet he is also known as a reluctant
democrat. He is a utilitarian who destroyed utilitarianism. Thus, John Stuart
Mill was a liberal, he could also be regarded, at the same time, as a reluctant
democrat, a pluralist, a cooperative socialist, an elitist, and a feminist.
REVISION OF UTILITARIANISM
Utilitarianism has been the dominant philosophy in Britain. It had a wide
appeal and become the philosophy of the common man. According to
utilitarian ethics, man should do what gives him pleasure and avoid what
gives him pain. What brings you pleasure/pain determines what is right and
bad. Utilitarianism’s slogan is the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’.
Once a dominant philosophy, utilitarianism came into criticism, Carlyle called
it a pig’s philosophy.
One of John Stuart Mill’s most important contributions to political
thought was his transformative critique of Benthamite utilitarianism. He also
replaced Bentham’s quantitative approach with a qualitative one. John
Stuart Mill used to consider himself a disciple of Bentham and hence he
revised utilitarianism. Major modifications that were introduced by John
Stuart Mill are:
For Bentham pleasure is quantitative whereas for John Stuart
Mill pleasures not only differ in quantity they also differ in quality.
John Stuart Mill included factors like moral motives, feeling of
universal altruism, sympathy, and a new concept of justice without
partiality.
For John Stuart Mill, it was not the principle of pleasure but
happiness and the dignity of man, the chief end of life.
He rejected the idea of ‘Felicific Calculus’ (Bentham’s Algorithm to
calculate pleasure) and said, happiness is qualitative and different for
different people.
John Stuart Mill said, ‘It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a
pig satisfied, it is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied’. He
wanted to say the quantitative satisfaction of the mere pleasures of the
majority should not be the basis of state governance. A state should always
work for creating qualitatively a better life for their citizen.
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
In his book ‘Consideration on Representative Government (1861)’ he
supported the idea of representative democracy as the best form of
practicable form of democracy in modern times. According to him
representative government will always function in the interest of the people
and be guided by the principles of individual liberty and skill development. The
function of government is to provide the situation for the moral and mental
development of its citizen. According to John Stuart Mill, democracy is the
best form of government.
John Stuart Mill is a champion of democracy, despite of that he was
referred to as a reluctant democrat by C. L. Wayper because John Stuart
Mill is afraid of introducing democracy in the colonies. According to him,
people in colonised countries like India are not well educated and civilized,
hence they might convert democracy into a ‘tyranny of the majority’. In the
words of John Stuart Mill, benevolent despotism is best for barbarians.
Democracy without democratic culture will be false democracy. People should
be committed to the principles of democracy. According to him, democracy is
not a free gift to be distributed.
To protect the future of democracy, John Stuart Mill proposed the
following reform:
Weighted Voting—Everyone is to be given one vote but those who are
educated and possess property should be given more than one vote.
Plural Voting—A person should have the right to vote in all such
constituencies where he has his own property.
Proportional Representation—Instead of a majoritarian model.
Greater powers to the upper house.
Open ballot rather than secret ballot.
John Stuart Mill has proposed the right to vote in favour of women.
3. What was the most important change done by John Stuart Mill i
Utilitarianism?
(a) He changed the quantitative approach with a qualitative approach.
(b) He renders felicific calculus useless.
(c) Differentiated between higher and lower pleasures.
(d) None of the above
4. Who stated that ‘placing restrictions on the freedom of expression o
human beings is like robbing off the present and future races.’?
(a) John Stuart Mill
(b) John Locke
(c) Isaiah Berlin
(d) F. A. Hayek
4. Utilitarianism
(a) 3, 4, 1, 2
(b) 3, 1, 4, 2
(c) 2, 4, 1, 3
(d) 2, 1, 4, 3
10. Below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the code given
below:
Assertion (A): For John Stuart Mill will is the basis of all institutions
including the state.
Reason (R): ‘Will’ is not only dependent on number, it has a
qualitative foundation and the ‘Will’ which makes the institutions takes
on the form of a belief.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
11. Who called John Stuart Mill the ‘prophet of empty liberty’?
(a) Bentham
(b) Ernest Barker
(c) Berlin
(d) Bagehot
12. Which among the following is not written by John Stuart Mill?
(a) On Liberty
(b) The Subjection Of Women
(c) The Principles Of Political Economy
(d) A Vindication Of Rights Of Women
13. Which of the following reform is not proposed by John Stuart Mill in
democracy?
(a) Secret Ballot
(b) Weighted Voting
(c) Plural Voting
(d) Open Ballot
14. According to John Stuart Mill, which is the most important freedom?
(a) Freedom of speech and expression
(b) Freedom of action
(c) Freedom of association
(d) Freedom of contract
B. John Stuart Mill wrote a famous book ‘On Liberty’ in the year 1855.
C. Does not favour qualification as the basis for the right to vote.
D. Justice not in the sense of greatest happiness of the greatest num
only.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and C only
(b) A and D only
(c) B and D only
(d) C and D only
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 13. (a)
(c) (a) (b) (a)
2. 5. 8. 11.
14. (a)
(d) (a) (d) (b)
3. 6. 9. 12.
15. (b)
(a) (d) (b) (d)
15. Option B, is incorrect because the book ‘On Liberty’ was published in
1859. Option C is also incorrect because John Stuart Mill favoured
weighted voting and plurality voting systems.
CHAPTER 11
Karl Marx
INTRODUCTION
Karl Marx is one of the most extensively admired as well as a criticized
scholar of human history. He is famously known as the ‘Father of
Communism’. Dead or alive, Karl Marx is a personality who haunted
capitalism forever. He was born in 1818 in present-day Germany. He started
his philosophical journey as a Young Hegelian, but soon he counters the
idealism of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and presented a
materialistic interpretation of history, which became the foundation of what he
called ‘scientific socialism’.
He was a revolutionary, a philosopher, a radical thinker, and above all a
votary of the marginalized landless working class or ‘proletariat’. Theoretically
materialistic, practically anarchist, and philosophically humanist, Karl Marx
is not just a point in history but a creator of his own dialectics of history, called
‘Marxism’. Koestler arguably said Karl Marx is ‘The God that Failed’. His
critics hailed him as utopian, an enemy of open society, and what not? But
even today, when vertical and horizontal gaps within and among nations are
increasing, Karl Marx’s vision of a classless and stateless society is as
relevant as it was then.
1. Surplus Value: Karl Marx said, ‘Labour is the sole creator of value
In a capitalist economy, a capitalist uses market competition and reduc
the wage of labour and increase their working hours. By not paying th
actual value of the labour-power a capitalist increases his profit, thi
extra value for which labour remains unpaid is ‘surplus value’ which goe
into the pocket of the capitalist because he owns the means o
production.
2. Exploitation: The ‘surplus value’ generated by workers themselves
is used against workers only. Capitalist uses the extra money to
consolidate their position in relation to production, Capitalist class
controls the State and uses it as an instrument of exploitation of the
Working Class. The relation of production in a capitalist society is in
favour of the Capitalist Class because the Working Class have no
force of production and no choice other than to work for capitalists in
every pathetic condition.
3. Alienation: In his work ‘Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts or
Paris Manuscripts (1844)’, Karl Marx talked about four levels of
alienation under the capitalist mode of industrial production:
a. From the product of their labour,
d. from society.
MARX ON STATE
Though fundamentally Karl Marx was an ardent advocate of a stateless
society called ‘Communism’, there emerged different ideas of Karl Marx on
the state. He talks about the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ in the socialist
state, which is a transitional state after the revolution and before the
establishment of communism. In ‘Communist Manifesto’ he even called the
state as ‘executive machinery of the bourgeoisie’ and ‘an instrument’ of
capitalist exploitation of workers. Quite interestingly, in the ‘18th Brumaire of
Louis Bonaparte’, he presented a ‘relatively autonomous’ version of the state
when he said that states exercise a great deal of independence in societies
where capitalism is not mature enough. These contradictory opinions on the
state led to the famous ‘Miliband vs Poulantzas Debate’ in the contemporary
Marxist theory of state where Ralph Miliband stands by the idea of
‘Instrumental Marxism’, and Nicos Poulantzas and Louis Althusser
presented the perspective of ‘Structural Marxism’.
ASIATIC MODE OF PRODUCTION
The idea of the Asiatic Mode of Production (AMP) was propounded by Karl
Marx in the early 1850s in his articles on India. The central theme of this idea
is the different nature of Asian societies from Western societies which don’t
replicate similarities with ‘Western Capitalism’. Karl Marx suggested that
Asiatic societies were held in control by a despotic ruling elite, residing in
central cities and directly expropriating surplus from largely self-sufficient and
generally undifferentiated village communities. The basic tenets of the Asiatic
Mode of Production (AMP) are:
B. Estrangement
C. Parliamentary Government
D. Separation of Powers
E. Economic Base
6. Which of the following views of the state is not discussed by Karl Marx?
(a) Instrumentalist
(b) Relative Autonomy
(c) Communist
(d) Managerial
10. Who said, ‘It is not the consciousness of men that determines their
being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their
consciousness.’?
(a) J. S. Mill
(b) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(c) Mary Wollstonecraft
(d) Karl Marx
11. Which among the following is not correct about Karl Marx’s views on
Dialectical Method?
(a) Matter is the essence of the universe and social institutions.
(b) Dialectics will bring a perfect or rational mode of production
existence.
(c) It is an ongoing process, and society will be ever-evolving.
(d) Dialectical Materialism represents the philosophical basis of Marxis
12. Who said, ‘Marx did not foresee the rise of Fascism, totalitarianism and
the welfare state.’?
(a) Harold J. Laski
(b) Isaiah Berlin
(c) Max Weber
(d) Macpherson
13. According to Karl Marx a capitalist adds surplus to his wealth because:
(a) The workers wish so.
(b) Machines installed by him produce more.
(c) There is a difference between the exchange value of what is prod
and what is paid.
(d) Capitalists can win the cooperation of the workers.
14. Which among the following statement is incorrect regarding Karl Marx’s
theory of Historical Materialism:
i. Historical materialism theory was introduced in ‘Economic
Philosophical Manuscripts’.
ii. Theory represents the philosophical basis of Marxism.
iii. The economic structure is the real basis of Society.
iv. Relations of production consist of means of production like tools,
equipment, and labour power.
(a) (i), (ii), and (iv)
(b) Only (iii)
(c) (iii), and (iv)
(d) (i), (iii), and (iv)
Answer Key
14. Historical Materialism was initially introduced in the book ‘The German
Ideology’. Option (ii) is also incorrect because historical materialism
represents the scientific basis of Marxism on the other hand
philosophical basis was represented by dialectical materialism.
CHAPTER 12
Antonio Gramsci
INTRODUCTION
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) was an influencing scholar of the
Marxist tradition. His philosophy may be regarded as an important link
between Classical Marxism and Neo-Marxism. He was the founder of the
Communist Party of Italy in 1921. As the founder and leader of the
Communist Party, he was imprisoned in 1926 by Mussolini’s fascist
regime. He died inside the prison. His ideas were later published as
‘Prison Notebook’. He was part of the Western Marxist tradition and is
famously known as the ‘Godfather of Cultural Marxism’. Antonio
Gramsci tried to move the focus of Marxist theory towards human
consciousness, by combining the materialism of Karl Marx with the
idealism of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel he gave birth to the
phenomenon of Hegelian Marxism.
CONCEPT OF HEGEMONY
Antonio Gramsci was inquiring why western societies’ capitalism is
thriving despite its exploitative characteristics. He realized that the people
of these countries are influenced by their leaders about the usefulness of
capitalism. He said consent is manufactured among the people in support
of the capitalist order of society and hence capitalism is a dominating
ideological setup and represents a ‘Hegemony’.
‘Hegemony’ is also a type of power (soft power). It is an invisible
power. ‘Hegemony’ is controlling the mind. The ‘bourgeoisie’ class rules
by controlling the mind. They rule by developing the power of attraction.
‘Hegemony’ implies manufacturing consent. When any idea or value
starts appealing to common sense it becomes ‘Hegemony’.
GRAMSCI’S ESSAYS
Newspapers and Workers (1916)—Antonio Gramsci discusses
the bourgeois newspaper as a tool of hegemony. He discusses
how newspapers serve the dominant class. He describes how, on
a daily basis, multitudes of workers contribute pennies to the
bourgeois press, so supporting them in consolidating their
authority.
Men or Machines? (1916)—Antonio Gramsci discusses the
bourgeoisie’s desire for worker machines over worker men.
One Year of History (1918)—In this essay, he discusses the
Russian Revolution and its consequences on workers.
2. Hegemony means?
(a) The dominance of the working class.
(b) Tyranny of bourgeoise.
(c) Oppression of the working class.
(d) Controlling the mind or manufacturing consent.
11. Which of the following is the reason that directed Antonio Gramsci
towards an alternative form of socialism?
(1) Italy during the times of Antonio Gramsci was unsuited
deterministic Marxism.
(2) In the Classical Marxist tradition, objective material condit
were given an important place.
(3) His encounter with the fascist regime of Mussolini.
(4) He believed this historical relativism to be the core of Marxism.
Choose the correct option:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2, 3, and 4 only
(c) 1, 2, and 4 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
12. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason R).
Assertion (A): Antonio Gramsci rejected ‘scientific determinism’
and advocated political and intellectual struggle.
Reason (R): History is nothing but human praxis.
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct.
(b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explana
of (A).
14. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Revolution, for Antonio Gramsci, is not a mere
technical act of seizing power.
Reason (R): Workers councils are a proper instrument of the act
of mass-based revolution.
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct.
(b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explana
of (A).
15. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Antonio Gramsci suggests working class to have
their own ‘Organic Intellectuals’.
(a) Intellectuals play an important role in manufacturing hegemony
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Hannah Ardent was a pure political philosopher of the twentieth-century,
an author, and the Holocaust survivor. She was born in Hannover, Germany
and is known as a German-born American political scientist and philosopher.
She was also famous for her critical writing on Jewish affairs and the study of
Totalitarianism. She is best known for those dealing with the nature of power
and evil, as well as politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism.
Her works were related to historical and contemporary political events, such
as the rise and fall of Nazism, and drew a conclusion about the relationship
between the individual and society. She also gave the concept of
‘Bureaucratization of Terror’.
Hannah Arendt was influenced by the ideas of Martin Heidegger,
Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Walter Benjamin, Karl
Jaspers, Heinrich Blucher, Carl Schmitt, Hans Jonas, etc. She
was known by various phrases, like—‘Thinking without barriers’, ‘complex
thinker’, ‘controversial thinker’, and ‘heterodox thinker’.
THEORY OF TOTALITARIANISM
There are three phases of Hannah Ardent’s theory of totalitarianism. All
these three phases of Hannah Ardent’s thought are in evidence in the text
of ‘The Origins of Totalitarianism’.
Phases of Totalitarianism
Phase 1 Anti-Semitism: hostile behaviour toward Jews as a
religious, ethnic, or racial group.
Phase 2 Imperialism: European powers, the emergence of
‘tribalist’ ethnic movements.
Phase 3 Totalitarianism: regimes of Hitler (Nazism) and
Stalin (Marxism and Leninism).
THEORY OF ACTION
In her book ‘The Human Condition’, she talks about the ‘theory of action’.
Action, for Hannah Ardent, is ‘revelatory’ in that person engaging in action
discloses their essential being to others. In action, the end is ‘not pursued but
lies in the activity itself’. The two central features of action are freedom and
plurality.
In ‘The Human Condition’, she stresses that action is primarily symbolic in
character and that the web of human relationships is sustained by
communicative interaction. Action entails speech by means of language were
able to articulate the meaning of our actions and to coordinate the actions of a
plurality of agents.
According to her human action can be divided into two parts: ‘Vita Activa
(Action)’ and ‘Vita Contemplativa (Thinking)’. She states, ‘Action is more
important than thinking’. She further divides ‘Vita Activa (Action)’ into three
parts: labour, work, and action.
THEORY OF POWER
She rejects the standard assumptions and definitions of power. She
distinguishes power from a series of concepts that political science often
refers to under the name like violence, force, and strength. Hannah Ardent
presented a constructive and positive theory of power, instead of explaining it
as coercion, she defined power as the empowerment of people. According to
her, power is a social phenomenon. Power is not a possession of an
individual, it is collective in nature.
She said, ‘Power is Sui-generic’, stating that it is the ability of human
beings to act together, and power appears when people join themselves
together and it disappears when people are disorganized and busy in their
private life.
Hannah Ardent—‘Power is the human ability to act in concert…it belongs
to a group and remains in existence as long as the group keeps together.’
According to her power and violence are different.
Power Violence
End in itself. Means to an end.
It needs no justification. It needs justification.
It cannot be centralized. It is centralized.
VIEWS ON REVOLUTION
She has provided a liberal view of the revolution. Revolution means doing
something new. She didn’t support the Marxist approach to revolution. In her
essay ‘On Revolution’, she gave an account of both the liberal-democratic and
Marxist traditions. She has compared the American and French revolutions.
According to her American Revolution was the ‘tale of freedom’, and it gave
political freedom whereas, the French Revolution was a ‘tale of necessity’,
and promised social and economic freedom, however it ended in tyranny.
Hence political freedom is more important than social and economic freedom.
She is not totally in favour of the American Revolution also, as it created
the institutions of representative democracy but not created enough
institutions for direct democracy. She distinguished between liberty and
freedom. ‘Liberty is freedom from tyranny’ whereas ‘freedom is capacity to do
something new’.
Important Books with Concepts:
2. ‘The most radical revolutionary will become a conservative the day afte
the revolution’. Whose statement is this?
(a) John Rawls
(b) Hannah Arendt
(c) Antonio Gramsci
(d) Frantz Fanon
6. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Hannah Ardent was against the standard assumptions
of power, under the name of violence, force, and strength.
Reason (R): According to her power implies end in itself, can not be
centralized and needs no justification.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is not the correct explanation of
(c) (A) is true, and (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, and (R) is true.
Books Concepts
10. Which of the following essays were not written by Hannah Ardent?
(a) Lying in Politics
(b) Civil Disobedience
(c) Crisis of the Democracy
(d) On Violence
11. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Hannah Arendt considers that only action is
authentically human and hence superior to labour and work.
Reason (R): The products of work constitute what Hannah Arendt
calls the ‘world’.
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct.
(b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
C. Eichmann in Jerusalem
D. On Violence
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A, B, C, and D
(b) B, C, A, and D
(c) C, B, A, and D
(d) D, B, C, and A
Books Ideas
a) The Human Condition 1) American vs Frenc
Revolution
b) Eichmann in 2) Individualistic view
Jerusalem politics
Books Ideas
c) The Origins of 3) Facelessness of ev
Totalitarianism
c) On Revolution 4) Modernity has
neglected the politi
sphere
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Frantz Fanon led the groundwork for the development of post-colonial
studies. His ideological orientation can be understood from his own statement
that ‘what matters is not to know the world but to change it’. In his political
thought, he unmasked the psychological reality of Colonialism to the world.
He originally belongs to the French Colony Martinique which is a part of the
Caribbean Islands. Throughout his life, he remained a revolutionary leader
and was famously known as an Algerian political theorist. He was influenced
by the Marxist theory and contributed to the field of dependency theory as well
as critical theory. By profession, he was a psychiatrist, and he used his
psychic understanding to explain the phenomenon of colonialism as well as
the tendencies in post-colonial societies. He was part of the Anti-Apartheid
movement against white man’s supremacy.
POST-COLONIAL DILEMMA
In his famous work ‘Black Skin, White Mask’ Frantz Fanon tried to explain
the psychological situation which is faced by the people of colonial countries.
Frantz Fanon argued that colonialism has dehumanized the natives.
According to him, the process of dehumanization was thorough. And that the
black man can see himself only as a black (mirror) image of the white man.
The White man is the master and represents an object that must be feared
and desired. The black therefore tries to be more like the (desirable) white
master by putting on a ‘white mask’. They tried to become white by speaking
their language and adopting their culture and their values. Frantz Fanon
argues that the nature of the relationship between the white and the black has
its roots in the latent desire to become white.
COLOUR HEGEMONY
Frantz Fanon states that whites make them realize that they are inferior
and that whites are superior. Blacks then internalize this racism as a personal
failure leading to an inferiority complex. According to Frantz Fanon, this
racism is continuously reinforced in society reminding black people that they
are black first and people second. This hegemony of colour is the reason why
blacks always try to become whites. The black man, according to Frantz
Fanon has 2 dimensions—one with his fellow and the other with the white
man. A black man behaves differently with his fellow and the white man.
Frantz Fanon holds colonial subjugation to be solely responsible for the
self-division among black men.
MANICHAEISM
To explain colonialism, Frantz Fanon introduced the concept of
Manichaeism. The term was taken from a religion founded by Mani, known
by his followers as the ‘Apostle of Light’. Manichaeism represents the binary
split between everything that we around us. The things with light and good
represent truth, beauty, cleanliness, health, prosperity, etc. On the other hand,
dark and evil represent false, ugly, dirty, diseased, impoverished, etc. Frantz
Fanon said colonialism also works in a similar fashion and divides the world
of white and black people.
DEHUMANIZATION THESIS
According to Frantz Fanon, the colonial masters rule using violence.
Therefore, there is segregation between the colonizers and the natives. The
colonial world is violent and therefore the people living in this world may have
post-traumatic disorders. Native society is thus dehumanized and de-cultured.
Frantz Fanon argues that a violent revolution is necessary for the natives to
start a new humane society.
DIMENSIONS OF DECOLONIZATION
Frantz Fanon was a revolutionary and Marxist thinker and hence his
version of decolonization is violent. He said that, because colonialism was
established and maintained through violence, hence a violent revolution is
necessary to end colonialism. He gives a psychological dimension to the
sufferings of the natives. Frantz Fanon states the importance of the role of
violence in remedying suffering and facilitating the course of decolonization.
He said, ‘Violence is a man recreating himself.’
3. Who said, ‘What matters is not to know the world but to change it.’?
(a) Frantz Fanon
(b) Hannah Arendt
(c) Antonio Gramsci
(d) John Rawls
7. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and th
other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Frantz Fanon uses psychoanalysis and
psychoanalytical theory to explain the feelings of subjugation that
blacks experience in the white world.
Reason (R): Frantz Fanon argued that colonialism has dehumanized
the natives.
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct.
(b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
10. According to Frantz Fanon why do black people want to become white:
i. Whites make them realize that they are inferior and that whites
superior.
ii. Blacks internalize racism as a personal failure.
iii. Hegemony of the colour.
iv. The process of dehumanization.
(a) (i), (ii), and (iv)
(b) Only (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv)
(d) (i), (ii), and (iii)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
(a) (a) (b) (c) (c)
1
2. 4. 6. 8.
(a) (a) (c) (d) 0.
(c)
CHAPTER 15
Mao Zedong (1893–1976)
INTRODUCTION
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-Tung) is considered as the father of modern
communist China. He was a revolutionary leader and a celebrated thinker
of Marxist Theory. He tried to adapt and revamp the Marxist theory and
practice of revolution as per Chinese conditions. Mao Zedong was the
first person to apply communist principles in purely Asiatic situations and
in purely feudal societies. He founded the Chinese Communist Party in
Shanghai in 1921. The experiences and ideas which the Chinese
Communist Party had learned while waging protracted struggles were
summed up as Mao Zedong’s Thoughts.
PERMANENT REVOLUTION
Mao Zedong’s most important contribution to political thinking is his
concept of revolution. In ‘On Contradiction’, he observes that inherent
contradictions in society create revolutions. There are tensions or
disputes among the classes in bourgeois society, particularly between the
two main classes, the bourgeoisie, and the proletariat. A revolution can
eliminate the ills of society. It is referred to as cosmetic surgery. As a
result, a proletariat revolution is required for societal change. Mao
Zedong once said, ‘A revolution is not a dinner party, or writing an
essay, or painting a picture, or doing embroidery, it cannot be so refined,
so leisurely and gentle, so temperate, kind, courteous, restrained, and
magnanimous. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which
one class overthrows another.’
Mao Zedong also highlighted the role of the party in a revolution. A
well-organized party structure is critical to the success of a revolution. A
party is absolutely necessary for a revolution. The growing contradictions
would eventually lead to revolution. As a result, it is the leaders’
responsibility to exploit the antagonism. Mao Zedong incorporated
guerrilla warfare, or launching a surprise attack on the enemy, into his
revolutionary idea.
A revolution is not a final solution rather, it is a start in the right
direction. There will be contradictions. Mao Zedong argued that when
the proletariat takes power, the ‘law of contradiction’ will continue to work.
Hence class struggle will not come to end, only its form would change.
According to Mao Zedong, the economic socialist revolution would
not automatically result in the strengthening of the socialist system. It will
be important to promote socialism on political, cultural, educational, and
ideological fronts over time. The process of socialist reconstruction is a
‘continuous’ or ‘permanent revolution’ that cannot be stopped at any point
in time.
PEOPLE’S WAR
Mao Zedong in his ‘Red Book’ stated that, ‘political power comes from
the barrel of the gun’. Maoism is a pragmatic and flexible form of
communism. Maoism is not against capitalism. Maoism is also not
against nationalism. Maoism is against imperialism and feudalism in
Chinese society. Hence, Mao Zedong believed that revolution is
required on two fronts:
He was sure that it was not possible for the rule of the feudal
landlords to end until the rule of imperialism was overthrown. The
peasantry can be mobilized to undertake a ‘people’s war’ of armed
struggle involving guerrilla warfare in three stages.
The three stages are:
NEW DEMOCRACY
Mao Zedong saw that the Chinese peasantry lacked the strength to
win the revolutionary war against imperialism and feudalism. As a result,
it was necessary to seek assistance from the other classes of Chinese
society. Mao Zedong highlighted the concept of a United Front in this
context. He used the United Front Policy to unite the Chinese peasantry
with the proletariat, petty bourgeoisie (middle class), and even the
national bourgeoisie. Mao Zedong called for the New Democratic
Republic of China in 1940 as part of his United Front Strategy. In 1945,
he proposed a new state system known as New Democracy.
Mao Zedong suggested that in Colonial and Semi-colonial
countries, the democratic system will be different according to the social
and economic conditions. He said the model of ‘Representative
Democracy’ favoured by Western countries is ‘Old Democracy’. The Idea
of a new democracy is also known as the ‘Dictatorship of Four Social
Classes’.
He called such a state as the ‘People’s Democratic Dictatorship’. It
was a combination of two aspects—‘democracy for the people’ and
dictatorship over the ‘enemies of the people’ or the ‘running dogs of
imperialism’. Thus, Mao Zedong replaced the Marxist principle of
‘Proletariat Dictatorship’ with the principle of ‘Peoples Democratic
Dictatorship’.
2. Who said that ‘political power comes from the barrel of the gun.’?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Vladimir Lenin
(c) Mao Zedong
(d) Rosa Luxemburg
10. In which of the following book Mao Zedong stressed on the theory
of a total revolution by the totality of the masses?
(a) On People’s Democratic Rule
(b) On Practice and Contradictions
(c) On Protracted War
(d) On Guerrilla Warfare
11. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other is labelled as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): According to Mao Zedong, the economic socialist
revolution would not automatically result in the strengthening of the
socialist system.
Reason (R): The process of socialist reconstruction is a
‘continuous’ or ‘permanent revolution’ that cannot be stopped at
any point in time.
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct.
(b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explana
of (A).
12. Which of the following is/are the modification that was made by
Mao Zedong in Classical Marxist Theory:
i. Mao Zedong stated that the leadership of the revolution shoul
provided by the peasants.
ii. The phase of the dictatorship of the proletariat would last for a
time.
iii. The principle of ‘Peoples Democratic Dictatorship’.
iv. Communist party should be the vanguard of the revolution.
Choose the correct option:
(a) (i), (ii), and (iv)
(b) (i), (ii), and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv)
14.
(a) Arrange the work of Mao Zedong in descending order:
(a) On Protracted War
(b) On New Democracy
(c) On People’s Democratic Rule
(d) On Practice and Contradictions
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) C, B, A, D
(b) D, A, B, C
(c) B, C, D, A
(d) A, B, C, D
15. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Mao Zedong, the revolution was
needed on two fronts.
Reason (R): Unless the imperial powers were overthrown, the
rule of the feudal landlords cannot be ended.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
John Rawls (or John Bordley Rawls) was an American Political
Thinker. He belongs to the era of Contemporary Political Thought. His theory
of justice once again revived the normative perspective in Political Theory.
The application of deontology in combination with the social contract
methodology made him the prince of contemporary political thought. His
difference principle in justice theory revolutionised the idea of affirmative
action and positive discrimination by the State. He can be considered as a
modern liberal or social liberal and even an egalitarian thinker based on his
ideological orientation. He died on 27 November 2002.
THEORY OF JUSTICE
In ‘A Theory of Justice,’ John Rawls started with the statement that, ‘Justice
is the first virtue of social institution,’ meaning that a good society is one
structured according to principles of justice. John Rawls’s theory of justice
ultimately appears to be based on the principles of liberalism. John Rawls
describes his theory as ‘purely procedural,’ he wants to show that his theory is
completely rational, it is not based on some prior values or biases. Also, he
revived the tradition of the social contract.
Before John Rawls’s theory of justice, the utilitarian theory of justice
has been the dominating theory of liberalism which is based on the principle
of the greatest happiness of the greatest number and its disregard for
distributive justice. The flaw of utilitarianism is the neglect of human dignity.
John Rawls in the first part of his book ‘Theory of Justice’ criticized the
utilitarian theory of justice and then presented his idea of distributive justice.
The tradition of human dignity was revived by Immanuel Kant. Therefore,
John Rawls prefers the tradition of Immanuel Kant and calls his theory
of justice as deontological. In John Rawls’s words, ‘Each person
possesses an inviolability founded on the principles of Justice.’ It shows that
human dignity has to be the fundamental principle of the theory of justice.
John Rawls constructs his theory of justice as fairness by conceptualizing a
hypothetical original position.
ORIGINAL POSITION
The original position is a thought experiment and a heuristic device very
similar to the state of nature in the traditional social contract theories. The
original position is a hypothetical situation, not some pre-civilized period of the
history of mankind.
People have assembled to determine the principles of the distribution of
primary goods. The primary goods are such as liberty, rights income, wealth,
and dignity. John Rawls resorts to such a method to ensure that the
principles of justice that come up are fair.
According to John Rawls, the people who gather do have moral
judgements and reasoning, so they are ‘mutually disinterested’ i.e. self-
interested. Though they are mutually disinterested, they understand that to
live in a society they have to agree on some basic principles of cooperation so
they have come to determine the distribution of primary goods. However, the
original position is located behind a veil of ignorance which is characterized by
the lack of knowledge possessed by the people in it.
Figure 16. Veil of Ignorance in Original Position
VEIL OF IGNORANCE
It is the defining feature of the original position which prevents the arbitrary
facts about citizens from influencing their judgments. John Rawls did not
consider that the various attributes people gain by virtue of their births (such
as class, caste, colour, race, intelligence, prowess, etc.) should influence the
functioning of social institutions towards them. Therefore, he did not find any
moral dilemma in depriving the people gathered in the original position of
knowledge of their positions in society (as they only happened to be in that
position by chance of nature). Therefore, the veil of ignorance screens out
specific information about the people.
However, they do know general facts about human life, facts of common
sense, and all citizens have an interest in primary goods.
John Rawls also makes other assumptions regarding reasonable
citizens who have gathered at their original position:
They are rational and have an intuitive sense of justice,
they are not motivated by envy and are mutually disinterested, and
they must make a final agreement on the principles of justice and must
not renege on it once the veil is lifted.
MAXIMIN PRINCIPLE
Any rational person would like to maximize the benefits of any advantage he
has. Any rational person would like to minimise the impact of any
disadvantage if he has one. Any rational person will put himself in both
situations:
REFLEXIVE EQUILIBRIUM
John Rawls believed that in the original position people will use the method
of reflexive equilibrium to achieve the principle of justice. These principles of
justice are a reflection of our inherent moral sense and our innate sense of
justice inherent in our minds. Reflexive equilibrium is a process by which we
streamline and verify our judgments. This happens when we question our own
beliefs.
PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE
John Rawls stated that in the original position, the members of a society
would be led by reason and self-interest to agree upon the following principles
of justice:
LEXICAL ORDER
John Rawls held that the principles of justice are in lexical order (in the
manner as alphabets are in dictionaries, ‘y’ cannot come before ‘x’). The first
principle of equal liberties was lexically prior to the principle of equal
opportunities which itself was prior to the difference principle. It meant that the
first principle could not be violated to fulfil or justify the second principle. In
other words, the distribution of equal liberties and rights could not be violated
to justify a more equal distribution of opportunities.
B. Political Liberalism
5. In which book John Rawls mentioned the idea of the veil of ignorance?
(a) A Theory of Justice
(b) Political Liberalism
(c) Laws of the People
(d) None of the above
2. Mary Wollstonecraft—Communist
3. Antonio Gramsci—Feminist
4. John Rawls—Egalitarian
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4
11. Which among the following statement is not correct about the veil of
ignorance?
(a) Principles chosen from behind the veil of ignorance are fair.
(b) It is used to remove irrational choices.
(c) It is a social experiment.
(d) It is a way of procedural justice.
12. Which one of the features of John Rawls’s concept of the veil of
ignorance is not true?
(a) No one knows his place in society, his class position, or his s
status.
(b) No one knows his fortune in the distribution of natural assets
abilities.
(c) The parties know their special psychological propensities.
(d) The parties do not (even) know their conception of the good.
14. What is the full name of the essay written by John Rawls in the year
1985?
(a) Justice as Fairness: A Restatement on Social Justice
(b) Justice as Fairness: A Restatement
(c) Justice as Fairness: Political, not Metaphysical
(d) Justice as Fairness: Social, not Metaphysical
16. In which of the following book John Rawls introduced the idea of
overlapping consensus?
(a) Political Liberalism (1993)
(b) Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (2001)
(c) A theory of Justice (1971)
(d) Justice as Fairness: Political, not Metaphysical (1985)
17. Why John Rawls used the ‘Social Contract Theory’ for the developing
principles of justice?
(a) For respecting the talent of people.
(b) Because he was looking for a fair condition.
(c) Because human nature is selfish.
(d) Because Inequality is inevitable.
18. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to John Rawls democratic equality is
necessary for stability in a society where people adhere to different
comprehensive doctrines.
Reason (R): John Rawls believes that a society can develop such a
conception of justice which will represent the overlapping consensus
among a society, despite their differences.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
19. Who said that ‘what is not a matter of our talent is also a matter of
chance.’?
(a) John Rawls
(b) Hannah Arendt
(c) Antonio Gramsci
(d) Frantz Fanon
20. John Rawls while proposing his concept of justice has taken into
consideration?
(a) Desert
(b) Need
(c) Merit
(d) All of the above
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 13. 16. 19.
(a) (b) (b) (b) (b) (a) (a)
2. 5. 8. 11. 14. 17. 20.
(c) (a) (d) (c) (c) (b) (d)
3. 6. 9. 12. 15.
18. (a)
(d) (d) (c) (c) (a)
19. According to John Rawls, what is not a matter of our talent is also a
matter of chance. Hence, we should compensate those who have not
been as advantageous as we are:
11. Who of the following fled Athens for Calchis, ‘in order that the
Athenians might not commit a second crime against
philosophy’? (2016)
(a) Socrates
(b) Plato
(c) Aristotle
(d) Euclid
18. Which one of the following social contract traditions has not
been revitalized by John Rawls in his book A Theory of
Justice? (2017)
(a) Hobbes
(b) John Locke
(c) J.J. Rousseau
(d) Immanuel Kant
19. Who among the following argued that “The belief in the
principle of authority is reliable means of securing order”.
(2017)
(a) Joseph de Maistre
(b) Max Weber
(c) Friedrich Nietzsche
(d) Giovanni Gentile
23. In a state, there are two types of sovereignty not one - one of
government and second of peoples - among the following who
consider this thought (2017)
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
(c) Rousseau
(d) Mill
List I List II
(Thinker) (Idea)
(A)John Locke (i)Partyless democracy
(B)Hobbes (ii) Consent theory
(C)Jaya Prakash Narain (iii) Neo-liberalism
(D)Robert Nozick (iv) Absolute sovereig
Codes:
(a) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
(b) (A)-(i), (B)-(iv), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iv)
(d) (A)-(iv), (B)-(ii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
List I List II
(A)Sovereign is the main source of law (i)Hobbes
(B)Laws are passed by legislature (ii) Locke
(C)General will is sovereign (iii) Roussea
(D)Will, and not force, is the basis of state (iv) T.H. Gre
List I List II
(A)Modern political thinker (i)Plato
(B)Positivist school (ii) Machiavelli
(C)Normative political theory (iii) August Comte
(D)Scientific/inductive method (iv) Aristotle
Codes:
(a) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
(c) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
(d) (A)-(iv), (B)-(i), (C)-(iii), (D)-(ii)
42. The idea of social contract has been recently revived under a
new form by: (2019)
(a) Nozick
(b) Rawls
(c) Oakshott
(d) Gramsci
45. Aristotle’s “ideal state is always Plato’s second best”. Who said
this? (2020)
(a) G.H. Sabine
(b) W.Ebenstein
(c) J. A . Dunning
(d) C.LWayper
List I List II
Books Authors
(A)Politics and Markets (i)Robert
Dahl
(B)The Power Elite (ii) C. Wrig
Mills
(C)A Preface to Democratic Theory (iii) Mancu
Olson
(D)The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods (iv) Charles
and the Theory of Groups Lindblo
48. Who among the following defined Civil power as “the right of
making laws with penalties… for the regulating and preserving
of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the
execution of such laws… . All this only for the public good.”?
(2020)
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Thomas Hobbes
(c) John Locke
(d) Rousseau
50. For Locke which of the following statement is are not true?
(2020)
(A) Desire is the spring of all human action.
(B) There are universally binding moral laws.
(C) The state of nature is a state in which men are equal and fre
act within the bounds of the law of nature.
(D) Men make a contract to enter into civil society.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (D) only
(b) (B) only
(c) (A) and (C)
(d) (B) and (D)
51. For Hegel which of the following statement is are not true?
(2020)
(A) The universe is a coherent whole.
(B) Everything, including matter and the external world is not
creation of the idea.
(C) The history of the world presents us with a rational process.
(D) The rational is the real and the real is the rational.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (A) only
(b) (B) only
(c) (C) and (D)
(d) (A) and (D)
List I List II
(A)Howard I.A Vindication of the Rights of
Warrender Woman: with Strictures on Political
and Moral Subjects
(B)Edmund II.The Political Theory of Possessive
Burke Individualism: Hobbes to Locke
(C)Mary III. Reflections o
Wollstonecraft the Revolutio
in France
(D)C. B. IV. The Political Philosophy of Hobb
Macpherson His Theory of Obligation
54. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Identify the correct
answer. (2021)
Assertion (A): F. A . Hayek portrayed state intervention and
collectivism, even in their moderate forms, as inevitably leading to
an erosion of Liberty.
Reason (R): He is a supporter of laissez faire and opponent of
Keynesian economics and the welfare state.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
55. For J. S. Mill which one of the following is not true ? (2021)
(a) Pleasures differ in quality
(b) The felicific calculus is absurd
(c) The principle of utility is the final end of life
(d) Liberty consists in doing what one desires
56. For Karl Marx who among the following is not a Utopian
socialist ? (2021)
(a) St. Simon
(b) Proudhon
(c) Fourier
(d) Engels
57. Match List -I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2021)
List I List II
(i). Defence of sovereignty and assertio
1. Hobbes of the claims of political authority over
religion
(ii) Defence of Individual freedom of thought and
2. Locke expression
Code:
(a) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(ii), (D)-(iv)
(b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(iii), (D)-(i)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(d) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
58. For John Locke which of the following statements are not true
? (2021)
(A) The true state must be constitutional.
(B) The state is limited, not absolute.
(C) Revolution ought to be the act of a minority.
(D) It is also a “transformer” state.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
(a) (A) and (B)
(b) (B) and (C)
(c) (C) and (D)
(d) (A) and (D)
59. Who amongst the following stated that life is “a perpetual and
restless desire for power after power, that ceaseth only in
death”? (2021)
(a) Aristotle
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Hobbes
(d) Rousseau
60. Who amongst the following wrote The Art of War? (2021)
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Mao
(c) Hobbes
(d) Rousseau
List I List II
(A)Bureaucratic Terror I.Frantz Fanon
(B)Cultural Revolution II.Plato
(C)Apartheid III. Mao Zedong
(D)Allegory of Caves IV. Hannah Arendt
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A - IV, B - III, C - I, D - II
(b) A - II, B - I, C - III, D - IV
(c) A - I, B - II, C - III, D - IV
(d) A - III, B - IV, C - I, D - II
16. Daniel Bell in his work ‘The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of
Political Ideas in the Fifties (1960)’ espoused for end of ideology
thesis. End of ideology concept based on the context of advanced
stage of industrial growth where socio-economic basis of any
country determined by development not ideology.
29. Augustine concept of two cities was mentioned in his book ‘City of
God’ was written in about 413-426 CE. It was written during Great
Rome Empire fallen down by the vandals under the command king
Alaric. Augustine asserted in his work rome fallen due to internal
moral decay and city was saved from total destruction due to the
Christianity. By two cities he meant to explain distinction between
Church and world. Love of self has formed earthly city i.e. Rome
and love of god has formed the heavenly city i.e. Jerusalem.
54. Hayek in his influential work ‘the road to serfdom’ argued that state
intervention for centralised planning would take away individual
liberties. Hayek warned that government control of economic
decision making would lead to tyranny.
64. Hegel held that state is the incarnation of divine reason and the
march of god on earth because when individual obeys the state, he
follows divine reason and thereby exercise his freedom. For Hegel,
men and women are functionally complementary, with men in a
dominant role. Women are consigned to the home, to the family
Because they do not leave the household, women are denied the
progression and development of their ethical self-consciousness.
Chapter 1: Dharmashastra
Chapter 2: Kautilya
Chapter 3: Aggannasutta
Chapter 4: Ziauddin Barani (1285–1357)
Chapter 5: Kabir
Chapter 6: Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922)
Chapter 7: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920)
Chapter 8: Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902)
Chapter 9: Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)
Chapter 10: M. K. Gandhi
Chapter 11: Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (1872–1950)
Chapter 12: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Naicker (1893–1973)
Chapter 13: Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
Chapter 14: Manabendra Nath Roy (1887–1954)
Chapter 15: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883–1963)
Chapter 16: Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
Chapter 17: Jawahar Lal Nehru (1889–1964)
Chapter 18: Ram Manohar Lohia (1910–68)
Chapter 19: Jayaprakash Narayan (1902–79)
Chapter 20: Deen Dayal Upadhyay (1916–68)
CHAPTER 1
Dharmashastra
INTRODUCTION
Dharmashastra is the tradition of thoughts that represents the idea of
socio-political arrangement in a society based on Hindu Philosophy.
Dharmashastras are actually moral codes of laws and treaties that
determine the way of life of people. The significance of this tradition is
that it sees the arrangement and structure of society from the
perspective of Dharma (Duty). According to Dharmashastra, a society is
well-ordered if everyone performs their duty in an organic manner. The
political authority in Dharmashstra is created to maintain order and the
king has the power to punish (danda) to maintain Dharma.
MANU SM ITIS
It is the oldest and most well-known Sm iti. It includes discourse given
by Manu and Bhrigu Rishi. This text is considered as the most
important book of Hindu law and code. ‘The Laws of Manu’ was one of
the first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English in 1776 by William
Jones. Manu Sm iti consists of 12 chapters and the content can be
divided into four parts: The creation of the world, the source of Dharma,
Four Social Classes, and the Law of Karma rebirth and liberation. Some
factual details about Manu Sm iti are:
Chapter 1—Varna system, and duties of all four castes.
Chapter 5—Duties and position of women in society.
Chapter 7—Duties and function of King. Theory of Kingship.
Chapter 8—Laws of Punishment
PRINCIPLE OF PURUSHARTHA
The Purusharthas are the inherent values of the Universe,
Dharmashastra suggests that a human need to develop a balance
between material and spiritual objectives. The four goals of a human
being are:
1. Dharma (righteousness)
2. Artha (economic values)
3. Kama (pleasure, desire)
4. Moksha (liberation)
Varnas
Manu viewed the caste system formed an essential part of ancient
Hindu society. Varna system would preserve the social harmony of the
society. He viewed that the king came into existence to protect the
Varna system and that any failure on the part of the ruler would make
him an unworthy ruler. In classical Indian Thought community or society
is more important than the individual. Society is divided into four fold
classes which are organically linked with each other.
THEORY OF STATE
Chapter seven of the Manu Sm iti mentions ‘The Theory of State’ and
the duties of a king. Manu believes in the divine origin of the state.
Manu said that human beings possess a mixture of both good and evil
tendencies. When individuals are swayed by evil tendencies, they
violate the principles of Dharma. Dandaniti has emerged to control these
evil tendencies. According to Manu, King is a symbol of Danda created
by God to save the world from anarchy. The king is said to possess to
unique qualities of all the major gods—Indra, Vayu, Yama, Kuber, Agni,
Varuna and Chandra. Thus, the king is considered as the embodiment
of ‘God on earth’.
To ensure social harmony and promote people’s welfare, the state
should be governed by a selfless and enlightened Yogi King who would
uphold the principles of Dharma. The king is neither allowed to create
new rules nor existing principles of Dharma. He is only expected to
uphold it and preserve it. According to Manu, everyone doesn’t
possess the qualities of a king. Thus, here he has openly supported
monarchical kingship instead of a democratic ruler. Manu’s view of
kingship departs from the western view of kingship where the monarchy
is considered an ‘Agent of God’ and believes in the principles of ‘the
king can do no wrong’.
NATURE OF STATE
The state was a welfare state. The nature of the state is organic. The
state is compared with a human organ. The state is comprised of seven
parts likewise seven organs of the human body. For a better human
body, all organs should be stronger a similarly powerful component of
the organs of state makes a strong state. The state is natural like a
human body. The seven elements of the state are as follows:
1. Swami (King)
2. Amatya (Minister)
3. Durg (Fort)
4. Janapad (District)
5. Kosh (Treasury)
6. Mitra (Ally)
7. Danda (Punishment)
DUTIES OF KING
According to Manu, the king is the next best to God and he must
have complete control over himself and his senses.
He is a divine creation and his purpose is to promote social
harmony, peace, and welfare.
A king was expected to control his anger, satisfy the people, and
govern the state with their consent rather than the use of force.
The King is supposed to follow the Varna Dharma or the
Kshatriya Dharma. Accordingly, ‘War is a Kshatriya Dharma.’
He should administer Punishment according to the shastras—In
Manu Sm iti, there is no concept of equality before the law. The
lower the Varna, the higher the punishment for the same offence.
He should help the citizens achieve ‘yogkshem’, i.e. the four
Purushartas.
These are 5 main duties—
Dandaneeti,
Taxation,
Justice and Judicial System,
Inter-State Relations, and
Morality and Religion.
7. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 3 1 4 2
9. Who holds the view that the theory of the divinity of the king was
advanced by Manu Sm iti?
(a) V. R. Mehta
(b) K. P. Jaiswal
(c) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
(d) Thomas Panthem
15. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
List-1 List-2
Chapter of Manu Sm Content
iti
a)Chapter One 1)Duties and position of women in socie
b)Chapter Five 2)Laws of Punishment.
c)Chapter Seven 3)Varna system and duties of all four
castes.
d) Chapter Eight 4) Duties and function of the
king.
Codes:
a b c d
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 3 1 4 2
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 9. 11. 13. 15.
(a) (a) (d) (b) (c) (c) (d)
2. 5. 8. 10. 12.
14. (b)
(b) (d) (d) (c) (b)
3.
6. (d)
(b)
INTRODUCTION
Kautilya (also known as Vishnu Gupta) is a profound and systematic
ancient Indian Philosopher. He is the author of the celebrated book
Arthashastra (the science of polity) written in the fourth-century BCE.
Kautilya was the pen name of Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandra
Gupta Maurya in the fourth-century BCE. Kautilya played the central role
in the establishment of the Maurya Empire under Chandra Gupta Maurya
(321–297 BCE)—the first pan-Indian state. Kautilya was the first to provide
a realist theory of State as well as International Relations.
ARTHASHASTRA
Kautilya defines statecraft as Arthashastra. Artha denotes material well-
being. It can be considered the first textbook in geopolitics. His book,
Arthashastra, has 15 parts (or books), 180 divisions, 150 chapters, and
approximately 6,000 verses or shlokas. Kautilya in Arthshastra described:
Well-organized state,
Kingship and the qualities of an ideal ruler,
The principles of practical politics, administration, ethical and moral
order,
Domestic and Inter-state policies,
Warfare, and
Criminology, Intelligence, and Espionage.
Besides politics, the other subjects included in Arthashastra are:
Economics, Ethics Sociology Science of Education, Engineering, and others.
According to Kautilya, the basis of good governance as stated in
Arthashastra are the following branches of knowledge:
Anvikasi (Philosphy): Lamp of all sciences,
Trayi (Three Vedas): Cultural Context,
Varta: Economic Policies, and
Dandaneeti: Science of government and politics.
THEORY OF STATE
Kautilya believed that the state was an organism, not a mere mechanical
institution. Kautilya was the first contractarian thinker in India like Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke, and Rousseau. He rejected the ‘Divine Origin of
the Monarch’ and considered State as a man-made institution. According to
him, the state originated to fulfil the desire of the people to have a peaceful
society. He describes the King as the servant of the people who receive
payments in the form of taxes for the services rendered to the people. The
King was the head of State, the upholder of the law and order. His foremost
duty is Rakshana (Protection) and Palana (Nurture) of the people of the State.
The main duty of the state was the protection of private property by punishing
the thief. The welfare of the people is the only objective of the state.
Kautilya held that the ally of the first category is superior to the second
one.
KAUTILYA ON CORRUPTION
Kautilya identified forty different types of corruption. He also referred to its
inevitability and remarked, it’s like honey on the tongue, you can’t help but
taste it. Corruption weakens the state from within and without. It erodes the
state’s ability to achieve people’s well-being. It lowers the morale of the
people. Low morale makes it very easy for the enemy to win. As a result,
corruption must be addressed. He has a very practical approach to corruption.
As public officials control so many resources, corruption is unavoidable. Even
officials may be unaware that they are engaging in corruption. When a fish
swims in water, it has no idea when it has drunk the water.
Kautilya admits that it is difficult to tackle corruption. However, he
suggests ways to tackle it:
Reducing the size of the bureaucracy,
Transfer officials at regular intervals until he is aware of all the
loopholes,
Public humiliation of corrupt officials,
He brings up Suchaks (Whistle-blowers), and
The entire chain should be punished, not just the corrupt official. The
chain also includes the Dayak (briber), Pratigraha (receiver of money),
and Nidhayak (one who keeps the money).
COMMENTARIES ON KAUTILYA
R. Shamasastry—‘The theory of social contract was not unknown in
the days of Chanakya.’
B. A. Salvatore—‘Of all the schools of ancient Indian political
thought, the most noteworthy is that of Kautilya.’
N. C. Bandyopadhyay—‘The state according to Kautilya must be
based on sound economic foundations, so as to enable men to realize
the aims of life.’
M. V. Krishna Rao—‘Kautilya’s attitude to religion was secular and
not apathetic.’
Max Weber—‘Machiavelli’s Prince was harmless when compared to
Kautilya’s Arthashastra.’
Amartya Sen—‘Kautilya is not immoral but unmoral in his politics.’
7. According to Kautilya, who is the most important person after the King?
(a) Ambassador
(b) Spies
(c) Army
(d) People
13. Match the following list (i) to List (ii) regarding Kautilya Theory of
Diplomacy:
15. Who said that ‘Just as it is impossible to know when a swimming fish is
drinking water, so it is impossible to find out when a government
servant is stealing money.’ ?
(a) Kautilya
(b) Kabir
(c) Buddha
(d) Barani
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Aggannasutta is a part of the famous Buddhist literature ‘Digha Nikaya’.
Digha Nikaya contains the teachings of Buddha, it’s an ancient text and
belongs to the sixth-century BCE. The twenty-seventh Sutta of Digha
Nikaya is known as Aggannasutta. It contains an alternative theory about
the creation of life, and earth as well as social order and counters the
social order suggested in Vedas or Dharmashastra tradition.
The major emphasis of Aggannasutta is about challenging the caste-
based hierarchy present in Hindu and Vedic Philosophy. Aggannasutta is
an account of a dialogue that occurred between Buddha and two Hindu
(Brahmin) sages Vasettha and Bharadvaja, Buddha explained to them
about injustice in the caste-based hierarchy and told them the path to
Dhamma.
THEORIES OF KINGSHIP
According to Buddha’s view in the Aggannasutta text, the creation of the
state is a historic process not a natural or divine process. He belongs to
the social contract tradition of the Political Theory of State. He supported
the idea of monarchy as a necessity of the existence of the state for an
orderly human society. The rights of private property and family can
prevail only under the state’s regulatory and punitive authority. People
select the king to ensure the common good and they agree to give a
proportion of his rights. Origin of kingship in a social contract.
Aggannasutta challenges Vedic ideas of maintaining social order
based on Varna-Ashrama Dharma. He rejected caste-based
discrimination and considered people of caste as equal with different
responsibilities and functions.
Caste Function
I.Landed ruling
class 1. Writing religious books.
Codes:
(a) I–2, II–1, III–3, IV–4
(b) I–4, II–3, III–2, IV–1
(c) I–4, II–3, III–1, IV–2
(d) I–2, II–1, III–4, IV–3
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9.
(c) (a) (a) (d) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10.
(b) (d) (c) (b) (b).
CHAPTER 4
Ziauddin Barani (1285–1357)
INTRODUCTION
Ziauddin Barani was an Islamic political thinker during the period of the
Delhi Sultanate. In his lifetime he witnesses the reigns of around ten Delhi
Sultans, from Ghiyasuddin Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq. He is famous for
the Nasihat (advice) he gave in Fatwa-i-Jahandari to Muslim rulers to become
an Ideal Sultan. Like other medieval writers, his political philosophy also
revolves around the Sultan’s personality. The basic objective of Ziauddin
Barani is to implement Islamic Shari’ah. The state must attain an ideal
stage, which he defines as the triumph of good values over evil forces.
Ziauddin Barani’s political thought is usually compared with Kautilya’s
Arthashastras and Machiavelli’s Prince. Tarikh-I-Firuz-Sahi was a
magnificent book of history about the reigns of the Delhi Sultanate.
STATECRAFT ADVICE
Justice is the most important attribute of the State and absolute power
to the Sultan can only be justified by enforcing justice.
The first act of the Sultan is the appointment and gradation of judges,
with the Sultan himself being at the apex.
Sultan must apply both forgiveness and punishment while carrying out
justice.
Deliverance of justice should be according to the religious practices of
the subjects.
Sultan should objectively implement Islamic Shari’ah in all aspects of
life.
Sultan should have high resolve, lofty ideals, fair administration,
distinctiveness from other monarchs, and obligation over people.
Sultan should maintain all royalties (counsellors, army, and intelligence
officers).
Sultan should create a system of administration, army, intelligence, and
justice which has people of high integrity and character.
Sultan should safeguard traditional political families. They should not
leave to live in material deprivation.
ZAWABIT/STATE LAWS
Ziauddin Barani divided the laws into two categories, the Shariat and the
Zawabit. Shariat contains the teaching of the prophet and of caliphs.
According to Ziauddin Barani, Shariat should be the bedrock of an Islamic
State. Ziauddin Barani proposed the idea of Zawabit (state laws) which
can be formulated by the Sultan in case of non-applicability of Shariat in any
specific dimension of Governance.
The Zawabit were state laws drafted by the monarch in cooperation with
the nobles in response to new requirements that the Shariat could not meet.
He stated that the Zawabit must be in the spirit of Shariat and listed four
parameters for its formation as recommendations. They are as follows:
STRUCTURE OF BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy is responsible for the collection of tax and the measurement of
land. According to Ziauddin Barani tax should be collected based on the
people’s ability to pay back their debts. Ziauddin Barani advised the Sultan
to regulate the bureaucracy to check corruption and to protect the weak and
the poor against the strong. He recommended the remission of taxes
temporarily during natural calamities like floods and drought. Ziauddin
Barani talked about the three-tier revenue bureaucracy structure in a
sultanate.
JUDICIARY
According to Ziauddin Barani, justice is an inevitable responsibility of the
Sultan. Sultan is the head of the judiciary and is responsible for appointing the
judges. Sultan while dealing with religious cases should be assisted by the
Mufti and the Sadr-us-Sadur, while in secular cases he should be assisted by
Qazi-ul-Quzat. All of a good ruler’s other policies will fail if he is unable to
accomplish justice in his domain. As a result, the Sultan must take extra care
to designate competent judges, qazis, and governors in the state. Delhi
Sultanate was mainly urban in character. The structure of the judiciary
suggested by Ziauddin Barani can be represented in the following
manner:
ARMY
He advised the Sultan to maintain the army disciplined and up to date. He
also stated that the Sultan should take every precaution to keep the army well
supplied with armaments and other facilities and to keep it as an ever-ready
force for the defence and offensive objectives. The army was based on the
Turkish–Mongol Model. It was divided into four parts, viz., infantry (foot
soldiers or payaks), cavalry (horsemen), war-elephants, and auxiliary, viz.,
boats, engineers, transporters, scouts, spies, etc. Ziauddin Barani
recommended that Sultan should maintain personal troops called Qalb for his
safety and ultimate reliability in case of rebellion occurring from within the
nobility.
2. Tenets of Secularism
4. Origin of state
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1, 2, 3, and 4
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1 and 4
4. Sultans must be from royal families and have a strong sense of justic
Codes:
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4
(b) 1, 2, and 3
(c) 1, 2, and 4
(d) 1 and 4 only
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2, and 4
(d) 1, 2, 4, and 5
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7.
9. (c)
(b) (b) (c) (a)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (b)
(a) (c) (c) (c)
CHAPTER 5
Kabir
INTRODUCTION
Academically speaking, Kabir was not a political thinker, he can correctly be
classified as a social reformer, but if we analyze his social thought, they do
challenge the socio-political paradigm of Indian Society. Although he didn’t
articulate any principle of political association or organization, but he
countered the injustice at the religious as well as the social level and stand for
the oppressed and downtrodden. He belongs to the fifteenth-century, was
born in a lower caste family Julaha (weavers) and was a contemporary of
Sikandar Lodhi. Kabir is widely known for his ‘Dohas’ or couplets through
which he professed wisdom to the world. Kabir belongs to the period of the
Bhakti Movement which revolutionized Indian society in a significant manner.
WORKS OF KABIR
The teachings of Kabir were compiled majorly by his disciples. Different
kinds of scholars in different regions of India have been compiling his works.
As a result, the content and language of his works vary in different sources.
Some of the key sources to understand the teachings of Kabir include Adi
Granth, Bijak, Panchvani, Sarvangi, and Granthavali. Some other famous
books which contain the work of Kabir are:
Saakhi
Padavali
Rekhtas
Suknidhan
Mangal Vasant
Kabir Bijak
Sabdas
Ramaini
INFLUENCES ON KABIR
Kabir was an admirer, or we can as a disciple of Saint
Ramananda (fourteenth-century). Saint Ramananda’s dream of
reconciling the intense and personal mysticism of Islam with the
theology of Hinduism and that of Christian faith was furthered by
Kabir.
Kabir was also influenced by the ideals of truth and non-violence
available in Jain philosophy. It can even be seen in Kabir’s idea of
Begumpura, which aspires to a society with no violence, greed, crime,
etc.
5. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other a
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Kabir argues that there is no evidence to indicate that
people of some castes are superior to others.
Reason (R): Kabir considered women as a means of distraction and
seduction in human life.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. He believed that one can get rid of all sins by having a bath in Ga
water.
D. He said that a saint has no caste.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and C only
(b) A, B, and D only
(c) B and D only
(d) C and D only
9. Who says that ‘a priest, a warrior, a tradesman and people of all caste
are seeking God alike, Hindu and Muslims alike have achieved tha
end.’?
(a) Kautilya
(b) Kabir
(c) Buddha
(d) Ziauddin Barani
10. Which among the following statements are correct regarding Kabir’s
idea of Begumpura:
A. People will be followers of polytheism.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7.
9. (b)
(b) (a) (b) (c)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (d)
(c) (c) (c) (a)
8. Kabir was quite consistent in his belief that not just human beings, bu
all creations of God are equal because of his conviction that they are a
endowed with the same supreme spirit. He is, therefore, critical of th
slaughtering of animals, even for religious rituals in the name of God an
preached humane treatment of animals.
CHAPTER 6
Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922)
INTRODUCTION
Pandita Ramabai is perhaps one of the first feminists in modern Indian
history who struggled for the emancipation of Indian women. Her political
thoughts are reflected in her critique of patriarchy and the demand for civil
rights and gender justice. Thus, she was a liberal feminist and a social
reformer. Pandita Ramabai counters the caste system as well as the
inferior status of women in Indian Society. Throughout her life, she worked
for the upliftment of women.
Important Events and Achievements:
Honoured with the title of Saraswati and Pandita in 1878 by the
University of Calcutta.
Founded the Arya Mahila Sabha in 1882 in Pune.
On 25 September 1883, Pandita Ramabai converted to
Christianity.
In 1887, she founded Ramabai Association which accepted to pay
the expenses for 10 years to run a widow’s home for upper-caste
Hindu widows in India.
In 1889, she opened a secular residential school for high caste
widows, the Sharada Sadan, in Bombay.
In 1908, Pandita Ramabai translated Bible into the Marathi
language.
In 1919, the British government awarded Pandita Ramabai, the
Kaiser-i-Hind medal for her distinguished service to the Indian
education system.
She was in the first meeting of the National Congress in Bombay in
1889 along with other women such as Swarnakumari Devi, and
Calcutta University’s first lady graduate Kadambini Ganguly.
Critique of Patriarchy: According to Pandita Ramabai, the
patriarchal ideology of the society placed women within domestic
fear as wives/mothers/housewives according to their sexual,
reproductive and homemaking roles. In this caste-ridden, patriarchal
society, the highest status for a woman was that of a Saubhagyavati
that is a blessed woman whose husband was alive and a mother of
sons, rather than daughters. A woman only with daughters or one
without children had a lower status and lived under the fear of being
deserted by her husband. A widow had the lowest status, especially
a child widow or one without children. She has particularly drawn the
attention of people towards what she considered the biggest curse
for a Hindu woman which is her becoming a widow, especially a child
widow. In her testimony before the education commission set up in
1882, Pandita Ramabai demanded women teachers for girls and
schools. She noted that ‘women being one-half of the people of this
country are oppressed and cruelty treated by the other half.’
Reform for Women’s Empowerment: Pandita Ramabai
founded the Arya Mahila Sabha which may be termed as the first
feminist organisation in India. The objective of this institution was to
promote education among native women and discouragement of
child marriage. Pandita Ramabai Associations in the United States
resulted in the formation of the Ramabai Association in Boston in
December 1887 which pledged financial support for 10 years for her
proposed secular school for high cast widows in India. She played
an important role in the Congress convention demanding civil rights
for women that is widows, deserted wives and sexually exploited
women and her main contribution was her desire to protect the upper
caste widow who was the symbol of Hindu patriarchal oppression.
Mukti Mission consisted of not only Hindu widows but also famine
victims, sexually assaulted women blind and old women all kept in
separate sections. This section came to be known as the Kripa such
as the Home of Mercy. In this Mukti Sadan, girls did everything in it,
from weaving, dairy farming, cooking, etc. The social and economic
value of being independent was no doubt the most important of all
values to be taught to Indian women.
Important Books:
Stri Dharma Niti: 1882 published
Consists of Morals for Women
The Cry of Indian Women: published in 1883. It contains details of
Indian women’s oppression through early marriage, marital
harassment, desertion by the husband, and widowhood.
The High Caste Hindu Women (1887): It was India’s first feminist
manifesto with an agenda for women’s emancipation and
empowerment. It offers a feminist critique of Indian women’s
condition.
United Stateschi Lokeshiti Ani Pravasvritta (1889): A Marathi book
in which she tried to highlight the importance of social movements
and civil society in changing society for the better.
Mukti Prayer Bell: A newsletter containing writings showing
increasing frustration and resentment.
Lamentation of Divine Language: A Sanskrit poem submitted to the
Oriental Conference at Berlin in 1881, highlighting the violence of
colonialism.
3. Which among the following are not the works of Pandita Ramabai?
A. The Cry of Indian Women
B. Mukti Sadan
C. Sharada Sadan
Code:
(a) B only
(b) C only
(c) Both A and B
(d) Both B and C
Thinkers Works
A B C D
(a) I II III IV
(b) II III I IV
(c) II I III IV
(d) III II IV I
B. Title of Saraswati.
12. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other
as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Pandita Ramabai in Ancient times
people were assigned to the four castes according to their work and
merit and not based on their birth.
Reason (R): She held that all sacred books in Sanskrit literature
shared hateful sentiments about women like child marriage,
polygamy, and enforced widowhood which constitutes the greatest
social evils in India.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13.
(b) (d) (d) (b) (b) (d) (b)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14.
(d) (d) (a) (c) (d) (b) (d)
13. Mukti Mission are residential widow homes and not related to the
issue of child labour. Arya Mahila Sabha was established to oppose
child marriage.
CHAPTER 7
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920)
INTRODUCTION
The extremist ideology created a leadership of ‘Lal–Bal–Pal,’ during the
national movement of India. They criticized the moderates and altered the
nationalist vocabulary by incorporating swadeshi, boycotts, and national
education. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, rooted in Maharashtra was perhaps the
most articulate militant leader of this phase of the freedom struggle. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak was the first leader of the Indian independence
movement. The British journalist Valentine Chirol called him ‘The Father
of the Indian unrest.’ He was also conferred with the title of ‘Lokmanya’ which
means ‘accepted by the people as their leader,’ M. K. Gandhi called him
‘The Maker of Modern India’. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was one of the
strongest advocates of Swaraj (self–rule) and a strong radical in Indian
consciousness. He is known for his quote in Marathi: ‘Swaraj is my birthright
and I shall have it.’ Throughout his political life, he was arrested three times
by the British government on sedition charges.
IDEA OF SWARAJ
His concept of Swaraj was of a government constituted by the Indians
themselves that rules according to the wishes of the people or their
representatives. Swaraj which meant ‘self-rule’ was what Bal Gangadhar
Tilak asked for, not as a mercy but as a right, a natural right, a birthright.
Swaraj was not only a political concept merely. It was more than a law-and-
order mechanism. It was also more than economic order providing the
necessities of life. Swaraj according to Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a full
self-government—political, social-economic, and spiritual. Thus, Swaraj was
something more than a home rule.
Politically, Swaraj meant the rule of India by Indians. It means political
non-interference by foreigners in the matter relating to India.
Economically, Swaraj meant non-interference in the economic activities
of India. Let the Indian natural resource be owned by the Indian and let
them decide as to how would they use them for the benefit of the
people and the development of the state.
Socially, Swaraj meant for the type of society where evils do not exist,
let the British not interfere in our religion and social life.
Culturally, Swaraj meant a high level of Nationalism where materialism
has no place.
1. National Education,
2. Boycott,
3. Swadeshi, and
4. Passive Resistance.
NATIONALISM
Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Nationalism was oriented on culture and tradition.
He said national unity can be created among the masses by reminding them
about the glory and history. Cultural celebrations like the Ganpati festival and
Shivaji festival can unify the Indian masses for the cause of nationalism. He
said the western liberal ideas won’t be useful for infusing nationalist feelings
among the Indian masses. The elements of a nation according to Bal
Gangadhar Tilak were common language and literature, common religion,
tradition, and history. Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s concept of nationalism was
spiritual and religious. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote, ‘God and our country,
are not different in short, our country is one form of God. He looked at our
Motherland as a Goddess.’
6. In 1909 Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned for six years and was sen
to?
(a) Mandalay
(b) Cellular Jail
(c) Bamkipur Jail
(d) None of the Above
8. When was the Home Rule League movement started by Bal Gangadha
Tilak?
(a) 1919
(b) 1916
(c) 1911
(d) 1907
10. Who said that ‘Our Nation is like a tree of which the original trunk is
Swaraj and the branches are Swadeshi and Boycott.’?
(a) Pandita Ramabai
(b) M. K. Gandhi
(c) Swami Vivekanada
(d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (a) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(b) (b)
INTRODUCTION
Swami Vivekananda is considered as one of the most influential, spiritual,
educationist thinkers of India. He is considered as an icon for his fearless
courage and his positive exhortations to the youth. His pre-monastic name is
Narendra Nath Dutta. He was a monk and chief disciple of
Ramakrishna Paramhansa. He introduced the Indian philosophies of
Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.
NEO-VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY
According to Vedanta philosophy, God alone was real, the visible world was
unreal and the absorption of the individual soul in the one supreme soul was
the real goal of every human being. However, Swami Vivekananda
followed the Vedanta preached by his teacher which was rooted in the
traditional Indian wisdom of bhakti tradition. There were three important
principles of the Neo-Vedanta philosophy of Swami Vivekananda:
Vedanta believed in the one between God and man and the solidarity
of the universe.
It did not stand for a life of renunciation but stood for selfless action in
the services of humanity. Hence service of man should be considered
as the service of God.
It propagated the principle of universal tolerance and believed that
different religious faces were different parts to reach the goal of
liberation.
CULTURAL NATIONALISM
Swami Vivekananda’s nationalism is associated with spiritualism. He
linked India’s regeneration to her age-old tradition of spiritual goals. He said,
‘Each nation has a destiny to fulfil, each nation has a message to deliver,
each nation has a mission to accomplish.’ He galvanized the National Spirit by
exposing the British policy of profiteering in complete disregard to the Indian
interests.
Swami Vivekananda was a great advocate of democracy and he
wanted to awaken the youth people to establish a free and democratic
government in India. He also believed in the principle of liberty, equality, and
religious tolerance.
The four pillars of nationalism according to Swami Vivekananda are:
IMPORTANT WORKS
Karma Yoga (1896)
Raja Yoga (1896)—It was his interpretation of Patanjali’s Yoga
Sutras.
Vedanta Philosophy: Address before the Graduate Philosophical
Society (1897)—Lectures from Colombo to Almora.
The Vedanta Philosophy: Lectures on Jnana Yoga (1902)
Inspired Talks—published in 1909.
Practical Vedanta (1912)—It is about how Vedanta can be made
practical in our day-to-day life.
B. He wanted India to lead the world towards the path of spiritual develo
11. Identify the philosopher who remarked that religious toleration is crucial
for the growth of democracy.
(a) Pandita Ramabai
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(c) Swami Vivekananda
(d) Rabindranath Tagore
12. Who said that ‘The soil of India is my highest heaven; the good of India
is my good.’?
(a) Pandita Ramabai
(b) M. K. Gandhi
(c) Swami Vivekananda
(d) Rabindranath Tagore
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(a) (c) (c) (b) (b) (c) (c)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. (a)
(c) (d) (a) (b)
CHAPTER 9
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)
INTRODUCTION
Rabindranath Tagore was born on 7 May 1861 in Calcutta. He was an
iconic figure in the Indian cultural renaissance and was a polymath poet,
philosopher, musician, writer, and educationist. He became the first Asian to
win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his collection of poems, Gitanjali. He was
honoured with the title of Gurudev by M. K. Gandhi, also known as
Kabiguru, and Biswakabi and his songs are popularly known as
Rabindrasangeet. The national anthems of India (the Jana Gana Mana), and
Bangladesh (Amar Shonar Bangla) are composed by him.
4. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): In his book Nationalism, Rabindranath Tagore
criticized nationalism as an epidemic of evil or a terrible absurdity.
Reason (R): His critique of nationalism could be mentioned in his
essay entitled ‘Nationalism in Taiwan’, ‘Nationalism in India’, and
‘Nationalism in West’.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true.
Events Years
A. Award of Knighthood 1.19
B. Joining of secret society 2.19
C. Foundation of Visva-Bharati 3.18
D. Europe-Prabasir Patra 4.18
B. He states that ‘when a man does not realize his kinship with the
lives in a prison house whose walls are alien to him.’
9. The book ‘The Home and the World’ was against which of the following
culture?
(a) Indian culture
(b) Chinese culture
(c) Asian culture
(d) Western culture
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (d) (a) (a) (b) (d) (c).
2. 4.
6. (a)
(c) (c)
CHAPTER 10
M. K. Gandhi
INTRODUCTION
Albert Einstein said in praise of M. K. Gandhi, ‘Generations to come will
scarce believe that such a one as this ever in flesh and blood walked upon
this earth.’ M. K. Gandhi’s personal life as well as his thought on
Satyagraha and Non-Violence have inspired leaders around the globe. From
Martin Luther King Jr to Barack Obama and from Nelson Mandela
to Desmond Tutu. Born on 2 October 1869, M. K. Gandhi was called
‘Father of the Nation’ by Subhash Chandra Bose in 1944 and the title
‘Mahatma’ was given by Rabindranath Tagore in 1915. He was a
freedom fighter, a civil rights activist, a philosopher, and above all a great
human being. He was awarded the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ in 1915 by the British
government.
He never accepted the existence of any ‘ism’ called ‘Gandhism’ nor he
compiled anything substantial on political concepts so that we can refer to him
as a political philosopher but still, as he himself said ‘his life was his
message,’ fragments of his ideas collected from different works gives us
credible inputs to talk about the political philosophy of M. K. Gandhi. From
his early life and struggle in South Africa to his first public appearance at the
inaugural session of Banaras Hindu University and from Champaran to Quit
India, his political life has given us many political ideas.
IDEA OF SWARAJ
M. K. Gandhi in his book ‘Hind Swaraj (1909)’ spelt out his understanding
of ‘true freedom’ or what he called ‘Swaraj’. Unlike the common understanding
of freedom from the yoke of British Colonialism, M. K. Gandhi’s Swaraj has
two meanings: one is to get political, economic, and spiritual freedom from
British rule while the other one means to establish ‘rule over ourselves’. The
‘rule over ourselves’ means to limit our needs and to progress towards the
path of Satya (Truth) and Ahimsa (Non-violence). Gram Swaraj was an
inalienable part of M. K. Gandhi’s idea of Swaraj. According to M. K.
Gandhi, ‘the soul of India lives in its villages and these villages are self-
dependent.’ M. K. Gandhi, in fact, advocated a village-led development
model with minimum reliance on cities. He was always a great advocate of
cooperatives.
SATYAGRAHA
Satyagraha (firmness to truth) is the only way to achieve Swaraj. According to
M. K. Gandhi Satyagraha means ‘to win over one’s enemy.’ It is a time
taking but very effective way to make the opponent realize his mistake. Not
only during his lifetime but also after his death, Satyagraha has emerged as
the cherished way to fight with forces of evil, whether it is Black Rights
Movement in the US or the Forest Rights Movement in India. M. K. Gandhi
used to follow the ‘Struggle–Truce–Struggle Method’ of Satyagraha. Under
this method, he used to suspend movements once they take more than
speculated time because according to M. K. Gandhi, people may resort to
violence if the struggle goes too long. In between the phases of struggle, he
used to do constructive work like working for the abolition of untouchability. M.
K. Gandhi chalked out a difference between Satyagraha and Passive
Resistance.
VIEWS ON SCIENCE
Though initially, M. K. Gandhi was very critical to western civilization and
science. In Hind-Swaraj, he called science and the growth of industrialization
as ‘satanic’ because they will ruin the village handicrafts and cottage industry.
However, in later periods of his life, he emphasized the humane aspects of
science and advocated its use for the progress of humanity.
KEY DEBATES
WORKS OF M. K. GANDHI
Books
Hind Swaraj (1909)—where he expresses his views on Swaraj,
mechanization and modern civilization.
Swaraj in One Year (1921)
The Story of My Experiments with Truth (1927)—It is an autobiography,
where he describes his struggle against racism, violence, and
colonialism. It is a window to the evolution of his ideas over a period.
Satyagraha in South Africa (1928)
Constructive Programme It’s Meaning and Place (1941)
India of My Dreams (1947)
Magazines
Indian Opinion was founded by M. K. Gandhi in 1903 in South
Africa.
Young India (1919–32) English weekly. The journal was reprinted in the
US by the India Home Rule League of America by Lala Lajpat Rai.
Harijan in English (1933), Harijan Bandhu in Gujarati, and Harijan
Sevak in Hindi.
Navjivan was founded in 1947 by M. K. Gandhi and J. L. Nehru.
b. Separate electorate
D. Sevagram
4. Maharashtra
3. Recall the face of the rich and brave man whom you may have seen
2. Trusteeship—economic justice
3. End and means—spiritual theory
4. Gram Swaraj—decentralisation
2. Hind Swaraj
3. Young India
4. Harijan
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4
(b) 2, 1, 4, and 3
(c) 3, 1, 4, and 2
(d) 2, 3, 1, and 4
B. First all-India level Satyagraha was the one against the Rowlatt bills.
II.Ramachandra
2. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope Guha
B. Sabarmati Ashram
C. Phoenix Settlement
D. Sevagram Ashram
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) D, A, C, B
(b) B, A, C, D
(c) D, B, A, C
(d) B, C, A, D
B. Rowlatt Satyagraha
C. August Movement
D. Champaran Satyagraha
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) D, A, B, C
(b) B, A, C, D
(c) D, B, A, C
(d) B, C, A, D
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Romain Roland described Sri Aurobindo Ghosh as the prince of
Indian thinkers. He was a great poet, a great metaphysician, a great patriot,
and above all a great systematic thinker. He propounded a philosophy of
divine life on earth through spiritual evolution. He provided a Spiritual
foundation for Indian nationalism. His life, teachings, and legacy have
contributed to the idea of India that embodies a revolutionary zeal deeply
rooted in its cultural values and complex histories.
Important Works
Love and Death—Famous poem written by him in 1899, it was later
published in 1924.
The Ideal of Human Unity (1918)— Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
discusses the inevitability of the unification of the human race as a
result of imperative evolutionary forces and presents the principles
which could be followed in the process of such unification.
The Life Divine (1919)—his principal philosophic work, a theory of
spiritual evolution culminating in the transformation of man from a
mental into a supramental being.
Essays on Gita (1922)—In this, the struggle of Indians to free the
motherland from the alien rule was regarded by him as a
‘Dharamyudh’.
Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (1940)—an epic poem in blank
verse, based upon the theology of the Mahabharata. Its central
theme revolves around the transcendence of man as the
consummation of terrestrial evolution and the emergence of an
immortal supramental gnostic race upon earth.
The Synthesis of Yoga (1948)—There is an Introduction, ‘The
Conditions of the Synthesis’, and four parts: ‘The Yoga of Divine
Works,’ ‘The Yoga of Integral Knowledge,’ ‘The Yoga of Divine Love,’
and ‘The Yoga of Self-Perfection’.
The Human Cycle: The Ideal of Human Unity—War and Self-
Determination (1949)—An explanation of the growth of human
society from a psychological perspective and its evolutionary destiny.
Secret of the Veda (1956)
Hymns of the Mystic Fire—provided the translations for all hymns to
Agni (Rig Veda).
The Hour of God—A collection of twenty-four short prose pieces on
some of the principal concepts of Sri Aurobindo Ghosh’s
philosophy and yoga.
Article—‘New Lamps for Old’ in ‘Indu Prakash’ newspaper 1893.
Weeklies:
Dharma ( Bengali)
Karmayogin (English)
Newspaper:
Bande Matram (1905) an English newspaper in which he worked
with Bipin Chandra Pal.
2. Who among the following has started two weeklies, the Karmayogin
and the Dharma?
(a) M. K. Gandhi
(b) Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
(c) Mahadev Govind Ranade
(d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Works Thinkers
I.Dr B. R. Ambedkar
1. Annihilation of Caste
Codes:
A B C D
(a) I II III IV
(b) I IV III II
(c) I III IV II
(d) II I III IV
10. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested in Alipore
Conspiracy Case.
Reason (R): All arrested in this case were from Anushilan Samiti,
for the murder of Inspector Shamsul Alam.
Choose the correct options:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
B. A nation is a God.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 10. 11.
(d) (c) (a) (c) (b) (c) (c)
2. 4. 6. 8. (d)
(b) (b) (b)
10. Shamsul Alam Murder case is related to Howrah Gang Case not the
Alipore bomb case.
CHAPTER 12
Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Naicker
(1893–1973)
INTRODUCTION
E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker, popularly known as Periyar (Elder), held
high regard in the Tamil region and was regarded as a strong leader in Indian
politics. He is considered as the Father of Modern Tamil Nadu. He was born
into the Naicker family, which was considered low caste among Hindus, and
consequently faced social discrimination because of his caste. He launched a
harsh attack on the caste system, worship, and Hindu mythology, all of which
were blamed for perpetuating social injustice in India. He aimed to restore the
former glory and gave a new identity to discriminated Hindus of South India as
the ‘Dravidian’ race.
Important Books
Karpa Atchi’ (1930)—book contains rules of Pregnancy for birth and
population control.
Why were women enslaved? (1934)—It comprised ten essays he
wrote on the women’s question between 1926 and 1931.
The World to Come (1938)—Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker
visualised many scientific inventions including the possibility of the
‘Test Tube Baby’ which is now a reality.
B. Burning of Manusmriti
C. Vaikkom Satyagraha
D. President of Justice Party
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A, C, B, D
(b) C, A, B, D
(c) A, B, C, D
(d) B, A, D, C
b. Madras Congress
c. Justice Party
d. Vaikkom Satyagrah
Options:
(a) a and b
(b) b and c
(c) c and d
(d) a and c
2. Self-Respect Movement
4. Dravida Kazhagham
Codes:
(a) 3, 1, 2, 4
(b) 3, 2, 1, 4
(c) 4, 3, 2, 1
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (d) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c).
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (d)
INTRODUCTION
Muhammad Iqbal is known as a great poet of Urdu and Persian, and
a religious philosopher. Muhammad Iqbal was a great promoter of
democratic government which is based on Islamic ideology. He
compared liberal democracy’s political ideas to Islamic political ideas and
offered a critique of liberal democracy’s political ideas. Initial thoughts of
Muhammad Iqbal are marked by the liberal attitude towards politics
and nationalism. But in the later phase of his career, Muhammad
Iqbal conceded the primacy of religion in politics and promoted the idea
of a separate State for Indian Muslims.
CRITIQUE OF NATIONALISM
Muhammad Iqbal’s political thought is deeply embedded in his broad
and comprehensive Islamic conception of Tawhid, the unity of God, the
unity of life, the unity of Ummah, and the unity of humanity. His
rejectionist approach towards secularism, materialism, Western
democracy, and nationalism is based upon his concept of Tawhid. Before
Muhammad Iqbal had visited Europe, he supported a strong sense of
patriotism. For instance, his famous song ‘Sare Jahan Se Achcha
Hindustan Hamara’ was the ultimate tribute to the motherland, India.
However, upon his return from Europe, he seemed to develop some
distaste for nationalism.
In the Indian context, Muhammad Iqbal opposed the ideology of
Nationalism on two grounds:
IDEA OF PAN-ISLAMISM
After his initial enthusiasm for territorial nationalism, Muhammad Iqbal
had become an ardent Muslim Universalist. His concept of the Ummah
was basically Pan-Islamic and his wholehearted advocacy was for a
return to the Qur’an as a code of human conduct. For Muhammad
Iqbal, the state by itself is spiritual because all that is secular is spiritual
in Islam. Muhammad Iqbal has asserted that, unlike secularism and
nationalism, Islam provides balance in life by joining matter and spirit into
a harmonious entity for success. He argued that the Islamic community is
not a nation but a ‘league of nations’. He found the idea of nationalism as
inadequate to solve the problems of humanity. Disillusionment with
European culture made Muhammad Iqbal look inward to seek
inspiration from his, own religion.
Muhammad Iqbal was of the view that the Muslim commonwealth,
as established by the Holy Prophet was based on the equality of all
Muslims. Muhammad Iqbal’s image of the future of Islam was Muslim
Universalism. He firmly believed that denial of the universal brotherhood
of Islam meant the rejection of the basic principles of the Quranic
ideology. In his view, the main cause of the downfall of the Muslim
community was disunity among the Muslim Ummah. He delivered a short
address at the Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1911,
Muhammad Iqbal openly declared that it was his conviction that
Muslim Ummah as a simple entity has a glorious future.
IMPORTANT WORKS
Tarana-e-Hind (1904)—it is a patriotic song in the Urdu language.
It starts with the statement ‘Sare Jahan Se Achcha Hindustan
Hamara’ and also articulates the Hindu Muslim unity.
Bang-e-Dara (The Call of the Marching Bell)—was his first Urdu
philosophical poetry book published in 1924.
The Secrets of the Self (1915)—deals with an individual’s religious
and spiritual aspects.
The Secrets of Selflessness (1918)—The main theme of this work
was a relationship between the individual and the society in order
to preserve an ideal Muslim community.
The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam—The
Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam is a compilation of
lectures delivered by Muhammad Iqbal on Islamic philosophy
and published in 1930.
The Development of Metaphysics in Persia— Muhammad
Iqbal’s doctoral thesis.
Naya Shiwala.
2. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the othe
as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to Muhammad Iqbal Secular state is
merely incapable of solving the social, economic and political
problems of any particular community.
Reason (R): European People are losing their peace of mind due
to their aversion to religion.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (b) (d) (a) (d) (d) (b)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (c)
9. Both the statements are correct and hence D would be the answer
which means neither of them is incorrect.
CHAPTER 14
Manabendra Nath Roy (1887–1954)
INTRODUCTION
Manabendra Nath Roy, originally known as Narendranath Bhattacharya,
was born in Arbelia, West Bengal. He was an Indian revolutionary, radical
activist, and political theorist of the twentieth-century. He was also a founder
of the Mexican Communist Party and the Communist Party of India (Tashkent
group). As a delegate to congresses to the Communist International and
Russia’s aide to China he pondered Vladimir Lenin on national liberation
and operated in the upper levels of international communism.
Like Sri Aurobindo Ghosh, he began his political life as a militant
nationalist. His thinking passes through three phases—revolutionary and
nationalist, Communist, and radical humanist. He was one of the first leaders
to inject Marxism into the practical politics of India. He joined the underground
revolutionary organisation ‘Anushilan Samiti’, and when it was banned, he
helped in organizing the Jugantar Group under the leadership of Jatin
Mukherjee. He was called a ‘remarkable failure’ by Sudipto Kaviraj.
CRITIQUE OF COMMUNISM
Manabendra Nath Roy was basically the critique of Soviet
Communism/Marxism. He criticized theoretical principles as well as the
practical use of Marxism. His critique of Communism was contained in Theses
Seven to Eleven based on the Soviet Union, particularly the discrepancy
between the ideal and the reality of the socialist order. According to
Manabendra Nath Roy freedom does not necessarily follow from the
capture of political power in the name of the oppressed classes and the
abolition of private property in the means of production. Also, he elaborated
that, the state is the political organization of society and its withering away
under communism is a utopia which has been exploded by experience.
Similarly, he also rejects the communist doctrine of the dictatorship of the
proletariat. ‘Dictatorship of any form, however plausible may be the pretext for
it, is,’ asserts Manabendra Nath Roy, ‘excluded by the Radical-Humanist
perspective of social revolution’.
Radical Humanism/New Humanism<H1>
Radical Humanism was contained in Manabendra Nath Roy’s
‘Twenty-Two Theses and New Humanism: A Manifesto.’ The philosophical
foundations of the political thought of Manabendra Nath Roy are rooted in
Radical Humanism. It brought Manabendra Nath Roy closer to M. K.
Gandhi’s beliefs. Radical Humanism is neither materialism nor idealism but
a scientific philosophy insisting upon the freedom of the individual. It lays
greater emphasis on the personality of the individual as a human being. He
tried to give the philosophical background of concepts such as being
disillusioned with communism and capitalism, to search a new model of
democracy, malfunctions of Parliamentary democracy and laissez-faire
economic doctrine through Radical Humanism. Radical Humanism as a
Revolutionary and liberating social philosophy contains three main concepts:
1. Freedom,
2. Reason, and
3. Morality.
According to Manabendra Nath Roy amount of freedom is a marker of
social progress in society. He said, ‘A free society can be created only by free
men…a good society can be created only by good men’. Equality in Radical
Humanism goes beyond the abolition of private property. He founded a new
party named the Radical Democratic party to mobilize people and raise
awareness about his ideas. Radical Humanism was the manifesto of the
Radical Democratic Party. He also emphasized on the social fabric of Radical
Humanism and stressed on the importance of education and rational thinking
as an epitome that would give people a perspective on how to respond to a
particular situation in a rational manner.
3. In the year 1908 Manabendra Nath Roy was imprisoned for which case?
(a) Kanpur Conspiracy Case
(b) Surat Conspiracy Case
(c) Howrah Conspiracy Case
(d) Mathura Conspiracy Case
6. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Manabendra Nath Roy was particularly a critique of
Soviet Marxism, along with theoretical and practical use of its principles.
Reason (R): According to him Government is the political organization
of the society and withering away from Communism is a utopia.
Choose the correct answer from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct
8. Which of the following was not among the major works of Manabendr
Nath Roy?
(a) Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China
(b) Reason, Romanticism, and Revolution
(c) The Russian Revolution
(d) Major aspects of Indian Politics
9. Match the following books with the years:
Books Year
12. Identify the thinker who criticized Marxism for hampering the growth of
free man in society.
(a) Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker
(b) V. D. Savarkar
(c) Shaikh Muhammad Iqbal
(d) Manabendra Nath Roy
14. Who said that ‘A free society can be created only by free men…a good
society can be created only by good men.’?
(a) Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker
(b) V. D. Savarkar
(c) Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
(d) Manabendra Nath Roy
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13.
(d) (c) (d) (c) (c) (d) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14.
(d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (d) (d)
Explanation for Selected Questions
INTRODUCTION
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar born in Bombay, was an Indian politician,
activist, and writer. A leading figure in the Hindu Mahasabha and popularized
the term ‘Hindutva’ (Hinduness). He was known by the famous prefix ‘Veer’ or
‘brave’, a term used by writer Sadashiva Rajaram Ranade as ‘Swatantra
Veer’. He wrote about himself using the pseudonym ‘Chitragupta’. Vinayak
Damodar Savarkar’s ideas of ‘Hindutva’ reflects the ideology of cultural
nationalism. His thought has sectarian and exclusivist orientations.
The life and thoughts of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar can be divided
into two phases, one where he was behaving as a Revolutionary Nationalist
Leader (1902–21) and another where he dedicated his life to the cause of
Hindu Nationalism (1921–63). He was influenced by Lokmanya Tilak,
Giuseppe Mazzini, Dayananda Saraswati, Herbert Spencer, and
Johann Kaspar Bluntschili.
5. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): He regarded Hinduism as an ethnic, cultural, and
political philosophy, different from Hindutva.
Reason (R): Hindutva is the political ideology of Hindu Right,
represented as a cultural ideology of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
(RSS)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true.
8. ‘Inside the Enemy Camp’ was a work dealing with his work in Londo
was relatively?
(a) An Essay
(b) An Autobiography
(c) Presidential address
(d) A fiction.
9. Which of the following was not under the six epochs of Indian Histor
mentioned by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar?
(a) Pushyamitra Sunga
(b) Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya
(c) M. K. Gandhi’s Movement
(d) Chalukyas of Vengi
12. Match the following work of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar with the ideas:
Books Thoughts
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–3, c–2, d–4
(b) a–2, b–3, c–4, d–1
(c) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(d) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(b) (b) (a) (c) (d) (d) (b)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (a)
(d) (d) (b) (b)
CHAPTER 16
Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
INTRODUCTION
Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in a low-caste Mahar
family. He himself experienced caste-based discrimination during his
childhood which made him the Messiah of Dalit rights and politics in India. He
was popularly known as Babasaheb. He was a jurist, economist, politician,
and social reformer who chaired the Drafting Committee of the Constituent
Assembly and was also India’s First Minister for Law and Justice. He was a
fierce critique of the Hindu Social order and challenged it in his various works.
He played a significant role in the upliftment of the Dalit community and
gathered them in the fight for Dalit rights.
PERIODICALS
Mooknayak (The Leader of the Dumb, 1920),
Bahishkrit Bharat (Ostracised India, 1924),
Samta (Equality, 1928),
Janata (The People, 1930), and
Prabuddha Bharat (Enlightened India, 1956).
Most Expected Practice Questions
1. Who among the following attended all three Round Table Conferences?
i. Tez Bahadur Sapru
ii. M. K. Gandhi
iii. Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
iv. J. L. Nehru
Codes:
(a) iii only
(b) i and iii only
(c) i, ii, and iii only
(d) All of the above
Thinker Works
I.Glimpses of World
1. M. K. Gandhi History
8. Which among the political parties has not been formed by Dr Bhim Ra
Ambedkar?
(a) Indian Republican Party
(b) Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti
(c) Independent Labour Party
(d) Scheduled Caste Federation
9. Who has written the book ‘The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and It
Solution’?
(a) Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
(b) M. K. Gandhi
(c) J. L. Nehru
(d) M. N. Roy
10. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar was a proponent of Social
democracy.
Reason (R): His main objectives are to remove the extreme
inequalities and evil caste system from society.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
11. Arrange the following Newspapers of Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar in
Chronology:
a) Samta
b) Bahishkrit Bharat
c) Prabuddha Bharat
d) Janta
Codes:
(a) a, b, d, and c
(b) b, a, c, and d
(c) b, a, d, and c
(d) d, a, b, and c
C. Converted to Buddhism.
D. Burned copies of Manu Smriti.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below.
Options:
(a) A, C, B, D
(b) D, A, B, C
(c) D, B, C, A
(d) A, B, D, C
Answer Key
1. Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar and Tej Bahadur Sapru took part in all thre
Round Table Conferences. M. K. Gandhi took part in the Second Roun
Table Conference.
INTRODUCTION
Jawahar Lal Nehru was the Statesman that India needed to consolidate
democracy and for the Nation Building. Jawahar Lal Nehru was born on
14 November 1889 in Allahabad. He was one of the eminent leaders of the
Indian Independence movement and was the first Prime Minister of India. As
Prime Minister of independent India, Jawahar Lal Nehru initiated socio-
economic policies of the idealistic socialist kind. In 1955, he was awarded the
highest civilian honour of the country the Bharat Ratna. His birth date is
celebrated as Bal Diwas (children‘s day) in India.
DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM
In a democratic-socialistic set-up, Jawahar Lal Nehru opined that class
conflict should be ended by a peaceful solution. He never believed in the
Marxian idea of class struggle or communist policy of ‘ruthless suppression’.
In a democratic set-up, due caution should be taken to put an end to class
conflicts inside the society. Jawahar Lal Nehru contended that majority
rule government and communism are correlative to each other Jawahar Lal
Nehru expressed, ‘vote-based system without communism will be joke and
communism without popular government will prompt tyranny and
regimentation.’
Jawahar Lal Nehru’s socialism is a combination of Fabian socialism,
Gandhian Sarvodaya and Marxist scientific socialism. Jawahar Lal Nehru
evolved a peaceful method of overplanning to achieve democratic socialism.
The planned development of the economy will ensure the establishment of a
classless society through cooperative efforts.
SCIENTIFIC HUMANISM
He held that science should be used for social reconstruction in India as it will
help in tackling poverty, insanitation, illiteracy, and other social problems. He
described the scientific laboratories as the Temple of Modern India. He also
asserted that science should also be tempered with wisdom and realize the
truth and new knowledge. Jawahar Lal Nehru’s scientific humanism
compiles his concern for science and humanity as he attempted to bring
harmony between the world of fact and the world of spirit. Therefore, his
scientific humanism upheld that power that is gained from the advancement of
science must be directed to the service of humanity and not to gain profit by
exploiting others.
B. Whither India?
C. Towards Freedom
D. The Discovery of India
Choose the correct answer from the options given below.
Options:
(a) C, D, A, B
(b) B, A, D, C
(c) D, B, A, C
(d) B, A, C, D
Concept Thinker
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(b) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
(c) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(d) a–1, b–4, c–3, d–2
8. Which of the following statement is/are true about Jawahar Lal Nehru?
(a) He insisted on the secular and liberalist approach.
(b) He imparted modern values and thoughts.
(c) He encouraged India’s industrialization.
(d) All the above are correct.
Work/Article Thinker
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(b) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
(c) a–1, b–3, c–2, d–4
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
10. Who said this quote, ‘Democracy is good I say this because other
systems are worse.’?
(a) Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
(b) Jawahar Lal Nehru
(c) M. K. Gandhi
(d) Swami Vivekananda
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (c) (d) (d) (d) (d) (b)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(d) (d)
CHAPTER 18
Ram Manohar Lohia (1910–68)
INTRODUCTION
Indian politician and activist who was a leading figure in socialist politics and
the Indian independence movement. His life was spent fighting injustice by
developing an Indian version of socialism. At the age of 19, he went to
Germany for higher studies and to obtain a Ph.D. in economics on the topic
‘Salt Taxation in India’ focusing on M. K. Gandhi’s socio-economic theory.
He returned to India in 1933 and got involved in the national movement. He
joined Congress Socialist Party (formed in 1934), a socialist group within
Congress.
Ram Manohar Lohia came into prominence due to his views, he
advocated for the abolition of English and the promotion of Indian languages.
He pleaded for affirmative action for backward castes. He mobilized
lower/backward castes to overthrow the Indian National Congress in
elections.
NEW SOCIALISM
Ram Manohar Lohia came to believe that traditional and organized
socialism was ‘dead doctrines and decaying organizations’. He accepted
socialism as a viable philosophy for India but attempted to conceptualize it
considering Gandhian contributions.
In 1959, he proposed ‘New Socialism’, arguing that it provides a full
system of socioeconomic and political life for the people of India. He claims
that: equality, democracy, nonviolence, decentralization, and socialism are the
five supreme ideals of not only Indian politics but all global actions and must
be the goals of ‘New Socialism’.
A distinctive feature of ‘New Socialism’ was the concept of decentralized
socialism, which emphasized small machines, cooperative labour, village
governance, and decentralized planning. The philosophy of ‘New Socialism’
was centred on six key principles:
11. Which among the following leaders are related to the view of Non-
Congressism?
A. Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar
C. J. P. Narayan
D. Deen Dayal Upadhayaa
Choose the correct code:
(a) A and C only
(b) A, B, C, and D
(c) A, C, and D only
(d) B and D only
3. He recognized that caste, more than class, was the huge stumbling
India’s progress.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(c) (a) (b) (a) (d) (d) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (b)
(c) (c) (c) (c)
3. In the 1960s leader like Deen Dayal Upadhyaya and Ram Manoha
Lohia joined together to provide an alternative to the Congress party
Non-Congressism referred to the Non-Congress parties along with the
different programmes and ideologies together to form Anti-Congres
fronts.
CHAPTER 19
Jayaprakash Narayan (1902–79)
INTRODUCTION
Jayaprakash Narayan popularly known as J. P. Narayan or Lok
Nayak (people’s leader), was an Indian Independence activist, theorist,
socialist, and political leader. He is remembered for leading the mid-
1970s opposition against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, for whose
overthrow he had called for a ‘Total Revolution’. His biography,
‘Jayaprakash’, was written by his nationalist friend and the writer of Hindi
literature, Rambriksh Benipuri. In 1999, he was posthumously
awarded the Bharat Ratna, and in 1965 he was awarded Magsaysay
Award for Public Service.
DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM
In his book Why Socialism? Jayaprakash Narayan writes, ‘Socialism
is not a code of personal conduct but a system of social reconstruction.
When we speak of applying Socialism to India, the first thing that strikes
us is the strange and painful fact of inequalities of rank, of culture, and of
opportunity, a most disconcertingly unequal distribution of the good things
in life. Poverty, hunger, filth, disease, and ignorance for the overwhelming
many. Comfort, luxury, position, and power for the select few.’
He like Karl Marx, believed that the inequality and poverty of the
Indian people were due to the reason that the means of production were
not in their control. He offered a solution to this evil: the Socialist
Revolution: ‘to abolish private ownership of the means of production and
to establish over them the ownership of the whole community.’
Jayaprakash Narayan was fully convinced that socialism in India
could be established if sufficient power was obtained by a socialist party.
He was in support of adult franchises on a functional basis, organising
cooperatives, strengthening the producing masses with the powers and
overpowering role of the state in the economic life of the country. These
Ideas became the philosophy and objectives of the Congress Socialist
Party.
Other Socialist friends of Jayaprakash Narayan like Minoo
Masanai of Bombay and Srimati Kamala Devi joined with him and
were engaged in spreading the Socialist Movement in India staying inside
the Congress. He was a Democrat. For him, ‘the state in socialist India
must be a fully democratic state….it should be remembered that
dictatorship of the proletariat in Marxist theory does not mean the
dictatorship of a single party, such as the communist party in Russia, it
means the dictatorship of a class, the working class.’
He was convinced that a democratic society offers the chance for
socialism to come into existence. Otherwise, the bureaucratic state
emerges with the support of the capitalist class. At this point people will
resort to violent means hence democracy is the only system for a free
non-violent socialist society.
2. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the othe
as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): J. P. Narayan advocated the ownership of
Industries by the cooperatives and the community.
Reason (R): State should acquire a monopoly in industry and
employment.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Work/Article Thinker
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(b) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
(c) a–1, b–3, c–2, d–4
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (b) (c) (b) (d) (a) (d)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(c) (a)
CHAPTER 20
Deen Dayal Upadhyay (1916–68)
INTRODUCTION
R. Balashankar while emphasising the significance of Deen Dayal
Upadhyay’s thought and ideology wrote that ‘Deen Dayal Upadhyay is to
the BJP, what Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was to Congress’. He was born
in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. He lost his parents at an early age and was
brought up by his maternal uncle. He studied at Sanatan Dharam College in
Kanpur. Deen Dayal Upadhyay conceived a classless, casteless, and
conflict-free social order. He stressed the ancient Indian wisdom of oneness of
the humankind. His treatise Integral Humanism, a critique of communism and
capitalism, offers a completely alternative vision for political activity and
statecraft. He belongs to the field of cultural Nationalism.
INTEGRAL HUMANISM
He propounded his theory of ‘Integral Humanism’ in 1964. Integral Humanism
was a counter-ideology developed by him to eliminate the extremist principle
of capitalism, individualism as well as Marxist socialism. It’s a moderate
philosophy to create a bridge between liberal principles as well as socialism.
Integral Humanism was built by borrowing some ideas from Gandhian
Principles as well as from the Hindu philosophy of Dharma (Duty). Deen
Dayal Upadhyay borrowed three Gandhian principles i.e. Sarvodaya (all-
inclusive progress), Swadeshi (Indian products), and Gram-Swaraj (Village
self-sufficiency to self-rule).
Integral humanism is organized around two themes:
1. Morality in politics.
2. Swadeshi and small-scale industrialization in the economy, promoting
self-sufficiency, as reflected in M. K. Gandhi’s philosophy.
2 Arth (Wealth),
3 Kaam (Desire & Satisfaction), and
4 Moksh (Salvation)
all four are significant. There is social stability when they are in balance.
NATIONALIST VIEW
He introduced the fundamental concept of Indian philosophy in political,
social, and cultural debates. Deen Dayal Upadhyay creates a new three-
legged foundation of Indian philosophy,
1 Vedanta of Shankara
2 Arthashastra of Kautilya
3. Integral Humanism
5. Which of the following is/are true regarding the philosophy of Deen Daya
Upadhyay?
1) He borrowed a few principles from Gandhian philosophy.
2) It advocates a middle ground between capitalism and socialism.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) Only 1
(c) Only 2
(d) None
10. Which one among the following statements regarding Deen Dayal
Upadhyay is not correct?
A. He supported a social system in which the individual is supreme.
Concept Thinker
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(b) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
(c) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(d) a–1, b–4, c–3, d–2
Books Author
Codes:
(a) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(b) a–4, b–2, c–3, d–1
(c) a–3, b–2, c–1, d–4
(d) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(b) (c) (a) (c) (b) (d) (b)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (a)
(c) (c) (d) (a)
18. Who believed that the aggregate of the four, body, mind, heart,
and soul is the individual? (2018)
(a) B G. Tilak
(b) Rabindranath Tagore
(c) Deendayal Upadhyaya
(d) M. N. Roy
20. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Read the statements
and choose the correct answer using the code given below. (2018)
Assertion (A): For Gandhiji, enlightened anarchy refers to a form of
society which functions without the coercive power of the State.
Reason (R): Individuals have full control of themselves.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
21. Who said that the ‘Government of India Act, 1935 was a
charter of slavery’? (2018)
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Mohd. Ali Jinnah
(c) Jawahar Lai Nehru
(d) Gopal Krishan Gokhale
29. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R): (2019)
Assertion (A): According to Gandhi, politics divorced from
religion is a deathtrap.
Reason (R): The entry of religion into politics is necessary
because without religion it may take communal colour.
On the basis of the two statements choose the correct answer from
the options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) is true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
List I List II
Thinker Work
(A)Jai Prakash (i)Salt Taxation
Narayan in India
(B)Ram Manohar (ii) The Reconstruction of religious
Lohia throught in Islam
(C)Muhammad (iii) Why socialism
Iqbal
(D)Barani (iv) Fatwo-I-Jahandari
35. Given below are the statements about the difference between
passive resistance and satyagraha. Which ones are true?
(2020)
(A) Passive resistance is weapon of the weaker sections, satyag
never desires to terrorize the opponent
(B) Passive Resistance is negative in practice. whereas satyagrah
positive morality
(C) Passive Resistance is equivalent to satyagraha
(D) Passive Resistance is not afraid of the physical strength w
satyagraha is afraid of physical strength
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B Only
(b) C and D Only
(c) B and C Only
(d) A and D Only
List I List II
Works of Tagore content of the work
rabindranat
h
(A)Geetanjah (I)The
realization
of life
(B)Gora (II) Devotion of God
(C)Sadhana (III) Deeper meaning of life in the backdrop
Swadeshi movement
(D)Ghare – (IV) Analysis of the mutifarious social life (T
Baire home and the world) in colonial India
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) (A)-(III), (B)-(II), (C)-(I), (D)-(IV)
(b) (A)-(IV), (B)-(I), (C)-(II), (D)-(III)
(c) (A)-(II), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(III)
(d) (A)-(II), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(III)
47. Who has given originally the idea of ‘Hindu Rashtra? (2020)
(a) V.D. Savarkar
(b) Hedgewar
(c) B.S. Moonje
(d) M.S. Golwalkar
List I List II
(A)Gail Omvedt I.Periyar: The Social Scientist
(B)K. Veermani II.Periyar: Father of the Tamil Race
(C)N. Velusamy III. Periyar
his
Ideologi
(D)M. D. IV.Dalit visions: The Anti Caste
Gopalakrishnan Movement and the Conduction of an
Indian Identity
55. Who among the following said that Bhakti in religion may be a
road to the salvation of the soul. But in politics, Bhakti or hero
worship is a sure road to degradation and eventual dictatorship?
(2021)
(a) Jayaprakash Narayan
(b) M.N.Roy
(c) B .R. Ambedkar
(d) Savarkar
56. Who coined the slogan “No control, no co-operation”? (2021)
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) J. Nehru
(c) Aurobindo
(d) Subhash Bose
57. Who said, ‘therefore, the sword of Brutus is holy. Therefore the
Baghanakha of Shivaji is of fair fame. Therefore, the
beheading of Charles I is a just deed. Therefore the arrow of
William Tell is divine. (2021)
(a) M.N. Roy
(b) Subhas Chandra Bose
(c) Aurobindo Ghose
(d) V.D . Savarkar
61. Which of the following about Raja Rammohan Roy are true?
(2021)
(A) He was influenced by the Upanishads
(B) He was a rationalist and supporter of monotheism
(C) He was an atheist
(D) He was critical of the principle of trinitarianism advocated
Christianity
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, C and D
(b) A, B and C only
(c) A, B and D only
(d) B, C and D only
List I List II
Books Author
(A)Fatawa-i-Jahandari I.Charles Bettelheim
(B)Thoughts on Linguistic States II.M. N. Roy
(C)India Independent III. Zia Bar
(D)The Future of Indian Policies IV.B. R. Ambedkar
68. Who among the following has written the book titled Kautilya:
The Arthashastra? (2021)
(a) R.S. Sharma
(b) L.N. Rangarajan
(c) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothemund
(d) J. C . Heesterman
70. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
other labelled as
Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the codes given below
Assertion (A): For Gandhiji, satyagraha is not identical to (2021)
passive resistance.
Reason (R): Satyagraha denoted a legitimate, moral and truthful
form of political action by the people against the Brutal state power.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
Answer Key
16. Two nation theory advocated that muslims and hindus was two
separate nations in light of culture, ethics and religion. Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan was first muslim leader and philosopher who
introduced a word ‘two nations’. Two nations theory was an
ideology of religious nationalism which advocated by All India
Muslim League in 1940 under the leadership of Muhammad Ali
Jinnah.
20. In his weekly paper ‘Young India’ Gandhiji wrote that “Political
power means capacity to regulate national life through national
representatives. If national life becomes so perfect as to become
self-regulated, no representation becomes necessary. There is
then a state of enlightened anarchy. In such a state everyone is his
own ruler. In the ideal state therefore, there is no political power
because there is no State”. Thus, option A is the correct answer.
30. Gandhi stated that “Means and ends are convertible terms in my
philosophy of life.” So, End and Means both should be justified.
Thus, the Correct answer is D.
35. For Gandhi, Passive Resistance is a weapon of the weak and does
not exclude the use of physical force or violence for the purpose of
gaining one’s end, but satyagraha has been conceived as a
weapon of the strongest and excludes the use of violence in any
shape or form.” So, the motive behind Satyagraha was not to
destroy or harass the opponent, but to convert him or win him over
sympathy, patience, and self-suffering.
56. Aurobindo advocated for passive resistance. Aurobindo did not see
Congress constructive programmes like opening of schools and
colleges as affective. He proposed the Two constructive activities-
first is to create parallel institutions like school courts etc and
second is to boycott of school colleges and courts run by alien
ruler. He advocate for breaking laws if they were unjust and
oppressive i. e. sedition laws and laws related racial enmity.
INTRODUCTION
Comparative politics emerged as a distinct field of political science in the US
in the late nineteenth-century. The evolution of comparative politics is seen as
guided by two revolutions: the behavioral revolution and post scientific
revolution during the cold war. According to G. K. Roberts, the historical
development of it may be roughly put into three phases—unsophisticated
(traditional), sophisticated, and increasingly sophisticated (modern).
Phase 1
In the initial phase, the contributions of great figures like Aristotle,
Machiavelli, Tocqueville, James Bryce, Moisey Ostrogorsky, and
Max Weber could be mentioned. The approach during this phase was
based on philosophical and normative values of western liberal democracies
carrying with it the baggage of racial and civilizational superiority and
assumed a prescriptive character for the former colonies. Hence this phase
reflects a Eurocentric approach to the study of Comparative politics.
Phase 2
In the second phase, the contributions of writers like Samuel H. Beer, M.
Hass, Bernard Ulam, and Roy C. Macridis could be elaborated. They
provided a realistic study to the governments, and much, concerned with the
various strategies of comparison like area studies, configurative approach,
institutional and functional comparisons, a problem-based orientation, and
methodological and conceptual problems.
Phase 3
The contributions of David Easton, Gabriel Almond, James C.
Coleman, Kael Deutsch, Edward Shils, David Apter, Lucian Pye,
Sidney Verba, and Myron Weiner were elaborated under the third phase
of comparative politics. The emergence of behaviouralists broadened the
notion of politics from legalism or theoretical to realism or politics in practice.
In the 1970s the new comparative politics led by the theme of
‘Developmentalism’ was the dominant paradigm which is closely related to US
foreign policy towards developing countries and its attempt to check the tides
of socialism/communism. New approaches and methodologies like the study
of political culture, political socialization, developmentalism, dependency and
interdependency, corporatism, and bureaucratic authoritarianism emerged.
This was followed by universal theory-building initiatives like David
Easton’s general system approach, Karl Deutsch’s Social mobilization,
Edward Shils’s center, and periphery, modernization by David Apter,
etc., and political development by Gabriel Almond, James C. Coleman,
Lucian Pye, and Sidney Verba.
In the post-1990s the notion of Globalization changed the very scope of
comparative studies, hence, the ‘historical sociology’ which tries to
understand the phenomena in a very broad or holistic context brought new
insights upon the evolution of comparative politics by focusing on the
comparison on smaller systems, civil society, and democratization
approaches.
INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH
The institutional approach in comparative politics is part of old and traditional
approaches, where the study of the political system is based on the
understanding that ‘institutional’ or formal structure is the independent
variable. Thinkers who adopted the institutional approach in their political
studies are concerned about the formal structure like the legislature,
executive, and judiciary. According to them, the legal system of a country
determines and clearly represents the nature of the political system in a
country. Some key features of the institutional approach are:
Majorly used till the 1950s as a method of political studies.
Consider Institutions as the major player in a political system.
Doesn’t recognize the importance of individual behavior in the political
system.
Important characteristics of the institutional approach according to Guy
Peter are—Legalism, Structuralism, Holism, Historicism, and
Normativity.
Characterized by a preoccupation with constitutions and legal-formal,
and normative values of liberal democracy.
Thinkers related to institutional approach—James Bryce, A.
Lawrence Lowell, Moisey Ostrogorsky, Vilfredo Pareto,
Mosca, Harman Finer, Carl Friedrich, and Duverger.
Roy Macarids in his book ‘The study of comparative government
(1955)’ criticized the institutional approach as non-comparative,
descriptive, static, parochial, and monographic.
1.Adam Smith 1. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations (1776) and
2. The Invisible Hand.
2.David Hume 1. A Treatise of Human Nature (1739) and
2. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)
3.Francois 1. Quesnay’s Tableau Economique (1758)
Quesnay
4.John Stuart 1. Principles of Political Economy (1848)
Mill
New-Institutional Approach
New-institutionalism originated in work by sociologist John Meyer in 1977.
American political scientist James G. March and Norwegian political
scientist Johan P. Olsen are often considered as the two leading founders
of the New-institutionalism. It tries to combine the interest of traditionalist
scholars with behaviouralist scholars. It studies how the institutional norms,
rules, etc., determines the actions and behavior of individual political actor in a
political system. It is part of Post-Behaviouralism
There are three variants of New-Institutionalism:
Behaviouralism Post-Behaviouralism
3. In the 1970s the study of comparative politics was led by the notion tha
gave importance to third-world countries and used to check the tides o
socialism and communism; it was known by which of the followin
theme?
(a) Historical Sociology
(b) Developmentalism
(c) Corporatism
(d) Democratization
Thinkers Concepts
8. Given below are two statements one is labeled as Assertion (A), and th
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Behaviouralism emerged as a reaction against
traditional approaches by accepting the facts and ignoring the values.
Reason (R): Post-Behaviouralism is a reform within Behaviouralism
through new insights by accepting the notion of value-laden.
Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
Book Author
12. Which one of the following is not a characteristic of the Political Culture
Approach?
(a) Empirically observation.
(b) Focus to well- established Western democracies.
(c) Study of mass behavior.
(d) Empirical analysis of transitional societies.
14. Which among the following statements is/are incorrect about the
Political Economy Approach?
a. It was developed due to the transformation in a transitional society.
B. A. Lawrence Lowell
C. Harman Finer
D. Johan P. Olsen
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
Options:
(a) A and D only
(b) A and C only
(c) B and C only
(d) C and D only
19. What is the sub-title of the famous book ‘The Civic Culture’?
(a) A Comparison of the UK, US, Germany, Italy, and Mexico
(b) Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations
(c) A Political Development Approaches
(d) None of the above.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Colonialism is a process in which a foreign power or country (colonizer) takes
over the control of authority and administration of another country (colonized)
for economical exploitation and cultural supremacy. Colonialism remained an
important part of world history since ancient times. The age of modern
colonialism started around 1500 CE when European nations discovered the
sea routes and began colonization in Asia, Africa, North American, South
America, Australia, etc. Colonialism results in control over the life of natives in
political, economic, cultural, and social spheres. It is more subtle whereas
imperialism is more formal and aggressive.
The twentieth-century marked the beginning of the process of
decolonization and led to the consolidation of a new world order with a Nation-
State system. After Second World War many countries achieved
independence. Decolonization may take several forms, namely attainment of
independence, incorporation with another state or creation of a ‘free
association’. Decolonization took place through peaceful negotiations,
aggressive revolts or non-violent protests.
FORMS OF COLONIALISM
STAGES OF COLONIALISM
There were three distinct stages of colonialism. Some countries went through
one to two stages only. India went through only the first and second stages,
Egypt only through the third stage, and Indonesia through the first and third
stages. These stages lasted over two hundred years.
First Stage: Monopoly Trade and Plunder
The first stage had two objectives. To make it more profitable indigenously
manufactured goods were to be bought cheaply. For this competitors were to
be kept out, whether local or European. Territorial conquest kept local traders
out of the lucrative trade while rival European companies were defeated in
war. Secondly, the political conquest of the colony enabled plunder and
seizure of surplus i.e., the drain of wealth from India to Britain during the first
stage was considerable.
IDEA OF NEO-COLONIALISM
Neo-Colonialism was coined by French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre in
1956, it was first used by Kwame Nkrumah in the context of African
countries undergoing decolonisation in the 1960s. Neo-Colonialism is the
continuation or re-imposition of imperialist rule by a state over another
nominally independent state. Neo-Colonialism takes the form of economic
imperialism, globalization, cultural imperialism, and conditional aid to influence
or control a developing country instead of the previous colonial methods of
direct military control or indirect political control. Neo-Colonialism differs from
standard globalisation and development aid in that it typically results in a
relationship of dependence, subservience, or financial obligation towards the
neo-colonialist nation.
BEGINNING OF DECOLONIZATION
The twentieth-century was the era of decolonization. at the end of the
twentieth-century, the world was no longer Eurocentric. In the first decade of
the twentieth-century nationalism posed a challenge in Asia and Africa. They
were encouraged by the ability of Japan, a small Asian country, to inflict a
crushing defeat on Russia, a European power. Some of the well-known
leaders of the nationalist movements were Sun Yat–Sen in China, Arabi-
Pasha in Egypt, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak in India. These movements
were led in these stages by middle-class English-educated elites whose
demand for a say in the running of their countries was changing into a
demand for independence. The active period of decolonization was between
1945–60, three dozen new states in Asia and Africa achieved autonomy or
outright independence from their European colonial rulers.
3. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the code
given below:
(Type of (Features)
Colonialism)
(a)Settler (i)Exploitation of
Colonialism resources.
(b)Exploitation (ii) In a newly independent country.
Colonialism
(c)Surrogate (iii) It replaces any existing population
Colonialism
(d)Internal (iv) Most of the settlers are not from th
Colonialism colonial ruling power.
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
a. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
5. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other a
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Decolonization is referred to as the fragmentation of
colonies by Sovereign states in America, Asia, and the African Regions.
Reason (R): Independence Movements in colonial States are the only
reason behind the decolonization.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Thinkers Books
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–2, c–1, d–3
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
(d) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
7. Which of the following are not the reasons for the emergence o
colonialism?
A. Discovery of the sea route.
10. Which of the following are the reasons for the emergence of
decolonization?
A. The historical development of capitalism as a world system.
11. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes
given below:
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 10. 11.
(d) (b) (c) (c) (b) (c) (a)
2. 4. 6.
8. (c)
(b) (b) (b)
4. In his classic book Democracy in Mexico (1965), for the first time Pabl
Gonzalez Casanova refers to Internal Colonialism, he draws attention t
the dangers of using European concepts and categories withou
adapting them to the realities of countries of colonial origin.
INTRODUCTION
Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that nations should be
congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the
interest of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and
maintaining the nation’s sovereignty over its homeland to create a nation-
state. Nationalism has been called the religion of the nineteenth and
twentieth-centuries. As a way of thinking about the world, it emphasizes the
importance of nations in explaining historical developments and analyzing
contemporary politics and claims that ‘national character’ is a pervasive factor
differentiating human beings.
Nationalism assumes that all human beings should have one and only one
nationality which should be their primary factor of identity and loyalty. This
means that people should see themselves as member of a nationality and be
prepared to make any sacrifices required to defend and advance the interest
of a nation. As a doctrine of universal applicability, nationalism claims that all
people should give their highest loyalty to their own nation.
TYPES OF NATIONALISM
Liberal Nationalism: Liberal nationalism can be understood by applying
liberal ideas of individualism to the nation. Liberal nationalists see nations as
entities with their own rights, if individuals are entitled to determine their own
destiny, so are nations. For the liberal nationalist, nationhood is inclusive and
open. This is based on a civic understanding of nationhood—being committed
and loyal to the nation’s values is the primary requirement for membership, so
anyone who identifies passionately with the values of a nation should be
permitted to join it. Nationalism in western countries like the US, UK, etc,
represents the principle of Liberal Nationalism.
Anti-Colonial Nationalism: During the colonial period, when
European powers ruled over many regions in Africa and Asia, the native
people began to develop a sense of self-determination and a desire for
national liberation. With this came a form of nationalism that was specifically
anti-colonial that rejected the rule of the colonial powers and sought
independence from colonial interference. Nationalism in post-colonial
countries like India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, etc, is based on the Anti-colonial
feeling.
Cultural Nationalism: In cultural nationalism, the nation is defined by
a shared culture and a common language, rather than on the concepts of
common ancestry or race. It refers to ideas and practices that relate to the
intended revival of a purported national community’s culture. John
Gottfried Herder is considered as the father of cultural nationalism. John
Gottfried Herder presented the nation as the primordial scene from which
the best of human endeavour owed its provenance, and which therefore
obliged its cultivation through the recovery and celebration of its history and
culture. Cultural nationalism is most clearly identified via symbols of national
pride. This may be contrasted with the ascribed characteristics surrounding
race and ethnicity. The history of cultural nationalism begins in late
eighteenth-century Europe. The main proponents of cultural nationalism are
John Gottfried Herder and Eric Woods. Nationalism in Germany is an
example of Cultural Nationalism.
Expansionist Nationalism: There is no clear unifying philosophy
behind expansionist nationalism, but these forms of nationalism tend to exist
alongside a belief in chauvinism. National chauvinism is the belief in the
superiority of one nation, and the inferiority of other nations. It tends to be
explicitly racialist, where members of the nation are often restricted to those of
a specific race. Expansionist nationalism is typically associated with the
fascist regimes in 1930 and 1940 in Germany, Italy, and Japan, but could also
be seen in the scramble for Africa exercised by the European powers in the
nineteenth-century.
3. Who among the following has written an essay titled ‘Whose Imagine
Community’?
(a) Ernest Gellner
(b) Anthony D. Smith
(c) Partha Chatterjee
(d) None of the these
5. Nationalism is?
(a) a belief that all people are equal regardless of where they live.
(b) a belief that it is highly important where you live for your understan
of the world.
(c) conducive to peace and prosperity.
(d) likely to lead to conflict between nations.
10. When John Gottfried Herder published the book ‘Treatise on the Origin
of Languages’?
(a) 1772
(b) 1775
(c) 1796
(d) 1770
11. Who was the author of the book ‘Nationalism and Liberty’?
(a) Anthony D. Smith
(b) Ernest Gellner
(c) Hans Kohn
(d) Benedict Anderson
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(a) (c) (b) (a) (d) (c) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (a)
(d) (b) (c) (d)
Explanation for Selected Questions
10. In his book ‘Treatise on the Origin of Languages’ John Gottfried Herder
argued that language determines thought and that language and
cultural traditions are the ties that create a nation.
INTRODUCTION
The object of the study of comparative politics is to understand similarities and
differences in the domestic, or internal, politics of states and develop
theoretical explanations between them and seek to test these explanations
against new cases. The state is central to the study of comparative politics
because it defines the territorial framework and institutional landscape within
which these politics unfold.
A state is a planned political structure that operates under a government.
States may be categorized as independent if they are not dependent on, or
subject to, any other power. States are called as subject to external dominion,
or hegemony if their ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. A state is a
territorial, constitutional community that forms a part of the federation. Such
states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of
their sovereign powers to a federal government.
POST–COLONIAL STATE
Those new nation-states that emerged out of the process of decolonization in
the post–second world war period are known as post–colonial states. The
post–colonial state has been categorized in two different ways, first is its
political and economic agenda and second is its infrastructural capacity. The
terms post–colonial and post–colonialism first appear in scholarly journals in
the mid–1980s. The study of post–colonial theory about the controlling power
of representation in colonialized societies began in 1950 with the work of
Frantz Fanon and reached a climax in the late 1970s with Edward Said’s
orientalism which led to the development of the colonialist discourse theory in
the work of critics such as Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak and Homi
Bhabha. Theoretical studies of post–colonial focus on the reading and
writing of literature written in previously and currently colonized countries. Key
concepts related to post–colonialism are othering, diaspora,
hybridity/syncretism, double consciousness, subaltern, mimicry, history,
nation, race, gender, black feminism, and neo-colonialism.
WELFARE STATE
The welfare state functions in a democratic way. Democracy is a fundamental
basis of the welfare state. The welfare state provides basic minimum services
to its citizens like law and order. Such a state opts for a middle path between
individualism and socialism, valuing both the liberty of an individual and the
interests of society. The welfare state provides equal rights to all irrespective
of caste, creed, and religion. Such a state always seeks development through
planning following the mixed economy. The welfare state creates a conducive
environment for the moral development of an individual.
Authors Books
Edward Said Orientalism (1978) and
Culture and Imperialism (1993).
Gayatri Chakraborty In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (1987),
Spivak Thinking Academic Freedom in Gendered Post-
Coloniality (1992), A Critique of Post-Colonial
Reason (1999), and
Death of a Discipline (2003).
Authors Books
Homi Bhabha Identity: The Real me (1987), The Location of
Culture (1994), and
Hybridity and Discursive Unrest in Late Colonial
Anglophone Prose of South Asia (1880–1950).
Frantz Fanon The Wretched of the Earth (1961), Black skin White
Masks (1952), A Dying Colonialism (1959), and
Towards the African Revolution (1964).
T. H. Green Lectures on the Principle of Political Obligations
(1885) and
Prolegomena to Ethics (1883).
Roland Robertson Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture
(1992).
2. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): According to the post-colonial theory of state nation-
states emerged because of decolonization in third-world countries.
Reason (R): Post-colonialism was based on awareness of the social,
psychological, and cultural inferiority enforced by being colonized state.
Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
Authors Books
I.Critique of Post-Colonial
1. Frantz FanonI. Reason
Thinkers Concept
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (d) (c) (b) (a) (c) (b)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(a) (c)
CHAPTER 5
Political Regimes
INTRODUCTION
According to Roy Macarids, ‘Political Regime embodies the set of rules,
procedures, and understandings that formulate the relationship between the
governors and the governed.’ In modern times, political regimes are majorly
categorized as democratic regimes and non-democratic regimes. The
democratic regime types can be classified as electoral democracy, liberal
democracy, majoritarian democracy, and participatory democracy. The non-
democratic regime types are patrimonialism, bureaucratic authoritarianism,
military dictatorship, totalitarianism, and fascism.
DEMOCRATIC REGIMES
The democratic political system is known since the days of ancient Greek, the
purest form of democracy through mass meetings was practised in Greek city-
states. In modern political thought, the idea of democracy was developed with
the inclusion of the idea of rule of law (constitutional) and universal adult
franchise. The standards of democratic regimes in modern times are:
respect for basic individual liberties,
accountability through institutionalized participation and contestation,
refrain from ‘tyranny of the majority’ and respect the opinion of
minorities,
a free and fair system of election,
governed by rule of law and not by the whims of a leader and parties,
and
the government must respond in some way to citizens’ demands.
In terms of operations, democracy is either direct or indirect, but in respect of
its nature, it has many forms such as liberal, electoral, majoritarian,
participatory democracy, etc.
ELECTORAL DEMOCRACY
An electoral democratic system ensures the procedural aspects of democratic
values like the election in regular intervals, one person one vote, and fair
opportunities for contesting elections for all political parties. The lack of
empowerment of the masses and activism and awareness usually creates a
situation of populism in electoral democratic regimes. Here elections just
become a means to achieve the popular support of the people and ignore the
aspect of power sharing principle. The electoral aspect of democracy is
available in almost every form of the democratic system, either liberal
democracy or social democracy. The major methods used for the process of
election involve a majoritarian system or proportional representation system.
Detailed information about the model of the electoral system will be available
in Chapter 10 of Unit 4.
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY
It is a type of democracy that operates under the principles of liberal political
ideology and put individual liberty as its foremost objective. They often grow
upon a constitution either formally written or uncodified to delineate the
powers of government. It may be a constitutional monarchy such as Australia,
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Japan, Norway, UK, Netherlands, and Spain, or
a republic such as France, Italy, Ireland, India, and the US. It may have a
parliamentary system (UK), a presidential system (USA) or a semi-
presidential system (France). It emphasizes the separation of power, an
independent judiciary and a system of checks and balances.
MAJORITARIAN DEMOCRACY
It involves a form of democracy which is based on the majority rule of the
society and is criticized for excluding the voice of the minority. This form of
democracy has the inherent danger of turning into ‘tyranny of the majority’ and
therefore a consensus democracy was developed in response that
emphasizes rule by as many people as possible to make government
inclusive, with most of the support from society merely being a minimal
threshold. It can be defined as a democracy which is based on the rule of the
majority of citizens. The majoritarianism in Sri Lanka by the Sinhala
community over the minority Tamil is an appropriate example of this form.
PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY
It is a type of democracy which favours the participation of people in the
decision-making process. It is seen as the opposite of an authoritarian or
majoritarian democracy. It prefers to empower community-based grassroots
politics and ensure substantial democratic principles. It emphasizes
deliberation and discussion rather than only voting. Switzerland can be
considered as one of the most relevant examples of the participative
democratic model in contemporary times.
NON-DEMOCRATIC REGIMES
In history as well as in contemporary times would have seen a different
version of the undemocratic system. The main feature of the non-democratic
political system is that the state authority is not controlled by the people of the
country, but instead what is good for the people is determined and decided by
the government. The major types and subtypes of non-democratic regimes
are as follows:
TOTALITARIANISM
A totalitarian regime is defined as one in which the government attempts to
shape the interests and identities of its citizens by articulating a coherent
ideology, employing extensive efforts to coercively mobilize support for the
regime, and imposing tight restrictions on both social and political pluralism. A
totalitarian regime tries to control every aspect of people’s life. They control
the personal lifestyle, thoughts and every source of knowledge and
information.
The essence of totalitarian regimes lies in ideology. Most totalitarian
regimes are based on the single-party system. For example, communist
totalitarian regimes are Joseph Stalin’s rule in the erstwhile USSR and
communist regimes in Cuba, Vietnam, Mongolia, Ethiopia, Angola,
Mozambique, Nicaragua, etc. At present time North Korean and Taliban rule
in Afghanistan can be considered as an example of totalitarianism.
FASCISM
It is a totalitarian ideology based on racist principles that glorified militarism,
violence, nationalism, and the state over individual interests and identities,
usually led by charismatic individual political leaders. It is considered to be at
the far-right end of the political spectrum. It is characterized by the imposition
of dictatorial power, government control of industry, forcible suppression of
opposition, and strong regimentation of society and economy. It was first seen
in Italy and Germany during the 1920s–40s.
PATRIMONIALISM
Patrimonialism as a form of the non-political regime was described by Max
Weber. The form of governance is authoritarian, but people don’t consider
their ruler a tyrant. The ruler is looked upon by the masses as a father figure,
and his directions are considered as paternal directions. Patrimonialism is a
form of political organization in which authority is based primarily on the
personal power exercised by a ruler, either directly or indirectly. In this regime,
all powers flow directly from the leader and the leader enjoys absolute
personal power. For example, the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church,
and the rule of Dalai Lama as a spiritual and as well as political head in
Tibet before the Chinese annexation.
AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES
Authoritarianism is based on the principle that political power is not for
everyone and needs to be controlled and exercised by a specific group of
people. Authoritarian regimes are different in some way from Totalitarian, they
just focus on maintaining political authority and personal, economic, and
cultural liberties are maintained to some extent. The military is highly
significant and influential in such states. Government is not constitutionally
responsible to the people. The public has no or very little role in selecting a
leader. Criticism of the government is not allowed and is brutally suppressed.
There are four types of authoritarian regimes: tyrannies, dynastic regimes,
military regimes, and single-party regimes. The Communist regime is an
example of a single-party authoritarian regime.
BUREAUCRATIC AUTHORITARIANISM
It is an authoritarian regime which is characterized by having a government
made up of bureaucrats and technocrats officials and focusing on industry
rising the economy. Its rise can be seen in Latin American development. It is a
concept first formulated by Argentinian Political Scientist Guillermo
O’Donnell. It emphasizes on strong bureaucratic organisation, technocratic
decision-making, and repression of political dissidence. It is seen as the result
of a process of late modernization. The concept of bureaucratic
authoritarianism arose from the study of major episodes of authoritarianism in
South America between the 1960s–80s such as Brazil, Chile, Argentina,
Uruguay, etc.
MILITARY DICTATORSHIP
A military dictatorship is a dictatorship in which the military exerts complete or
substantial control over political authority, and the dictator is often a high-
ranked military officer or a group of such officers. A recent example includes
Myanmar. The brutal suppression of freedom and persecution of political
opponents is there. In most cases, military dictatorships come to power after
the previous civilian government has been overthrown in a coup d’etat. The
imposition of martial law or a permanent state of national emergency intended
to distract the people with a constant fear of attack is the most common
characteristic of military dictatorship.
RELATED BOOKS
Books/Works Author
Contemporary Political Ideologies: Roy C. Macridis
Movements and Regimes (1980)
Democracy in Plural Societies: A Lijphart, Arend
Comparative Exploration (1977)
The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) Hannah Arendt
Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes Juan José Linz
(1975)
The Anatomy of Fascism (2004) Robert O. Paxton
Modernization and Bureaucratic- Guillermo A. O’Donnell
Authoritarianism (1973)
Bureaucratic Authoritarianism (1988) Guillermo A. O’Donnell
Fascism: What it is and How to Fight it Leon Trotsky
The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) Benito Mussolini and
Giovanni Gentile
5. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and th
other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Participatory Democracy is considered the opposite of
authoritarian democracy.
Reason (R): It emphasizes on deliberation and discussion rather than
only voting in the decision-making process.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
11. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): In patrimonialism legal authority of the ruler is largely
unchallenged.
Reason (R): The ruler is generally recognized as the chief landholder,
he is not viewed as a tyrant.
Code:
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(b) (A) is false but (R) is true.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
Thinkers Books
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–2, c–1, d–3
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
(d) a–4, b–1, c–2, d–3
Types of Features
Government
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–3, c–1, d–2
(b) a–3, b–4, c–1, d–2
(c) a–3, b–1, c–4, d–2
(d) a–2, b–3, c–1, d–4
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13.
(a) (a) (a) (b) (a) (c) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14.
(b) (d) (c) (d) (d) (b) (b)
INTRODUCTION
‘Constitution’ is a term mostly used in everyday language by almost everyone,
yet, its meaning, evolution, and intent are often unclear. Thomas Paine
famously said that ‘a government without the Constitution is as power without
rights’. It means, it not only limits the power of a government but also ensures
rights to the people. Tracing its roots in the Magna Carta of 1215 or the
Glorious Revolution of 1688, the idea of the constitution has taken theoretical
and practical shape only in the seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries. With
John Locke’s social contractarian justification of liberal natural rights and
the American and French Revolutions of 1776 and 1789 respectively,
constitution and constitutionalism became the most important part of political
philosophy.
Constitution—It is a set of rules, duties, responsibilities, and framework
for guiding the working of a state in accordance with basic principles and do’s
and don’ts of a government and its authorities.
Constitutionalism—It is a dynamic concept which ensures that the
basic principles of a constitution are followed and that a constitution remains
relevant to the changing needs of the time. ‘If the Constitution is a pipe,
Constitutionalism is the water running through that pipe.’
1. supremacy of law,
2. equality before the law, and
3. the predominance of legal spirit.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Judicial Review—Marbury vs Madison (1803) in the US, this was the case
which is often cited as the foundation of the doctrine of judicial review. Judicial
review means the power of the judiciary to examine the constitutionality of any
law or executive action.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL)—Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is
considered as the biggest discovery in the history of the judiciary.
Traditionally, the judiciary used to follow the rule of Locus Standi, which
means only an aggrieved person himself can come to the doors of the court
seeking justice. The system of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) changed this
rule, originating in America during the late nineteenth-century, it allows any
responsible citizen to fight a judicial battle for others affected who are not able
to fight for themselves. In India, Justice P. N. Bhagwati is credited to
introduce the Public Interest Litigation (PIL) system.
Code:
(a) Only 1 and 2
(b) Only 3
(c) Only 4
(d) Only 1 and 3
1. Democracy 1. Montesquieu
2. Spirit of Laws 2. Liberal Constitutionalism
Code:
(a) Only 1 and 2
(b) Only 1 and 3
(c) Only 2 and 3
(d) All of the above
2. judicial review
4. administrative tribunals
5. security of tenure
2. India
3. USA
4. Weimar Germany
10. Who authored the book ‘Introduction to the Law of the Constitution’?
(a) Granville Austin
(b) Albert Venn Dicey
(c) B. R. Ambedkar
(d) J. S. Mill
12. The Supreme Court’s right to judicial review was first established in:
(a) US
(b) India
(c) France
(d) Switzerland
14. What has mainly accounted for the evolution of the unwritten
constitution of Britain?
(a) The British practice of following continuity and change peacefully.
(b) The British acceptance of conventions as sacred as law but
enforceable in courts.
(c) The British belief that the ‘King can do no wrong’.
(d) The common law tradition in Britain.
Answer Key
11. Liberal view of constitutionalism required a state should have its own
rules and regulations to enshrine the ideals of law, rights, justice,
liberty, equality, and fraternity into the fundamental law of the land.
These rules may be written or unwritten, easily amendable, or rigid
rules of the amendment.
12. Power of judicial review was first established in the US. In the 1803
Marbury vs Madison Case, the Supreme Court of the US had exercised
the power to invalidate legislation enacted by congress.
13. The UK has the custom of ‘once a speaker always a speaker’. The
Speaker of the House of Commons in the UK is customarily re-elected
if desires to continue in office.
15. In the US (not in Switzerland) the federal judges have life tenure once
appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
CHAPTER 7
Democratization
INTRODUCTION
Democratization is a process leading to the introduction, institutionalization,
and consolidation of democracy in non-democratic societies. The idea of
democracy has played an important role in taking forward the world
civilization. It has helped in transforming the world from power structures of
monarchy, empire, and conquest to rule by the people, self-determination, and
peaceful co-existence. Democracy ultimately leads to the establishment of
values like liberty, equality, and justice leading to social cohesion through
cooperation among citizens. As a process, democratization does not have a
single defined path. It is a gradual process which takes time to consolidate.
Waves Features
First long Wave of
Democratization (1828- Only in Western Countries
1926) Started in United States of America -
1828
Political Equality with Universal
Suffrage
Second Wave of
Democratization (1943- Democracy was imposed in West
1962) Germany, Japan and Austria.
Decolonization led to the adoption of
democracy by many third world
countries such as India, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Sri Lanka, among others.
Waves Features
Second Reverse Wave
(1958-1975) In many third world countries
democratic political systems, lapsed
into authoritarianism in the first
decade of their democratic career
itself.
Pakistan, Chile, Urugauy, Myanmar
etc.
Third Wave of
Democratization (1974- It began with the 1974 Carnation
Present) Revolution in Portugal.
Democratic transitions in Latin
America in the 1980s, Asia-Pacific
countries (Philippines, South Korea,
and Taiwan) from 1986 to 1988,
Eastern Europe after the collapse of
the Soviet Union, and sub-Saharan
Africa, beginning in 1989.
In post-communist countries as well
as in post-colonial countries of Africa,
Latin America and Asia.
DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION
Democratic consolidation can be understood as the process by which a new
democracy matures, in a way that it becomes unlikely to revert to
authoritarianism without an external shock and is regarded as the only
available system of government within a country. In their important work,
Juan Jose Linz and Alfred Stepan 1996 popularize the phrase ‘the only
game in town’ to describe democratic consolidation. No significant political
group seriously attempts to overthrow the democratic regime, the democratic
system is regarded as the most appropriate way to govern by the vast
majority of the public, and all political actors are accustomed to the fact that
conflicts are resolved through established political and constitutional rules.
LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS
Book Author
The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes Gabriel Almond and Sidney
and Democracy in Five Nations Verba
(1963)
The Third Wave: Democratisation in Samuel P. Huntington
the Late Twentieth Century (1991)
Problems of Democratic Transition Juan Jose Linz and Alfred
and Consolidation (1996) Stepan
Illusions about Consolidation (1996) Guillermo O’Donnell
Democracy and Development: Adam Przeworski, Michael E.
Political Institution and Well-Being in Alvarez, Jose Antonio
the World (2000)
Cheibub, and Fernando
Limongi
3. Bill of Rights
Code:
(a) 1, 3, and 2
(b) 1, 2, and 3
(c) 2, 3, and 1
(d) 3, 2, and 1
Works Authors
A) The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes I.Gabriel Almond
and Democracy in Five Nations and Sidney
Verba
B) The Third Wave: Democratisation in II.Samuel P.
the Late Twentieth Century Huntington
C)Problems of Democratic Transition III. Juan Jose Li
and Consolidation and Alfred
Stepan
D)Illusions about Consolidation IV.Guillermo
O’Donnell
Code:
(a) A–IV, B–III, C–II, D–I
(b) A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II
(c) A–I, B–II, C–III, D–IV
(d) A–I, B–III, C–II, D–IV
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 10. 11.
(b) (a) (a) (c) (a) (a) (c)
2. 4. 6.
8. (c)
(b) (c) (b)
INTRODUCTION
The end of the second world war saw the diffusion of democracy to relatively
newer geographies. This period witnessed the rise of many newly independent
countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These countries were characterized
by unique socio-cultural patterns, forms of economy, peculiar political challenges,
and the trajectory of nation-building in these societies were bound to be different
from their western counterparts. Hence the field of comparative analysis
extended to investigate the ecological factors underlying these countries and
these efforts gave birth to the school of modernization theory and later its critique
in the form of dependency theory.
MODERNIZATION THEORY
Modernization theory is used to explain the process of development of a
traditional society into a modern society. Modernization theory emerged in the
late 1950s. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist
Max Weber which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm
developed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons. Modernization theory
suggests that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern
practices. Proponents of modernization theory claim that modern states are
wealthier and more powerful and that their citizens are free to enjoy a higher
standard of living. It advocates a linear theory of the progressive transition from a
‘traditional or premodern’ to a ‘modern’ society.
Authors Books
Codes:
(a) 1–(d), 2–(c), 3–(b), 4–(a)
(b) 1–(a), 2–(b), 3–(c), 4–(d)
(c) 1–(b), 2–(a), 3–(d), 4–(b)
(d) 1–(d), 2–(b), 3–(a), 4–(c)
2. Which of the following is not included in the three–dimensional model o
political development according to Lucian Pye?
(a) Equality
(b) Capacity
(c) Integration
(d) Differentiation
Authors Books
(Author) (Concepts)
a)A. G. Frank 1)World System Theory
b)Samuel P. Huntington 2)Underdevelopment Theory
c)Immanuel Wallerstein 3)Dependency Theory
d)Fernando H. Cardoso 4)Modernization
(Authors) (Work/Books)
16. Who among the following are the main advocates of dependency theory?
i. A. G. Frank
ii. Raul Prebisch
iii. Theotonio Dos Santos
iv. Max Weber
Choose the correct answer from the code given below:
(a) Only (i) and (ii)
(b) Only (ii) and (iii)
(c) Only (i), (ii), and (iii)
(d) (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv)
Answer Key
These three groups, taken together, constituted the ‘power elite’. They
project an image of high moral character to command respect in society,
but they are unconcerned about their moral or social responsibility. In
other words, he discusses the decline of democracy in advanced
industrial societies, where power is increasingly concentrated outside the
purview of elected representatives.
Robert Putnam
Robert Putnam was an American political scientist, in his book: ‘Bowling
Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000)’.
Robert Putnam discussed how Americans have become disengaged
from political participation, such as decreased voter turnout, attendance
at public meetings, serving on committees, and working with political
parties. He highlighted the social capital crisis, or the unprecedented
collapse of social, civic, political, and associational life in the US. The
decline in social capital has undermined the active civil engagement
required by a strong democracy from its citizens.
James Burnham
James Burnham presented the concept of managerial control over
power. In his book ‘The Managerial Revolution (1941)’. He adopts an
economic approach to define elites. The elites draw their power in
accordance with the degree of control over the means of production and
production. He argues that capitalism would gradually be replaced by an
economic and political system, run by managers and this would occur as
a result of a managerial revolution. It implies that the real functions will be
in the hands of managers rather than political representatives or
businessmen.
G. William Domhoff
G. William Domhoff in his book: ‘Who Rules America? (1967)’ he
explains the case of post–second world war redevelopment policies and
the nexus between the top business and the government of the US. He
argues that the government is an instrument in the hands of the upper
class, which controls the corporate economy, media and
communications, and policy planning organizations. Thus, he equates the
ruling elite with the upper-class business elite, as for him, staying ‘upper’
is what ‘ruling’ is all about. They dominate the American power structure
politically and economically.
Thomas Dye
He argues in his book ‘Top Down Policymaking’ that US public policy is
determined by elite consensus found in Washington, D.C.-based non-
profit foundations, think tanks, special-interest groups, and prominent
lobbying and law firms, rather than ‘demands of the people’.
5. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R).
Select the correct answer from the code given below:
Assertion (A): The system of democracy recognizes the equality
of all people and stands for the government of the common people.
Reason (R): It is commonly believed that government is largely
controlled and managed by the ‘power elite’.
Code:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Code:
(a) A–2, B–4, C–3, D–1
(b) A–3, B–4, C–1, D–2
(c) A–4, B–1, C–2, D–3
(d) A–1, B–2, C–3, D–4
11. Identify the correct statement regarding the Elite Theory of Power :
i. Democracy in its idealized form can only function in a capit
system.
ii. It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable within
democratic organization.
iii. It asserts that major social, pressure and/or interest groups pl
significant and major role in exerting influence on the state.
Code:
(a) i, ii, and iii
(b) Only i and ii
(c) Only iii
(d) Only ii
Thinkers Books
Codes:
(a) a–4, b–2, c–1, d–3
(b) a–2, b–1, c–4, d–3
(c) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
(d) a–4, b–1, c–2, d–3
13. Which among the following thinker asserts that an elite class that
owns and manages large income-producing properties (like banks
and corporations) dominate the American power structure politically
and economically?
(a) Thomas R. Dye
(b) James Burnham
(c) G. William Domhoff
(d) Robert Putnam
14. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below:
Thinkers Thought
(a)James (i)Who says organization,
Burnham says oligarchy.
(b)Thomas (ii) psychological and intellectu
R. Dye superiority of elites.
(c)Vilfredo (iii) functional power is in the
Pareto hands of the managers.
(d)Robert (iv) elite consensus determine
Michels public policy.
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(b) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
15. Identify the incorrect statement regarding Robert Michel’s Iron Law
of Oligarchy :
i. He asserts that social and political organizations are run by
individuals, and social organization and labour division are key
ii. According to him, all organizations eventually come to be ru
the ‘elite class or the leadership class’.
iii. To eliminate elite rule is impossible and the rule of elite
oligarchy is inevitable.
Code:
(a) i, ii, and iii
(b) Only i
(c) Only iii
(d) None
Answer Key
ELECTORAL SYSTEM
The electoral system basically describes the method of electoral competition
and explains the manner in which parties or candidates contest and win
elections in a political arena, i.e., how votes are converted into seats. The
electoral system is mostly of two kinds—a majoritarian and a proportional
representation system.
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION
It was invented in the nineteenth-century and adopted by many European
parties in the early twentieth-century. The main reason for this switch was to
avoid the discrepancies created by the majoritarian electoral system and to
establish a kind of proportionality in terms of the share of votes polled and the
number of seats won. Proportional representation has sub-types like the
single transferable vote system and party list system.
MIXED-MEMBER PROPORTIONAL
REPRESENTATION (MMP)
Mixed electoral system.
Voters get two votes—one to decide the representative for their single-
member constituency and one for a political party.
Seats are first filled by successful constituency candidates and then by
the parties.
Also known as personalized proportional representation.
Practised in German Bundestag, Japan, Nepal, South Korea, New
Zealand, etc.
Types of Cleavages
Centre vs Periphery (between elites in central administrative areas and
those in outlying areas),
State vs Church (between secular and religious voters),
Owner vs Worker (typical divide between right-wing vs left-wing
parties), and
Land vs Industry (conflict between agriculture vs industry on the policy
front).
The Democratic transition on the one hand and the rise of industrial economic
order led to the growth of the social movement in European society in the
nineteenth-century. Initially, social movements were organized by class and
livelihood-related issues, but in contemporary times they became a source of
new politics and activism in a different part of the world. Social movements
can be majorly divided into old and new social movements.
REVOLUTION
Revolution is an important process of social change in a political system.
According to Karl Marx ‘Revolutions are the locomotives of history’.
Revolutions are responsible for the change in the basic structure of society as
well as political power relations and matrix. Theda Skocpol in her book
‘States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia,
and China (1979)’, presented her views on revolution. Theda Skocpol
asserts that social revolutions are rapid and basic transformations of a
society’s state and class structure. She said basic changes in social structure
and political structure occur in a mutually reinforcing fashion and these
changes occur through intense socio-political conflict. According to her before
a social revolution can occur, the administrative and military power of a state
has to break down.
Crane Brinton in his book, ‘The Anatomy of Revolution (1938)’, Crane
Brinton compares revolution to a fever. Crane Brinton breaks down the
revolution into three entities: the symptoms, the fever itself which is the
manipulation of revolution, and the break of the fever when things return back
to normal.
Scholars Ideas
Codes:
(a) 1–(a), 2–(b), 3–(c), 4–(d)
(b) 1–(a), 2–(c), 3–(d), 4–(b)
(c) 1–(b), 2–(a), 3–(c), 4–(d)
(d) 1–(c), 2–(d), 3–(a), 4–(b)
Codes:
(a) 1–(d), 2–(b), 3–(a), 4–(c)
(b) 1–(c), 2–(d), 3–(a), 4–(b)
(c) 1–(c), 2–(a), 3–(b), 4–(d)
(d) 1–(b), 2–(a), 3–(c), 4–(d)
Books Thinkers
Codes:
(a) 1–(c), 2–(d), 3–(b), 4–(a)
(b) 1–(d), 2–(c), 3–(b), 4–(a)
(c) 1–(a), 2–(b), 3–(c), 4–(d)
(d) 1–(b), 2–(d), 3–(a), 4–(c)
9. Who among the following has argued that the electoral system
determines the nature of the party system?
(a) Robert Mitchels
(b) Joseph Schumpeter
(c) Maurice Duverger
(d) Max Weber
16. Which among the following statement is incorrect about new social
movement:
1. They raise issues like employment, wages, and economic security.
17. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Old social movements had a political agenda to usher
a social movement.
Reason (R): The class-based old social movements tend to have a
strong ideological grounding about the overthrow of the entire political
system of governance and the reestablishment of a new social order.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
18. Two statements are given below, one as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Civil society monitors and evaluates government
policies via social audit.
Reason (R): They play a significant role in facilitating development,
education, training, and technical assistance.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
24. Which are the correct statements about the role of interest groups?
(a) Interest groups play an important role in linking the state and socie
(b) Interest groups play a role as ‘social partners’ in government.
(c) Interest groups’ role as social partners remains important in
corporatist countries.
(d) Interest groups as social partners represent a form of singularism.
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below :
(a) A, B, and C only
(b) A, B, C, and D
(c) A, C, and D only
(d) C and D only
25. Who described the Democrats and Republicans in America ‘as two
bottles of wine, liquor being the same but different labels’?
(a) Ernest Barker
(b) Joseph Schumpeter
(c) Lord James Bryce
(d) Robert Michels
26. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes
given below:
Types of Interest Features
Group
(a)Anomic group (i)have an informal
structure
(b)Institutional Interest (ii) cross-sectional
Group membership
(c)Non-Associational (iii) professionally employ
Groups persons
(d)Associational Interest (iv) homogeneous cliente
Groups
Types Groups
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–3, c–2, d–4
(b) a–2, b–4, c–3, d–1
(c) a–1, b–2, c–3, d–4
(d) a–2, b–4, c–1, d–3
7. Jean Blondel classified interest groups into two main categories i.e
community interest group and associational group, and divided them
further into four types i.e, customary, institutional, protective, and
promotional.
16. Options 2 and 4 are incorrect because they are representing the
features of old social movements.
3. The main impact of the systems theory on the social sciences can
be traced to (2016)
(a) the 1920s
(b) the 1930s
(c) the 1940s
(d) the 1950s
6. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes
given below: (2016)
List I List II
(Authors) (Books)
(A)John Blondel (i)Nationalism and Social
Communication
(B)Almond and (ii) An Introduction to
Coleman Comparative Governmen
(C)Karl Deutsch (iii) The Politics of Moderniza
(D)David Apter (iv) The Politics of the
Developing Areas
8. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2016)
Assertion (A): In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister can be
dismissed by the Prime Minister from the council of ministers.
Reason (R): The president appoints the minister on the advice of the
prime minister.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true, and (R) is the correct explan
of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true but (R) is not the co
explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
10. The power that makes the Supreme Court of America the third
Chamber of the legislative is: (2017)
(a) Original
(b) Appellate
(c) Advisory
(d) Judicial review
11. Who among the following has defined “political power” as the
“relationship in which one person or a group is able to determine
the actions of another in the direction of the former’s own end” ?(2017)
(a) Bertrand Russel
(b) Habermas
(c) Morgenthau
(d) David Easton
12. Which one of the following committees dealt with political activities
of civil servants in Britain? (2017)
(a) Mastermann Committee
(b) Plowden Committee
(c) Assheton Committee
(d) Northcote-Trevelyan Committee
13. Consider the following statements and choose the correct answer
using the codes given below. The Civil Service Reform Act 1978 of
the United States of America introduced (2017)
(A) Performance budgeting system
(B) Merit pay provision for middle managerial personnel
(C) Performance appraisal system
(D) Office of Personnel Management
Codes:
(a) (A), (C) and (D)
(b) (B) and (D)
(c) (B), (C) and (D)
(d) (A) and (D)
18. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2018)
Assertion (A): After the World War II, many Afro-Asian nations began
as democratic republican systems. But very soon they ended up as
military dictatorships.
Reason (R): Most of these nations experienced civil wars due to
ethnic, religious and linguistic diversities which eventually led to their
collapse as democracies.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) is the correct explanation of (
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is false, but (R) is correct.
(d) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
19. Who among the following has said that “privatization promotes
greater opportunities for corruption. Public administrators must
resist the market-based concepts of treating citizens as consumers and
degrading them to market commodities” ? (2018)
(a) John McMurtry
(b) Ali Farazmand
(c) Robert Putnam
(d) Larry Diamond
20. Who among the following wrote the article entitled “The
Behavioural Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument
to a Successful Protest”? (2018)
(a) Heinz Eulaei
(b) M.Q. Sibley
(c) R.A . Dahl
(d) David Easto
21. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Mass (Idea)
Compaign)
(A)The Great (i)Student & intellectuals were
Leap Forward first invited to express their
criticism of the regime.
(B)The hundred (ii) It was undertaken to
flowers defeat KMT forees
through guerrilla warfa
(C)The Great (iii) Destined to bring
Proletarian spectacular increase i
cultural economic productivity
Revolution
(D)The Historic (iv) Aimed at purging all a
‘Long March’ Mao elements from th
party & the governmen
Codes:
(a) (A)-(iii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(c) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(d) (A)-(iv), (B)-(i), (C)-(ii), (D)-(iii)
22. Which approach treats the state as an institution intended for
creation and enforcement of law and refuses to treat it as a social
organisation? (2018)
(a) Legal – institutional approach
(b) Political economy approach
(c) Normative approach
(d) Comparative approach
23. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Authors) (Books)
(A)John Austin (i)The law of the
Constitution
(B)A. V. Dicey (ii) Modern Constitution
(C)K. C. (iii) Elections and Political Development
Wheare South Asian Experience
(D)Norman D. (iv) Lectures on Jurisprudence
Palmer
Codes:
(a) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
(b) (A)-(iv), (B)-(i), (C)-(ii), (D)-(iii)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iii)
(d) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
24. Which of the following are the features of the judicial system of the
United Kingdom? (2018)
(A) Rule of law
(B) Jury system
(C) Judicial review
(D) Separate administrative courts
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (A), (B) and (C)
(b) (A), (B) and (D)
(c) (A) and (B)
(d) (B) and (C)
26. Which of the following statements is not true about the systems
theory? (2018)
(A) It is a ‘status quoist’ model
(B) It is a dynamic model as it seeks to explain the functioning of a po
system
(C) It is mostly relevant to western advanced nations.
(D) It has not taken into account the third world countries reality.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (B) and (C)
(b) (B) only
(c) (A) and (C)
(d) (A) and (D)
27. Which of the following contributed to the streak the using rise of
executive and the relative decline of legislature in modern times?
(2018)
(A) Delegated legislation
(B) Charismatic leadership of the executive
(C) Emergence of party system
(D) Specialization leading to the complex nature of legislation
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (A) and (B)
(b) (A) and (C)
(c) (B) and (C)
(d) (A), (B), (C) and (D)
29. Which one of the following countries has no provision for Judicial
Review? (2018)
(a) United States of America
(b) United Kingdom
(c) Switzerland
(d) India
30. Apart from low income, the third world is also identified by the
presence of: (2018)
(A) Social inequalities
(B) Economic prosperity
(C) Human and economic poverty
(D) Gender inequalities
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) B, C and D only
(c) B and D only
(d) A, C and D only
36. The crises described by Leonard Binder et all in their book “crises
and sequences in Political Development” are: (2018)
(A) Identity crises
(B) Integration crises
(C) Legitimacy crises
(D) Resource Mobilisation crises
Codes:
(a) (A)
(b) (A), (B)
(c) (A), (B), (C)
(d) (A), (B), (C), (D)
38. Match List-I with List-II and choose the correct answer using the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Citizen’s grievance redressal) (Countries
(C)Ombudsman 3. Britain
Codes:
(a) (A)-3, (B)-2, (C)-4, (D)-1
(b) (A)-2, (B)-1, (C)-4, (D)-3
(c) (A)-1, (B)-3, (C)-4, (D)-2
(d) (A)-1, (B)-2, (C)-4, (D)-3
39. Frants Faron was the first scholar to use the term “Third World”. To
which country he belonged ? (2018)
(a) France
(b) England
(c) Algeria
(d) Egypt
40. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(A)India (i)Rule of Law
(B)U.S.A. (ii) Judicial Review
(C)U.K. (iii) Two sets of courts
(D)France (iv) Due process of law
Codes:
(a) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iv)
(b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(iii)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
(d) (A)-(iv), (B)-(ii), (C)-(i), (D)-(ii)
41. Who among the following has given ‘sleeping dogs’ theory of
democratic culture ? (2019)
(a) Lucian Pye and Robert E. ward
(b) James S. Coleman and Myron weiner
(c) James C . Charlesworth and F. W. Riggs
(d) Almond and Verba
42. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (2019)
List I List II
(Authors) (Books)
Political man The Social Bases of pol
1. S.M. Lipset
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
43. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Thinkers) (Concepts)
Code:
(a) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
(b) A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2
(c) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
(d) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
45. Arrange the following books in order in which they appeared. Use
the code given below: (2019)
(A) Comparative Federalism
(B) Democratisation: Theory and Practice
(C) The End of History and the last man
(D) The Civic culture: Political attitude and Democracy in five nations
Codes:
(a) (C), (D), (B), (A)
(b) (B), (A), (C), (D)
(c) (A), (C), (D), (B)
(d) (D), (C), (B), (A)
46. “We are under the Constitution, but the constitution is what the
Judges say it is”. Besides U.S.A . to which one of the following
countries can this be applicable? (2019)
(a) Switzerland
(b) India
(c) U.K.
(d) Russia
47. Who among the following has argued that the electoral system
determines the nature of the party system? (2019)
(a) Duverger
(b) Mitchels
(c) Schumpeter
(d) Weber
48. Which of the following writers are not associated with dependency
theory? (2020)
(A) A .G. Frank
(B) Gramsci
(C) Louis Althusser
(D) Wallerstein
(a) (A) and (C)
(b) (B) and (D)
(c) (B) and (C)
(d) (A) and (D)
49. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2020)
Assertion (A): Proportional representation with single transferable
vote system is more representative than other systems of
representation.
Reason (R): In a majoritarian system, the minorities do not find
adequate representation.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
51. Match the following and select the correct pairs: (2020)
List I List II
(Authors) (Books)
(A)Arend
Lijphart 1. Comparative Federalism
(B)Thomas
Hueglin 2. Comparing Federal System
(C)Giovanni
Sartori 3. Patterns of Democracy Government forms and
performance in thirty-six countries
(D)Ronald L.
4. Comparative constitutional Engineering An inquiry
Watts
intostructures, incentives and outcomes
Codes:
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
(b) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1
(c) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
(d) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
53. In which of the following countries the residuary powers rest with
the states/units ? (2020)
(A) U. S. A.
(B) India
(C) Switzerland
(D) Australia
Select the correct answer from the codes given below
Codes:
(a) (A) and (C)
(b) (C) and (D)
(c) (A) and (D)
(d) (A), (C) and (D)
54. Given below are two statements, on labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R): Select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2020)
Assertion (A): Political development approach came under criticism
in the mid-1960s.
Reason (R): The approach based on the experiences of the United
States and Western Europe had limited relevance in the Third World.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
55. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). (2020)
Assertion (A): Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts
absolutely.
Reason (R): Democracy is the best check against the misuse of
power as the power is distributed among various groups.
In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is
correct ?
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Direction: Read the given passage and answer the next 5 questions that
follow (2021)
Since the 1960s, dependency theory generalized from the Latin
American experience, applying it to the rest of the world. Wallerstein (1974,
1980, 1989) advocated his theory of a world economic system which
consisted of concentric rings-the ‘core’ countries of the West, a ‘semi-
periphery’ and the ‘periphery’-a differentiation made possible by history. The
core states industrialized first and acquired a decisive advantage over the rest
of the world. Peripheral states are those that cater to the needs of the core
and are wilfully prevented from developing higher industrial skills. The semi-
periphery is the middle category of states that can move in either direction,
and may include one-time core states that have lost their states. The whole
system reflects an international division of labour. A basic nature of this
system is the transference of surplus from the periphery to the core. P. P. Rey
(1971, 1973), a French sociologist, added to the idea of dualism by advancing
a more refined notion of the ‘articulation of modes of production’. He argued
that underdevelopment in certain areas of the world was largely due to the
nature of indigenous society. In the West, feudalism led to capitalism because
of the attitude of the feudal upper class. In the rest of the world, which had not
experienced European feudalism, the integration of a society into the world
economy through trade and investment results in a strengthening of the
existing governing classes, reinforcing their resistance to the extension of
capitalism. Caporaso and Behrour (1981) stated: ‘dependency refers to a
structural condition in which a healthy integrated system cannot complete its
economic cycle except by an exclusive (or limited) reliance on an external
complement’.
65. Who among the following said, ‘we cannot shed our values in the
way we remove our coats’ ? (2021)
(a) Leo Strauss
(b) Alfred Cobban
(c) Jean Blondel
(d) David Easton
Answer Key
2. Behaviouralist Phase
3. Neo-institutional Phase
8.
In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister can be dismissed by
the President from the council of ministers and not by the Prime
Minister. However, the PM can ask a minister to resign from his post.
The president appoints the minister on the advice of the prime
minister.
11. David Easton defined political power as the ‘relationship in which one
person or a group is able to determine the actions of another in the
direction of the former’s own end’. In modern times state has the
ultimate power to rule. Political power comes from and deposited in the
political institutions of the state.
13. Civil Service Reform Act 1978 of the United States enacted to provide
federal managers with flexibility to improve government functioning and
productivity. Civil Service Reform Act 1978 replaces the Civil Service
commission with three new agencies- The office of personal
management, The merit systems protection board, and The federal
labour relations authority.
16.
20. Robert A. Dahl wrote the article entitled “The Behavioural Approach in
Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest” in
1961.
Hence, the correct answer will be C.
25. The conduct of periodic elections has become the new legitimising tool
to the government in modern times across the world.
Hence, the correct answer will be C.
38.
39. Frantz Fanon book ‘The Wretched of the Earth (1966)’ is the most
popular book on Decolonization. Fanon explains that colonized were
disinherited and wretched are new men, rising against the system.
These new men are gaining authority and dignity, which were
previously denied to them by the colonizers.
47. Maurice Duverger in his works i.e. ‘political parties, their organization
and activity in modern state’ and ‘choosing an electoral system: issues
and alternatives’ proposed a direct correlation between electoral
system and party system. His conceptualization is known as
‘Duverger’s Law’
53. Residuary powers are such powers that are retained by governments
federal or units after certain powers given to the other authorities. In
India residuary powers are given to the parliament. Parliament has
exclusive poer to make any law that mentioned in concurrent or state
list.
57. Lenin in his work State and revolution, wrote that during 1905
revolution working class overenthusiastically participated in the
agitation to achieve ‘new age’. Lenin termed working class as ‘new
people’ who weren’t coward and hypocrite like bourgeoisie.
64.
INTRODUCTION
International relations is one of the most important fields of study within the
discipline of political science. As a subject, it requires a vigilant understanding
of the dynamics of past as well as present global order with theoretical
examination to presume future events.
Scholars had studied and explained global events with the help of different
ideological orientations. Approaches to the study of international relations are
different theoretical tools which are used to make sense of international
happenings and international events and to come out with a decision or
conclusion. No approach to international relations is completely unbiased,
objective, and neutral and their use and utility are decided by their
understanding and relevance.
The study of international relations till the first world war had a hegemony
of the idealist school or what is also known as the liberal school of
international theory. During the interwar period and later another famous
approach called realism got into the limelight. Though idealists and realists
have dominated the sphere of international study, today we have different
theoretical tools which not only are critical to these two but also give some
alternative and a new way of thinking about and understanding international
relations.
IDEALISM
Idealism represents an altruistic and positive orientation towards the world
order. It represents a set of ideas which is in opposition to war and advocates
the reform of the international community. The central theme of idealism is
always to look for certain ideas in international relations which are conducive
to western capitalism, and it always aspires to build peace on the basis of
cooperation instead of conflicts and order instead of chaos. Idealism is
shaped by the inner goodness of humans and that’s why it advocates that
states are rational actors, who always prioritize the wellness of their people. It
traces its roots in Woodrow Wilson’s famous ‘14 Points Speech’ at the
Paris Peace Conference (1918) after the end of the first world war which
emphasized democratization and free trade.
NEO-LIBERALISM
Though it emerged from a famous quote by Woodrow Wilson in favour of
global institutions which goes as ‘Institutions will convert the “jungle” of
international relations into the “zoo”.’ However, initially liberal institutionalism,
the precursor of ‘neoliberal institutionalism’ was very broad in its framework
which was visible in the establishment of the UNO in 1945. Neo-liberal
institutionalism or neo-liberalism reiterates the Lockean idea of capitalism and
speaks for Woodrow Wilsonian principles of free trade.
Two seminal works that marked a break from the existing liberal tradition
in international relations are Robert Keohane’s ‘After Hegemony:
Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (1984)’ and Robert
Axelrod’s ‘Evolution of Cooperation (1981)’. The key points of this theory
are more and more economic linkages, and cooperation creates a situation of
enduring peace and global interdependence.
NEO-REALISM
Neo-realism takes cues from the classical realism of Hans Morgenthau
but developed its own hypothesis by giving more importance to the structure
of the international system rather than an unscientific explanation of human
nature. It is also known as structural realism. The Forerunner of this theory
was Kenneth Waltz who in his masterpiece ‘Theory of International Politics
(1979)’ provided that conflict among states is natural and power politics is the
only kind of politics possible in the virtually ‘anarchic’ world system. There is
no global government, no global police, and hence, states are the only actors
to safeguard their interests.
NEO-LIBERALISM VS NEO-REALISM
Argument Neo-Realism Neo-Liberalism
Nature of Anarchy (no authority to Anarchy (no authority to
International provide security to nation- enforce agreements and
System. states). maintain international laws).
Nature of The state can create a Cooperation on multilateral
Anarchy conducive environment platforms and through
despite anarchy by regional blocs can create
equalizing power (balance peace and order.
of power).
Key Actors States Various (States, MNCs,
NGOs, international
organizations, etc).
Key Themes Survival and Security Preferences and individual
utility of states.
Key Debates Hegemony, the balance of Alliances and supranational
power, and the balance of organizations
threat.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Social constructivism was first coined by Nicholas Onuf in 1989 in his book
‘The World of Our Making’ where he put forward that nation-states are much
like individuals living in a reality primarily formed by themselves rather than
outside material entities. We are not made but constructed by our social and
cultural relations with others. Similarly, states through interstate interactions
and associations form their identities and interests which in turn inform the
structures and institutions they make among themselves. Though this is not to
say everything around us are beliefs or that ‘it is merely all in our head’ but
structures are real, material, and relatively stable but it is only by assigning
collective meanings to our structures that they will achieve their purpose.
FEMINISM
The emergence of the feminist school of international relations is credited to
Cynthia Enloe (1989) who asked the question ‘Where are the women?’,
encouraging international relations scholars to see the spaces that women
inhabit in global politics and demonstrating that women are essential actors in
the international system. It emphasizes more on peacebuilding politics and
tries to portray the impact of war on women. As J. B. Elstein said, ‘men
make war because war makes men’, the feminist school takes war mongering
and conflicts as essentially patriarchal characteristics. The adoption of United
Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in the year 2000 is taken as an
initial victory of feminist schools.
POST-MODERNISM/POST-STRUCTURALISM
This school of international relations emerged from the literary movement of
post-modernism where scholars like Michel Foucault spoke aggressively
against the dominance of certain discourses. According to this school, ‘truth is
majoritarian’ and the dominance of any actor would naturally create
discourses suitable to it. It analyzes the relationship between ‘knowledge and
power’ in the international sphere.
Thinkers Books
Alfred Zimmern The League of Nations and the Rule of Law
1918–35 (1936)
Parker Thomas Moon Imperialism and World Politics (1926)
Norman Angell The Great Illusion (1909)
Arnold J. Toynbee Nationality & the War (1915)
E. H. Carr The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919–39 (1939)
Hans Morgenthau Politics Among Nations (1948)
Karl Deutsch Political Community at the International
Level (1953)
Michael W. Doyle Ways of war and Peace (1996)
Robert O. Keohane After Hegemony(1984) and Power and
Interdependence (1977)
John Mearsheimer The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001)
Christopher Layne The Peace of Illusions (2006)
Stephen Krasner Defending the national interest (1978)
Fareed Zakaria From Wealth to Power (1998)
Alexander Wendt Article—Anarchy is What States Make of it
(1992) and book—Social Theory of
International Politics (1999)
Nicholas Onuf The World of Our Making (1989)
Robert Cox Production, power, and world order (1987)
Andrew Linklater Beyond Realism and Marxism (1989)
Charlotte Hooper Manly States (2001)
Judith Ann Tickner Gendering World Politics (2001)
Cynthia Enloe Bananas, Beaches and Bases (1989)
V. Spike Peterson Gendered States
Chandra Mohanty Feminism Without Borders (2003)
Richard Ashley The Poverty of Neorealism(1984)
James Der Derian On Diplomacy: A Genealogy of Western
Estrangement (1987)
Most Expected Practice Questions
1. André Gunder Frank and Amir Samin are theorists belonging to whic
school of theory?
(a) Dependency Theory
(b) Critical Theory
(c) Marxian Theory
(d) Liberal Theory
2. Nuclear Deterrence
3. North-South Divide
4. Collective Security
2. Nina Tannenwald
3. Nicholas Onuf
4. James Lovelock
Codes:
(a) Only 1, 2, and 3
(b) Only 2, 3, and 4
(c) Only 1, 3, and 4
(d) Only 4
Codes:
(a) Only 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 and 3
(c) Only 1 and 3
(d) All of the above
9. Who among the following has studied the hegemonic power of the US
not only in the terms of its military ascendancy but also in terms of it
ability to generate broad consent for the ‘world order’ that it represents?
(a) Robert Gilpin
(b) Robert Cox
(c) Judith Ann Tickner
(d) Hadley Bull
Soft-Power
2. Norman Angell
Great Illusion
3. Nicholas Onuf
Nuclear Taboo
4. Joseph Nye
Book Scholar
Idea/Book Scholar
15. What is the common point between the neo-realist and neo-liberal
theories of international relations?
(a) Both consider the state as an irrational actor.
(b) Both give supremacy to power politics.
(c) Both agree that motive of state action is always expansion.
(d) Both agree that the international system is shaped by anarchy.
16. Who is the author of the book ‘The League Of Nations And The Rule Of
Law’?
(a) Bertrand Russell
(b) Alfred Zimmern
(c) William Ladd
(d) Parker Thomas Moon
17. Who is the author of the book ‘The Tragedy of Great Power Politics’?
(a) Christopher Layne
(b) Stephen Krasner
(c) John Mearsheimer
(d) Kenneth Waltz
18. Who is the author of the book ‘The World of Our Making’?
(a) Peter J. Katzenstein
(b) Martha Finnemore
(c) Alexander Wendt
(d) Nicholas Onuf
19. Which among the following thinker does not belong to critical
international theory?
(a) Nancy Fraser
(b) Laura Sjoberg
(c) Robert Cox
(d) Andrew Linklater
20. Which among the following thinker re-formulated the six principles of
Hans Morgenthau?
(a) Charlotte Hooper
(b) Judith Ann Tickner
(c) Cynthia Enloe
(d) V. Spike Peterson
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
International relations is the study of the political and social interaction of
state, non-state actors, intergovernmental organizations (UN, NATO,
European Union, and the Arab League), and individuals. To understand such
interactions, it is necessary for us to appreciate the importance of international
relations theory. Theory, in this sense, offers the conceptual tools to
accomplish three basic tasks: first, to analyze the impact of rules and
decisions on state behaviour, second, to understand the changing dimensions
and limits of power structures, institutions, and order, including the role of
greater transparency and accountability, and third is to promote the ideals of
justice, greater social inclusion, and equality.
NON-STATE ACTORS
Non-state actors include organizations and individuals that are not affiliated
with, directed by, or funded through the government. These include
corporations, private financial institutions, and NGOs, as well as paramilitary
and armed resistance groups. There are various types of non-state actors
which include: large national and multinational corporations that are
authorized to act as single entities, legally as persons and are recognized as
such in law. This includes businesses like—Coca-Cola Company,
McDonald’s, etc. International media conglomerates, which are also usually
corporations, report on the social and political situation in countries worldwide
and are influential non-state actors, such as Reuters, Associated Press, etc.
Non-governmental organizations which include international non-
governmental organizations are usually non-profit organizations seeking to
effect change in humanitarian, educational, ecological, healthcare, public
policy, social, human rights, environmental, and other areas are notable non-
state actors.
Some religious groups engage in political affairs at an international level
like Quakers, as the historic peace church also forms an important non-state
actor. Another example is the Taliban, which is a religious group and also a
violent non-state actor along with ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria).
C. A state is a spatial concept and its boundaries are often not chan
by war, negotiation, arbitration, and annexation.
Choose the correct answer from the following:
(a) Only A and B are Correct,
(b) Only B and C are correct
(c) Only A and C are correct
(d) All are correct.
6. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): There are various types of non-state actors including
large national and multinational corporations which are recognized
under the law.
Reason (R): Non-state actors include organizations and individuals
that are not affiliated with or funded by the government.
Choose the correct answer from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true.
9. According to which concept of power does the state secure their surviva
by preventing any state from gaining enough military power to dominat
all others?
(a) Hard Power
(b) Soft Power
(c) Smart Power
(d) Balance of Power
12. Choose the correct statements about Realist from the following:
A. The theory offers the conceptual tools to understand the impact of
decisions, and power structures and order.
13. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other as Reason (R):
Assertion (A): Traditional security gives more priority to the use of
military forces.
Reason (R): The use of force is the source of threat as well as the
means of attaining peace and security.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
In international relations, conflict and peace are two recurring
phenomena. They move parallelly within the arena of international
politics. Conflict of ideas or interests may lead to the situation of war.
Peace is generally conceived of as equivalent to the absence of manifest
violence.
CONCEPT OF PEACE
Peace as a concept can be defined as the concept of societal friendship
and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. Ideally, peace is a
much wider concept than the absence of conflict. Kenneth Boulding,
one of the pioneers of peace research, makes a significant analysis of
the positive and negative aspects of peace. He says, ‘On the positive
side, peace signifies a condition of good management, orderly resolution
of conflict, harmony allocated with mature relationships, gentleness, and
love. On the negative side, it is conceived as the absence of something—
the absence of turmoil, tension, conflict, and war’.
CONCEPT OF CONFLICT
The conflict has positive aspects when it directs attention to the injustices
that need to be addressed, when it promotes much-needed change in
organizations and systems, and especially when it leads to creative
problem-solving. The negative aspects of the conflict are the destructive
behaviour (violence leading to loss of life and property), and the pain and
trauma that is a result of the violence.
DETERRENCE
Deterrence can be defined as the military strategy under which one
power uses the threat of reprisal effectively to preclude an attack from an
adversary power. It is a strategy intended to dissuade the adversary from
undertaking an action not yet started or to prevent them from doing
something that another state desires.
Deterrence theory gained increased prominence as a military strategy
during the cold war with regard to the use of nuclear weapons. During the
cold war, deterrence theory mostly focused on the antagonistic
relationship between the two superpowers based on the enormous
nuclear arsenals both maintained and the resulting impossibility of a
successful first strike. Countries can have:
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes
involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution.
Within peace and conflict studies a definition of conflict resolution is
presented in Peter Wallenstein’s book ‘Understanding Conflict
Resolution’, a conflict resolution is a social situation where the armed
conflicting parties in a (voluntarily) agreement resolve to live peacefully
with—and/or dissolve—their basic incompatibilities and henceforth cease
to use arms against one another.
CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION
Conflict transformation as a concept emerged in the late 1960s and early
1970s in the context of early conflict research and development research.
The idea of conflict transformation was already present in the works of
peace researchers, like Senghaas and Krippendorf. Conflict
transformation is a concept designed to reframe the way in which peace-
building initiatives are discussed and pursued, particularly in contexts of
ethnic conflict. Conflict transformation refers to the process of moving
from conflict-habituated systems to peace systems.
Conflict resolution is different from conflict transformation in the sense
that, in conflict resolution, the highest priority is finding a solution that can
solve the conflict while in conflict transformation, the highest priority is
understanding each other and building stronger relationships, so we can
create trust and longevity.
In 2003 in ‘The Little Book of Conflict Transformation’, John Paul
Lederach, described his shift from the term conflict resolution to conflict
transformation. For John Paul Lederach, conflict transformation
means being ‘engaged in constructive change efforts that include, and go
beyond, the resolution of specific problems’. These efforts are based on
‘two verifiable realities: conflict is normal in human relationships, and
conflict is a motor of change’.
Martina Fischer and Norbert Ropers in the ‘Introduction’ to
‘Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation’ written in 2004 define
conflict transformation as ‘a generic, Comprehensive concept’.
Conflict transformation thus sees conflict as an ‘opportunity’ wherein
the deep-rooted issues of injustice can be dealt with and constructive
change effected by minimizing the negative effects of conflict and
maximizing the positive ones.
7. Military strategy under which one power uses the threat of reprisa
effectively to preclude an attack from an adversary power is know
as?
(a) Deterrence
(b) Conflict Resolution
(c) Conflict Transformation
(d) Conflict Management
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (d) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(d) (c)
CHAPTER 4
United Nations
INTRODUCTION
The United Nation was established after the second world war with
the aim of preventing future world wars, succeeding the League of
Nations, which was characterized as ineffective. On 25 April 1945, fifty
governments met in San Francisco for a conference and started drafting
the United Nations Charter, which was adopted on 25 June 1945 and
took effect on 24 October 1945, since then, we celebrate 24 October as
United Nations Day. The name ‘United Nations’ was coined by US
President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The headquarters of the United
Nations is in New York, US. Official languages are Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Spanish, and Russian. There are 193 members of the
United Nation, the latest member is the Republic of South Sudan joined
in 2011. The current Secretary-General is Antonio Guterres.
SECRETARIAT
It undertakes day to day work of the United Nations administering the
programmes and policies of the organization. It is headed by the
Secretary-General and assisted by a staff of international civil servants
worldwide. It is situated in New York. The Secretary-General is the Chief
Administration Officer of the Organization, appointed by the United
Nations General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a five-year, renewable term. The United Nations staff,
members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty
stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world.
TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the United Nations
charter, under Chapter XIII, to provide international supervision for 11
Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven
member states and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare
the territories for self-government and independence. By 1994, all Trust
Territories had attained self-government or independence. The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994. The
headquarters of the Trusteeship Council is in New York.
IMPORTANT HUMANITARIAN
INTERVENTIONS
Humanitarian intervention is the use of military force against a nation with
the stated aim of protecting civilians and ending human rights abuses.
Although many people see the 1990s and early 2000s as the peak of
humanitarian interventionism, in fact, states have used military force to
protect civilians throughout history.
British Intervention in Sierra Leone (2000): In 2000, the
UK military intervened in the Sierra Leonean civil war. This is a
strong example of humanitarian intervention as the UK used its
armed forces to protect civilians-both British and Sierra Leonean.
The Sierra Leone Civil war raged from 1991 to 2002 and saw
extensive atrocities committed against civilians.
US and United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992):
The US-led military operation in Somalia in 1992 is another
example of humanitarian intervention. Following the over-through
of Somalian Dictator Mohamed Siad Barre and fighting
between factional warlords, Somalia faced an extensive
humanitarian crisis including famine and human rights abuses.
The United Nations, which had peacekeeping forces in the
country, accepted the American offer to deploy troops to protect
the distribution of aid.
US Invasion of Haiti (1994): Another example of humanitarian
intervention is the US invasion of Haiti. In 1991 a military group
coup overthrows the elected president of Haiti. Diplomatic efforts
were made to return democratic rule to Haiti, but when these failed
the United Nations authorized military action.
India’s Intervention in the Bangladesh Liberation War
(1971): The Bangladesh war of independence was incredibly
violent, with extensive atrocities committed. In 1971, India
launched a humanitarian intervention in Bangladesh to assist
civilians and help the country gain independence.
US Invasion of Iraq (2003): This a controversial one, although
it is generally agreed that the American-led invasion of Iraq in
2003 was conducted for geo-political motives, in fact, the
justification given at the time was that of humanitarian intervention.
Libyan Civil war No–Fly Zone (2011): A coalition led by the
US, UK, and France imposed a no-fly zone over Libya to prevent
Muammar Gaddafi’s force’s continued successes on the
battlefield. The justification for the implementation of the Libyan
no-fly zone was humanitarian intervention.
10. Uniting for Peace Resolution gives which organ of the United
Nations the power to maintain or restore international peace and
security?
(a) United Nation Security Council
(b) United Nations General Assembly
(c) Secretary-General
(d) United Nations Economic and Social Council
11. Which Article of the United Nations Charter deals with the veto
power of the United Nations Security Council?
(a) Article 25
(b) Article 26
(c) Article 27
(d) Article 28
12. In which of the following option is not the function of the United
Nations Security Council?
(a) To consider and approve the United Nations budgets.
(b) To take necessary measures for arms control and disarmamen
(c) Granting admission of a new member to the United Nations
approving expulsion of members.
(d) Elect the non-permanent members of the United Nations Sec
Council.
13. Which US President gave the speech ‘Atoms for Peace’ before the
United Nations General Assembly?
(a) Richard Nixon
(b) Ronald Reagan
(c) Harry S. Truman
(d) Dwight D. Eisenhower
16. Which of the following was not included in Boutros Ghali’s ‘Agenda
for Peace’?
(a) Peace Keeping
(b) Peace Settlement
(c) Peace Building
(d) Peace Making
17. Which of the following statements is/are correct about the United
Nations Charter?
(1) Article 2 of the United Nations Charter uses the term ‘territ
integrity’ and ‘political independence’.
(2) Article 51 of the United Nations Charter talks about the righ
collective self-defence of a state.
(3) The United Nations Charter doesn’t use the term ‘Veto Po
anywhere in the text.
Choose the correct option:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2, and 3
18. The Specialized Agencies of the United Nations and the United
Nations Programmes and Funds work under and report to which of
the following institutions?
(a) United Nations Security Council
(b) United Nations Economic and Social Council
(c) World Trade Organization
(d) United Nations General Assembly
19. Which of the following statements are true about the United
Nations Peace Keeping?
(A) Its provisions are not explicitly given in the United Nations Cha
(B) It is the sole prerogative of the Secretary-General of the Un
Nations.
(C) It has undergone quantitative and qualitative changes in the p
cold war period.
(D) India and America have jointly sponsored it.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) B and C only
(b) A and D only
(c) A and C only
(d) C and D only
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 13. 16. 19.
(d) (a) (d) (b) (d) (b) (c)
2. 5. 8. 11. 14. 17. 20.
(a) (d) (c) (c) (c) (d) (d)
3. 6. 9. 12. 15.
18. (b)
(a) (d) (c) (d) (a)
INTRODUCTION
The economic system is always a determining force behind any political
system. International relation is also a study of political structure, and it would
be incomplete without a comprehensive understanding of the political
economy of international relations. To understand the political-economic
perspective of the world order we need to investigate the origin and structures
of the economic order created by the Bretton Woods Conference, World
Trade Organization, G-20, BRICS, and North-South Dialogue.
Main Objectives
1. An obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that
maintained its external exchange within 1% by tying its currency to
gold (US dollar value was set as the benchmark).
2. Ability of the International Monetary Fund to bridge temporary
imbalances of payments.
3. Address the issue of lack of cooperation among countries.
4. To prevent competitive devaluation of the currency.
Bretton Woods system came to an end in the early 1970s when US
President Richard Nixon announced that the US would no longer
exchange gold for US currency and from 1973, a floating exchange rate
system was followed under which the job of currency exchange was left to
forex markets and private players.
NORTH–SOUTH DIALOGUE
It refers to the process in which the developing world i.e., the countries of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Global South) engaged with the developed
nations (Global North) over the changing contours of the world economic
system throughout the 1970s. The establishment of the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964 accelerated this
dialogue and addressed issues pertaining to trade and tariffs, international
finance, foreign aid, and the governance of multinational companies and
institutions. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) is headquartered in Geneva and is a part of the United Nations
Secretariat.
The North–South dialogue is seen as a political struggle between the
haves and have-nots. The New International Economic Order (NIEO) was a
significant step towards readjusting the power dynamics and mainstreaming
the issues of economic justice and equity. The origins of the New International
Economic Order (NIEO) could be traced to the Afro-Asian Conference held at
Bandung in 1955.
Demand for a new democratized international economic order was made
at the Non-Aligned Movement’s Algiers Conference in 1973. The United
Nations General Assembly formally moved the proposal in 1974. The demand
for the New International Economic Order (NIEO) was wholeheartedly
accepted and supported by the countries at the fifth Non-Aligned Movement
Summit in Colombo in 1976. The major objectives of the New International
Economic Order (NIEO) are:
South–South Cooperation—Promote economic development among
the poor countries through self-help.
International trade tempered with the principle of social justice.
Press for more equitable and just allocation of global resources.
Overhaul of existing international institutions and open more channels
of participation for the south.
Intends to deal with specific economic problems of the south like the
Balance of Payment (BOP) crisis, debt burden, exchange scarcity, etc.
Envisages the establishment of a new international currency.
G-20
An international forum comprising the world’s leading industrialized and
emerging economies. It was established in 1999. It represents more than 80%
of the global GDP.
Members: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, the US,
Russia, Australia, Saudi Arabia, India, South Africa, Turkey, Argentina, Brazil,
Mexico, China, Indonesia, and European Union.
+ AU - recently become the part of G20 and now called as G21 - on 9
Sep, 2023, India summit.
G20 acts as a forum for the governments and central bank governors from
20 major economies. The main objective is the promotion of international
financial stability by studying, reviewing and promoting high-level discussion
of policy issues. The G20 heads of state meet annually at summits and the
group also hosts separate meetings of finance ministers and central bank
governors. The G20 does not have a permanent secretariat or headquarters.
In recent years, the G20 summits have focused not only on
macroeconomic and trade-related issues but have also started deliberating
upon more urgent issues of global governance like climate change, health,
migration, terrorism, resource scarcity, etc.
BRICS
BRICS is an association of five major emerging economies, i.e., Brazil,
Russia, India, China, and South Africa. All five are G-20 members. The idea
of BRICS was first conceived by British Economist and the then Chairman of
Goldman Sachs Association, Jim O’ Neill in 2001 to describe the four
emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China. The grouping was
formally established during the first meeting of BRICS Foreign Ministers in
2006 and came into formation in 2009. The first formal summit was held at
Yekaterinburg, Russia on 16 June 2009.
South Africa was invited to join BRIC in December 2010 and hence the
group acquired the acronym BRICS. It comprises 42% of the world’s
population, accounts for 23% of the global GDP, and contributes to around
17% of world trade.
BRICS nations hold annual summits, and the chairmanship rotates
annually among the members in accordance with the acronym BRICS. During
the sixth BRICS Summit in Fortaleza, Brazil (2014) the leaders signed the
agreement establishing the New Development Bank (NDB) and entered into
force during the seventh BRICS Summit in 2015. The New Development Bank
(NDB) is in Shanghai, China.
1. Fourth 1. Nairob
2. Ninth 2. Genev
3. Tenth C.Doha
4. Twelfth D.Bali
Codes:
(a) 1–(C), 2–(D), 3–(A), 4–(B)
(b) 1–(A), 2–(B), 3–(C), 4–(D)
(c) 1–(B), 2–(C), 3–(D), 4–(A)
(d) 1–(D), 2–(A), 3–(B), 4–(C)
C. G-20
D. BRICS
Options:
(a) A, B, C, and D
(b) B, A, C, and D
(c) D, C, B, and A
(d) C, A, B, and D
7. Who among the following argues that American power had bee
essential for the establishment of international institutions such as th
International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization?
(a) David Harvey
(b) Robert Keohane
(c) Joseph Nye
(d) Robert Gilpin
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (c) (a) (d) (b) (a) (c)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (c)
CHAPTER 6
Regional Organization
INTRODUCTION
International politics is dynamic in nature, and in the modern world,
conflict and cooperation are not just at the bilateral level. Multilateralism
became the new reality of the world order. Regional organizations
represent the multilateral cooperation based on the geopolitical situation
of the country. The regional organization has different levels of
coordination like free trade agreements, transportation agreements,
employment, medical, and economic cooperation, even up to the model
of a common currency. Some important regional organizations in
international relations are the European Union, African Union,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and Shanghai Cooperation
Organization.
EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union is a supranational political and economic union of
27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The European
Union was created by the Maastricht Treaty (1992), which entered into
force in 1993. The European Union was created by a series of
agreements among the European countries which include:
Treaty of Paris (1951) founding the European Coal and Steel
Community.
Treaties of Rome (1957) signed created a common market i.e.,
European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy
Community. It came into effect in 1958.
The Single European Act (SEA), which entered into force in 1987,
significantly expanded the European Economic Community’s
scope.
In 1992 Maastricht Treaty, formally called the Treaty on European
Union. The European Union is born, and Euro was introduced as
a fellow currency.
The Treaty of Amsterdam was signed in 1997 and came into
force in 1999, building on the social protocol of the Maastricht
Treaty.
The Treaty of Nice signed in 2001 and entered into force in 2003,
for the admission of new members from eastern Europe,
contained major reforms.
The Lisbon Treaty signed in 2007, modified the constitution, and it
contains a clause under Article 50, providing for a member to
leave the European Union. It came into effect in 2009.
The United Kingdom, which had been a founding member of the
European Union, left the organization in 2020.
Croatia was the last to join the bloc in 2013.
Source: Based on How is the European Union Governed - (c) 2023 Global Challenges
Foundation, https://globalchallenges.org/how-is-it-governed/ , accessed on 15 March
2023
Iceland, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and Norway are the four non-
European Union member countries that have made partial commitments
to the European Union’s economy and regulations. The European Union
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2012, in recognition of the
organization’s efforts to promote peace and democracy in Europe.
AFRICAN UNION
African Union intergovernmental organization, established in 2002.
The African Union replaced the Organization of African Unity (1963–
2002). The African Union is a continental union consisting of 55 member
states located on the continent of Africa. The African Union was
announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, in 1999. The Treaty of
Abuja (1991) established the African Economic Community (AEC) in
1994. In 2002 the Organization of African Unity and the African
Economic Community were integrated to become African Union. The
bloc was founded in 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and launched in
2002 in Durban, South Africa. The headquarters of the African Union is
in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. In 2022, the African Union celebrated its
twentieth anniversary: ‘Our Africa, Our Future’.
African Continental Free Trade Agreement: It was signed at the
twelfth African Union Summit. It started in 2020. It establishes the
largest free trade area in the world since the creation of the World Trade
Organization in 1995. The African Continental Free Trade Agreement
secretariat is headquartered in Accra, Ghana.
Agenda 2063: It was adopted on 31 January 2015 at the twenty-
fourth Ordinary Assembly of the Heads of State and Governments of the
African Union in Addis Ababa. Agenda 2063 calls for greater
collaboration and support for African-led initiatives to ensure the
achievement of the aspirations of the African people. Agenda 2063 was
developed as a strategic framework for Africa’s long-term socio-
economic and integrative transformation. To achieve this vision within a
50-year period from 2013 to 2063.
2. The term ‘flying bees’ got associated with which of the following
associations?
(a) Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(b) South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation
(c) Shanghai Cooperation Organization
(d) BRICS
3. Which treaty provides the clause for the members to leave the
European Union?
(a) Lisbon Treaty
(b) Maastricht Treaty
(c) Treaty of Paris
(d) Treaties of Rome
10. The theme of the twentieth anniversary of the African Union is?
(a) Our Africa, Our Future
(b) Silencing the Gun
(c) Cohesive and Responsive African Union
(d) Regaining African Identity
12. When will India get the presidency of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization?
(a) 2022
(b) 2023
(c) 2024
(d) 2025
Codes:
(a) a–1, b–3, c–4, d–2
(b) a–1, b–4, c–3, d–2
(c) a–1, b–2, c–4, d–3
(d) a–1, b–3, c–2, d–4
15. Which Indian city is designated as the first ‘Tourism and Cultural
Capital’?
(a) Puri
(b) Mamallapuram
(c) Varanasi
(d) Jaipur
20. Which of the following is wrong about the East Asia Summit
(EAS)?
(a) The East Asia Summit (EAS) is an Association of South
Asian Nations (ASEAN)-centred forum.
(b) India is a founding member of the East Asia Summit (EAS).
(c) It was established in 2005.
(d) It was established under Bangkok Declaration.
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
In contemporary times, the world is going through various challenges like
terrorism, environmental degradation, migration, poverty, human rights
violation, etc. These issues capture the central stage in bilateral, multilateral
as well as all intergovernmental institutions of international relations.
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM
Terrorism is an act of violence aimed at destabilizing the civil order or
threatening the targeted population or government. According to the UN,
terrorism is any criminal act intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror
in the general public, a group of persons, or individuals for a particular
purpose and they are in all circumstances unjustifiable, whether political,
philosophical, ideological, radical, ethical, etc.
Types of Terrorism
1. Political Terrorism: Manifests in terms of organized violence to
destabilize or dethrone an established political regime. The sole
purpose is to seize control of political power using extreme violence.
For example, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Irish
Republic Army (IRA).
2. Ethnic Terrorism: Violence is employed to establish ethnic
dominance. For example, LTTE’s demand for a separate Tamil State
and Hitler’s holocaust of Jews.
3. Religious Terrorism: Motivated by the ideology of preserving the
dignity of religion and its followers. For example, Al Qaeda, ISIS,
Taliban, and Hezbollah.
4. State Terrorism: When a government of a state resort to violence
and extremism to eliminate political opposition to establish its total
control. For example, USSR under Joseph Stalin and China under
Mao Zedong.
5. International Terrorism: Involves citizens of more than one
country and has transnational impacts. For example, the 26/11 attack
on Mumbai was sponsored by a terrorist group from a neighbouring
country.
Impacts of Terrorism
Undermines the sovereignty and integrity of nation-states.
Threat to world peace and a crime against humanity.
Terror groups might gain access to Weapons of Mass Destruction
(WMD). For example, the use of chemical weapons in Tokyo in 1995.
Strains and even breaks diplomatic ties between countries in case one
country overtly or covertly sponsors terrorism against the other. For
example, India and Pakistan, Arab States and Israel, etc.
Risk of radicalization and dissemination of extremist ideology exploiting
the fault lines across societies.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Those rights to which people are entitled by virtue of being human. Human
Rights are universal in nature irrespective of race, religion, gender, class, and
other distinctions.
These are guaranteed by the law, treaties (like UN treaties), Customary
International Law, etc. Magna Carta (1215), Petition of Rights (1628), US
Constitution (1787), French Declaration (1789), and US Bill of Rights (1791)
are the nascent sources of origin of contemporary human rights.
1. Taliban 1. Pakistan
3. Hezbollah C.Lebanon
4. ISIS D.Afghanistan
Codes:
(a) 1–(A), 2–(B), 3–(C), 4–(D)
(b) 1–(D), 2–(B), 3–(C), 4–(A)
(c) 1–(D), 2–(A), 3–(C), 4–(B)
(d) 1–(C), 2–(A), 3–(D), 4–(B)
C. Bill of Rights
D. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Options:
(a) B, D, C, and A
(b) A, C, D, and B
(c) B, C, A, and D
(d) C, A, B, and D
Options:
(a) A–(I), B–(II), C–(III), D–(IV)
(b) A–(II), B–(IV), C–(I), D–(III)
(c) A–(IV), B–(III), C–(II), D–(I)
(d) A–(III), B–(I), C–(II), D–(IV)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (a) (b) (d) (b) (a)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(d) (a)
Previous Years’ Questions
1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2016)
List I List II
(Author) (Concepts)
(A)Earnest Hauss (i)Post-
Modernism
(B)John von Neumann and (ii) Constructivis
Morgenstein
(C)Alexander Bend (iii) Game theory
(D)Richard Ashley (iv) Neo-
functionalism
2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2016)
List I List II
(Disarmament (Explanation)
)
(A)Human (i)Means abolition of all
disarmament human and material
instrumentalities of
warfare.
(B)Qualitative (ii) Is a kind of disarmam
disarmament in which all nations ta
part.
(C)General (iii) Refers to the abolition
disarmament reduction of only spec
types of armaments.
(D)Total or (iv) Refers to limitation or
comprehensive reduction of armed
disarmement forces.
10. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct
answer from the codes given below: (2018)
Assertion (A): Interdependence and flow of information across
the world strengthened the process of globalization which in turn
restricted the powers and scope of nation state.
Reason (R): World trade is mostly controlled by the developed
nations of the world.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanatio
(A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is not the correct explana
of (A).
(c) (A) is false, but (R) is correct.
(d) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
13. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Authors) (Ideas)
(A)Anthony (i)Capitalism has
Giddens contributed to
globalisation
(B)J.N. (ii) Political factors are respons
Rosenau for a globalisation
(C)Gilpin (iii) Globalisation is the result o
technological development
(D)Wallerstein (iv) Globalisation is the result o
modernisation
Codes:
(A) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(B) (A)-(ii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
(C) (A)-(iv), (B)-(iii), (C)-(ii), (D)-(i)
(D) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
15. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct
answer from the codes given below: (2018)
Assertion (A): New International Economic order seeks to
promote more harmonious and favorable relations between the
advanced nations and the developing countries.
Reason (R): The terms of trade and transfer of technology to the
developing countries is not advantageous to them.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
List-X List-Y
(Treaties on Arms Control) (Year of Signe
on Treaty)
(A)Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty-I (i)1990
(B)Treaty- on Open Sky (ii) 1991
(C)Strategic Arms Reduction Tready - II (iii) 1992
(D)Treaty on the Reduction of Conventional (iv) 1993
Forces in Europe (C.F.E.)
(a) (A)-(i),(B)-(ii),(C)-(iii),(D)-(iv)
(b) (A)-(iv),(B)-(iii),(C)-(ii),(D)-(i)
(c) (A)-(ii),(B)-(iii),(C)-(iv),(D)-(i)
(d) (A)-(ii),(B)-(iv),(C)-(iii),(D)-(i)
28. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Authors) (Books)
(A)Thomas L. (i)The World is
Friedman Flat
(B)Joseph E. (ii) In Defence of Globalization
Stiglitz
(C)Noam Chomsky (iii) Making Globalization Work
(D)Jagdish (iv) The Prosperous Few and the
Bhagwati Restless Many
32. Who was the first scholar to use the term “Public Diplomacy”?
(2018)
(a) Edmund Gulien
(b) Eugene Black
(c) R. Cohen
(d) Harold Nicolson
List I List II
(A)Security Complex (i)Karl Deutsch
(B)Common Security (ii) Robert Jervis
(C)Security Community (iii) Barry Buzan
(D)Security Regimes (iv) Palme Report, 1992
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) (A)-(I), (B)-(II), (C)-(III), (D)-(IV)
(b) (A)-(IV), (B)-(III), (C)-(II), (D)-(I)
(c) (A)-(IV), (B)-(III), (C)-(I), (D)-(II)
(d) (A)-(III), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(II)
List I List II
(Organization) (Number of memb
states)
(A)Economic Community of West African (i)6
States
(B)South African Development Community (ii) 12
(C)Economic Community of Central African (iii) 16
States
(D)Eastern African Community (iv) 15
List I List
(A)Convention on offences and certain other acts (i)1999
committed on Board Aircraft (Tokyo)
(B)Convention for suppression of unlawful acts against the (ii) 1
safety of Civil Aviation (Montreal)
(C)International Convention for suppression of Terrorist (iii) 1
Bombing
(D)International Convention for Suppression of Financing (iv) 1
of Terrorism
45. From legal point of view which of the following is called a soft
law? (2019)
(1) Right to Environment
(2) Right to Development
(3) Right to Health
(4) Right to Privacy
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
46. Bachract and Baratz have mentioned about the three classes
of International Relations to control the conduct of states.
Which of the following are the three classes? (2020)
(A) Influence Relationship
(B) Force Relationship
(C) Legitimate Relationship
(D) Power Relationship
Select the correct answer from the codes given below
(a) (B), (C) and (D)
(b) (A), (C) and (D)
(c) (D), (C) and (B)
(d) (B), (C) and (A)
List I List II
(Author) (Book)
AWilliam C. Olson The Growth of a Discipline
BB.G.F. Kennan American Diplomacy
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
48. Who among the following had declared that arms race in itself
is experience of terror ? (2020)
(a) Hadley Bull
(b) Arnold Toynbee
(c) Kenneth Boulding
(d) Lynn Miller
62. Which of the following are true about the world system theory?
(2021)
(A) It is influenced by the Marxian idea of accumulation of wealth
(B) On the basis of wealth accumulation, the world is divided betw
‘core’, ‘periphery’ and ‘semi-periphery’
(C) It involves important concepts like players, strategies, rules
outcomes
(D) It analyses the situation of conflict, competition and coopera
among states
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) B and C only
(c) C and D only
(d) A and D only
Direction: Read the given passage and answer the next 5 questions
that follow (2021)
In summary, an increasing readiness by the UN to intervene
within states in order to promote internal justice for individuals would
indicate a movement towards global governance and away from
unconditional sovereignty. There have been some signs of movement in
this direction, but principles of state sovereignty and non-intervention
remain important. There is no clear consensus on those points. There is
still some support for the view that Article 2(7) of the UN Charter should
be interpreted strictly; that there can be no intervention within a state
without the express consent of the government of that arguments
favoured by the government of the People’s Republic of China. Others
believe that intervention within a country to promote human rights is only
justifiable on the basis of a threat to international peace and security.
Evidence of a threat to international peace and security could be the
appearance of significant numbers of refugees or the judgement that
other states might intervene militarily. Some Liberals argue that this
condition is flexible enough to justify intervention to defend human rights
whenever it seems prudent. There is also some support for a stronger
position. In September 1999, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan declared
that individual sovereignty may be as important as national sovereignty.
69. What is the general feeling among some sections regarding the
basis of UN intervention?
(a) Human Rights violations
(b) Economic failure
(c) Large scale violence
(d) Problem of drug trafficking
Answer Key
22. The Arab Spring was spread in Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and
Bahrain. The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government
protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across much
of the Islamic world in the early 2010s. It began in response to
oppressive regimes and a low standard of living, starting with
protests in Tunisia. So, option D is the correct answer.
24. Hugo Grotius wrote three books on the Law of War and Peace.
These books are based on principles of natural law, which are held
to be binding on all people and nations regardless of local custom.
Book II identifies three ‘just causes’ for war: self-defense,
reparation of injury, and punishment.
26. Swedish diplomat and politician Hans Martin Blix was the head of
the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection
Commission from March 2000 to June 2003. In 2002, the
commission began searching Iraq for weapons of mass
destruction. The Commission did not find any weapons of mass
destruction. Thus, option B is the correct answer.
45.
Hard law- These are binding legal laws. These laws give binding
responsibilities on states or institutions or individuals
Soft law- These are significant but non-binding laws.
Right to development is a soft law from legal point of view.
53. Hans Morgenthau in his world ‘Politics among nations: the struggle
for power and peace (1948)’ sets the basic tenets of political
realism which assumes that interests defined as power is an
objective category meaning that sovereign states compete for
power survival constitutes the minimum goal of foreign policy and
core national interests.
UNIT VI
India’s Foreign Policy
INTRODUCTION
In the domain of international relations, the foreign policy of any nation
represents the perspective from which they see the world and what kind
of interaction and relation they wish to develop with the world in general
and the country in particular. Foreign policy is an instrument to realize the
national interest of a country. The foreign policy of any country is shaped
by two factors—domestic and international.
India is a regional superpower in south Asia and an important player
in Asia as well as one of the most significant developing countries in the
world order. We need to have a clear understanding of how India reaches
here and how it maintains its position and this perspective of Indian
Foreign Policy need to be analyzed categorically.
5. International Day of Yoga has been celebrated first time across the
world in?
(a) 2014
(b) 2015
(c) 2016
(d) 2017
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (a) (b) (d) (d) (d) (c)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(c) (c)
Explanation for Selected Questions
INTRODUCTION
In the Indian context, partition and British India’s legacy left many difficult
challenges. India’s efforts to pursue an independent foreign policy were a
high point in post-independence politics. Jawaharlal Nehru used
foreign policy to defend and strengthen India’s independence and
national interests, instil self-reliance, self-confidence, and pride in the
masses, and promote world peace and anti-colonialism. This goal is
echoed in the Directive Principles of State Policy, specifically in Article 51
of the Constitution, which states: ‘Promotion of international peace and
security’.
NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT
The term ‘non-aligned’ was coined by V. K. Menon in his speech at the
UN in 1953, which was later used by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. The Non-
Aligned Movement is the largest movement of third-world countries.
Former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi described the Non-Aligned
Movement as the largest peace movement.
The Non-Aligned Movement was formed during the cold war as an
organization of states that did not seek to formally align themselves with
either the US or the Soviet Union but sought to remain independent or
neutral.
The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of 120 developing countries
that are not formally aligned with or opposed to any major power bloc. It
is the world’s second-largest grouping of states after the UN.
The basic idea for the group arose in 1955 during discussions at
Asia–Africa Bandung Conference in Indonesia. The Non-Aligned
Movement was founded in 1961 and held its first conference (Belgrade
Conference, Indonesia) under the leadership of Yugoslavia’s Josip
Broz Tito, Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser, India’s Jawaharlal
Nehru, Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, and Indonesia’s Sukarno.
The purpose of the organization was enumerated in the Havana
Declaration of 1979 to ensure then ‘the national independence,
sovereignty, territorial integrity, and security of non-aligned countries’ in
their ‘struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism,
and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference,
or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics’.
India being the founder and largest member of the Non-Aligned
Movement. The Seventh Non-Aligned Movement Summit was hosted by
India in New Delhi in 1983. In this Summit, India took up the cause of
development, disarmament, and the Palestine issue. The Non-Aligned
Movement meets every three years at the Non-Aligned Movement
Summit Conference of Heads of State. At the Summit, a Chair is chosen,
which is a post held for three years.
The Panchsheel principles or Five Principles of Peaceful Co-
Existence, embedded in the Indo–China Treaty on Tibet signed in 1954
by Jawaharlal Nehru and Zhou Enlai, guided the majority of Non-
Aligned Movement principles. These five principles are:
11. What was the code name of India’s first nuclear test?
(a) Smiling Ashoka
(b) Smiling Krishna
(c) Smiling Buddha
(d) Smiling Arjun
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 12.
(b) (c) (a) (a) (c) (c) (d)
2. 4. 6. 8.
10. (c)
(c) (c) (c) (c)
4. Morarji Desai became the Prime Minister in 1977 and after that, he
started countering the foreign policy initiatives like the India–USSR
friendship treaty of 1971. According to him during the reign of Indira
Gandhi, Indian Foreign Policy lost its originality, and hence he stated
that India’s foreign policy would revert to ‘genuine’ non-alignmen
and that India would not allow any previous agreement to ‘come i
the way of friendship with other countries’.
CHAPTER 3
India’s Relations with Major Powers
INTRODUCTION
India is a prominent regional power, a nuclear power, an emerging global
power, and a potential superpower. World’s third largest military expenditure,
second largest armed force, and fifth largest economy and India is growing
international influence and becoming a prominent voice in global affairs. India
has diplomatic relations with 201 states around the globe, and 199 missions
and posts operating globally. An understanding of the kind of relation India
has developed with major powers like the US, Russia, and China provides us
with a deeper understanding of Indian Foreign Policy and its contemporary as
well as Long Term Goals.
INDIA–US RELATIONS
INDIA–RUSSIA RELATIONS
INDIA–CHINA RELATIONS
Cultural and economic relations between China and India date back to ancient
times. The Sino–Indian diplomatic relationship began in 1950 when India was
among the first non-communist countries to start formal relations with the
Republic of China and recognise the People’s Republic of China.
Jawaharlal Nehru based his vision of a ‘resurgent Asia’ on the friendship
between the two largest states of Asia. In 1954 Panchsheel Agreement was
signed between India and China in relation to the Tibet region. The five
principles, as stated in the Sino–Indian Agreement 1954, are listed:
2. Which of the following agreement was not signed between India and the
US?
(a) General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA)
(b) Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)
(c) International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
(d) Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA)
5. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): Russia supported India’s position on the Kashmir
issue and vetoed an unpopular resolution sponsored by the west.
Reason (R): After the dissolution of the USSR, Russia inherited its
close relationship with India and term this as a ‘special and privileged
strategic partnership’.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
Events Yea
8. Which of the following does not include under China’s Palm and Fiv
Finger policy?
(a) Sikkim
(b) Bhutan
(c) Manipur
(d) Nepal
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (b) (a) (c) (c) (c)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(c) (d)
INTRODUCTION
A multi-polar world is shaped not just by a handful of great powers and
their alliances but also by newer and regional powers, global
organizations, corporations, social movements, and terrorist networks.
Economic interdependence in the multi-polar world is multifaceted and
complex. A multi-centre world has multiple layers of governance, and
regional powers and institutions enjoy a much greater significance than a
bipolar or unipolar world. The emerging multi-polar world manifests
opportunities as well as challenges to India’s foreign policy.
Important Summits
First Summit: Shanghai (2001),
Twenty-First Summit: via video conferencing in Dushanbe,
Tajikistan, (2021)
Twenty-Second Summit: Samarkand, Uzbekistan,
India takes over the Presidency of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO) for 2023, and
Varanasi was declared as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
(SCO) Tourism and Cultural Capital for 2022–23.
The latest India–Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) took place virtually from 4
to 6 November 2020. The underlying discussion and focus in the latest
India–Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) were on the enhancement of ties to
the 100*100 matrix by 2025. This signifies the target of achieving
US$100 billion in trade and US$100 billion in investment between India
and Africa.
INDIA AND SOUTH AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNITY (SADC)
The South African Development Community (SADC) has been in
existence since 1980 when it was formed in an alliance of 7 states in
South Africa known as the South African Development Coordination
Conference (SADCC) with the main aim of political liberation of Southern
America. The transformation of the organization from a coordinating
conference into a development community took place on 17 August 1992
in Windhoek.
India’s investment relations with South African Development
Community (SADC) countries:
According to data from the Ministry of Finance and Reserve Bank of
India, India’s approved cumulative investments in the South African
Development Community (SADC) region from April 1996 to March 2015
amounted to US$46.5 billion. Mauritius is the largest investor in India in
terms of cumulative FDI inflows, mainly due to the Double Taxation
Avoidance Convention (DTAC).
India’s engagements in International Trade Centre’s Supporting Indian
Trade and Investment for Africa (SITA):
On 9 March 2014, Department for International Development (DEID)
mandated the International Trade Centre (ITC), UK to design and
implement a project called Supporting India’s Trade Preferences for
Investment for Africa now called Supporting Indian Trade and Investment
for Africa (SITA), Supporting Indian Trade and Investment for Africa
(SITA) is a six-year project that aims at promoting exports from five East
African countries i.e., Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, the United Republic of
Tanzania, and Uganda.
8. ‘One Vision, One Identity, and One Community’ is the motto of?
(a) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
(b) BRICS
(c) Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
(d) African Union
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (d) (a) (d) (a) (b) (a)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (a)
CHAPTER 5
India’s Relations with
Neighbourhoods
INTRODUCTION
India has diplomatic/dependencies around the globe, having 199 missions
and post operating globally while plans to open new missions in 2020–21
hosted by 11 Member states. The Ministry of External Affairs is the
government agency responsible for the conduct of foreign relations in India.
With the world’s third largest military expenditure, second largest armed force,
fifth largest economy by GDP nominal rates, and third largest economy in
terms of purchasing power parity, India is a prominent regional power nuclear
power, emerging global power, and potential power. India assumes a growing
international influence and a prominent voice in global affairs.
GUJARAL DOCTRINE
The Gujaral Doctrine is the set of five principles that were initiated to conduct
foreign relations with India’s neighbouring countries i.e. Bangladesh, Srilanka,
Nepal, and Bhutan. The doctrine was formulated by I. K. Gujaral, India’s
former Prime Minister (1997–98) and former External affairs Minster in H. D.
Deva Gowada Government in 1996. He is also known for his firm refusal to
sign Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) even after intense international
pressure. These principles are:
With neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri
Lanka, India does not ask for reciprocity but gives and accommodates
what it can in good faith and trust.
No south Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the
interest of another country in the region.
No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
All south Asian countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity
and sovereignty.
They should settle all their disputes through peaceful bilateral
negotiations.
4. Which of the following statement are true about the South Asia
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)?
A. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Cha
signed in Dhaka on December 1985
6. Who upgraded the Look East Policy to the Act East policy?
(a) Narendra Modi
(b) Manmohan Singh
(c) Narsimha Rao
(d) None of the these
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (d) (c) (a) (a) (d) (d)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(a) (d)
CHAPTER 6
India’s Negotiation Strategies in
International Regimes
INTRODUCTION
India holds a significant position in international relations, and it represents
the group of developing countries that want to ensure the interest of Third
world countries. The interaction and negotiation of India clearly represent its
position as a key leader of Developing nations. India is always supported
established international order and law to maintain peace in the world order.
So, when it sits in the United Nations, World Trade Organization, International
Monetary Fund or any other international regimes it tries to boost the position
of developing nations in the contemporary phase of globalization.
2. Which of the following events was not among the contributions made b
India to the United Nations?
(a) India was elected chairman of the Economic and Social Council fo
year 2022–24.
(b) India chaired the 1566 Working Group concerning threats
international peace and security.
(c) India does not follow the decisions of the International Court of Ju
with regard to maritime disputes be they national or internat
concerns.
(d) As a peacekeeping measure in United Nations India deployed an
women contingent to Formed Police in Liberia.
3. India was elected to the Human Rights Council in October 2018, with th
highest votes of (188/193) for the period of:
(a) 2018–20
(b) 2018–21
(c) 2019–22
(d) 2019–23
4. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): In the Trade-Related Investment Measures
Agreement (TRIMS), India wants flexibility for developing countries in
adopting appropriate domestic policy while permitting foreign
investment.
Reason (R): India’s role in the World Trade Organization summit
could be seen as protecting the appropriate level of tariff barriers,
compatible with their developmental needs to the geographical
indicators under Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS).
Choose the correct answer from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
8. Who was the first non-British judge of the International Court of Justic
for the second time?
(a) Dalbeer Bhandari
(b) Ronny Abraham
(c) Mohamed Bennouna
(d) Nawaf Salam
9. The recent World Trade Organization conference was held in the year?
(a) 2000 (b) 2001 (c) 2002 (d) 2003
10. From which position of the International Monetary Fund India ceased to
hold its position due to the subscription of quota?
(a) Board of Legislative Directors
(b) Board of Financial Directors
(c) Board of Tariff Directors
(d) Board of Executive Directors.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (a) (d) (a) (b) (d)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(c) (b)
CHAPTER 7
Contemporary Challenges to
Indian Foreign Policy
INTRODUCTION
International relations is a dynamic domain and hence the foreign policy
of any nation needs to be dynamic as well as pragmatic to deal with
contemporary issues. India Foreign policy experts, as well as the
government of India work round the clock to deal with the contemporary
challenges, be they related to its geo-political position, energy source
requirement, environmental concerns, demographic situation, or global
security threats like terrorism and cybercrimes.
MARITIME SECURITY
Indian Ocean factors as an important security calculus in India’s maritime
security. This has become more so due to China’s heightened military
presence in the Indian Ocean. This can be depicted from the strategy of
String of Pearls. Further, China is modernizing its military base at Djibouti
in the horn of Africa and there are similar reports regarding Gwadar port
in Pakistan.
Geo-Economic significance of Indian Oceans: Geopolitics is
intricately intertwined with geo-economics and its focus on matters of
control and access to economic resources. Sea Lanes of Communication
(SLOCs) are important for India as its exports and imports are primarily
dependent on these routes. The Central Indian Ocean Basin has become
the site for deep exploration and licenses for scarce mineral resources.
India’s Geo-Strategic Location: Located centrally between the
eastern and western stretches of the Indian Ocean, thereby able to
deploy naval forces in both directions more easily than other littoral states
in the Indian Ocean.
ENERGY SECURITY
Economic growth is closely related to energy security and hence forms
an integral part of India’s Foreign Policy. India should deepen its ties with
energy-rich countries in order to secure a stable supply of key natural
energy sources like oil and gas amid geopolitical tensions and economic
volatilities arising out of them. At the same time, India should also focus
on diversifying its energy basket by focusing on developing renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
With climate change assuming the centre stage of global policy
discourse, environmental security has gained salience and India has
been playing a very proactive role with regard to environmental
governance both internationally and as well as domestically.
On the issue of climate change and global environmental
degradation, India adopted the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities enshrined in the UN Framework on Climate Change and
Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement.
India–Bangladesh
India and Bangladesh share 54 rivers between them. The Joint River
Commission between India and Bangladesh was formed in the year 1972
under the peace treaty. Teesta River sharing remains a major bone of
contention between the two nations. Teesta originates in the Himalayas
and flows through Sikkim and West Bengal to merge with Brahmaputra in
Assam while draining 2800 sq km of Bangladesh governing the livelihood
of several thousand people since it caters to Bangladesh’s agricultural
needs.
For West Bengal, Teesta is equally important as it is considered the
lifeline of many North Bengal districts. Bangladesh has sought an
‘equitable distribution’ of Teesta waters from India on the lines of the
Ganga Water Treaty of 1996. Despite concerted efforts from both sides, it
remains an unfinished agenda.
Recently the Kushiyara River Water Agreement was signed between
India and Bangladesh on 6 September 2022 which is the first major river
water sharing accord between the two friendly neighbours since the
Ganga Water Treaty in 1996.
India–Nepal
Agreements are signed on major rivers like Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali, or
Mahakali for large hydroelectric and irrigation projects or dams.
Kosi Agreement signed in 1954: India and Nepal have disputes over
the issue of compensation for the Kosi dam over the issue of flooding in
the region. Nepal views India’s construction activities as detrimental to its
interests.
Both countries have disagreements over the Maha Kali river with
regard to the source of the origin of its stream as delimited by the Sugauli
Treaty of 1816. It assumes strategic significance as the disputed site is
located close to the Sino–Indian border.
India–Pakistan
India and Pakistan have experienced friction over various water conflicts
since Independence. Indus Water Treaty in 1960 clearly demarcated how
the region’s rivers are to be divided. As per the treaty, the eastern rivers
of the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej were given to India while Pakistan got the
control over western rivers of the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum.
Indian Government has more than 40 projects either completed or in
the pipeline on the western rivers and since naturally, the flow of all of
Pakistan’s rivers passes through India first, these activities are resented
by Pakistan. Pakistan has already lost the case against India regarding
the Baglihar dam project and the Krishnaganga project.
CYBER SECURITY
Cyber security is the technique of protecting computers, networks,
programs, and data from unauthorized access or attacks that are aimed
at the exploitation of cyber-physical systems and critical information
infrastructure. Cyber threats can be classified into two broad categories;
I.Djibouti 1. Iran
II.Gwadar 2. Africa
Options:
(a) I–(D), II–(A), III–(C), IV–(B)
(b) I–(A), II–(B), III–(C), IV–(D)
(c) I–(B), II–(D), III–(A), IV–(C)
(d) I–(C), II–(D), III–(B), IV–(A)
1. Chakma 1. Bangladesh
3. Tamil C. Pakistan
4. Sikh D. Myanmar
Options:
(a) 1–(A), 2–(D), 3–(B), 4–(C)
(b) 1–(D), 2–(C), 3–(B), 4–(A)
(c) 1–(A), 2–(D), 3–(C), 4–(B)
(d) 1–(C), 2–(B), 3–(A), 4–(D)
I.Kosi 1. 1960
II.Indus 2. 1954
Options:
(a) I–(D), II–(C), III–(B), IV–(A)
(b) I–(A), II–(B), III–(C), IV–(D)
(c) I–(C), II–(D), III–(A), IV–(B)
(d) I–(B), II–(A), III–(D), IV–(C)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (d) (b) (4) (a) (c) (a)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(c) (a)
Previous Years’ Questions
11. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
Code:
(a) (A)-1, (B)-2, (C)-3, (D)-4
(b) (A)-4, (B)-3, (C)-2, (D)-1
(c) (A)-2, (B)-1, (C)-3, (D)-4
(d) (A)-4, (B)-1, (C)-3, (D)-2
12. The magazine which has characterized Barak Obama as
‘Underachiever’ (2018)
(a) TIME
(b) OUTLOOK
(c) FRONTLINE
(d) WORLD FOCUS
15. Which of the following groups does not have a free trade
agreement among members? (2018)
(a) European Union
(b) India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA)
(c) South Asian Association of Regional Co-operation (SAARC)
(d) Mercosur
17. Who said that “We must deal wisely the world’s largest
democracy …. We need to work harder and more consistently
to assist India … while not neglecting out friends in Pakistan?
(2018)
(a) Nicholas Burns
(b) Colin Powell
(c) David C Mulford
(d) Henry Kissinger
List I List II
(A)Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (I)2004
(B)Indo-US Civil Nuclear Deal (II) 20
(C)High Technology Cooperation Groups (III) 20
(D)Next Steps in Strategic Partnership (IV) 20
25. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R): (2020)
Assertion (A): The 17th NAM Summit in Venezuela was
attended by India’s Vice President Hamid Ansari.
Reason (R): In the post-cold war world NAM is expected to focus
on core issues of global concern.
In the context of the above two statements, which of the following is
correct ?
Codes:
(a) (A) is true, (R) is false
(b) (A) is false, (R) is true
(c) Both (A) and (R) are individually true, and (R) is the co
explanation of (A)
(d) Both (A) and (R) are individually true, but (R) is not the co
explanation of (A)
List I List II
(A)China I.Kalapani Dispute
(B)Bangladesh II.Galwan Incident
(C)Pakistan III. Land Boundary Agreement
(D)Nepal IV. Baglihar Hydro Project
43. Why debate on Indian diaspora got prominence for India’s foreign
policy makers?
(a) Due to changed political milieu in the USA
(b) India’s economic thrust towards West Asia
(c) Resurgence among the Indian Community
(d) Compulsions of the Globalization process in India
44. What has been the task of ‘Global Organization of People of Indian
Origin’ (GOPIO)?
(a) Articulate the demands of NRIs
(b) Representing articulated interests of various people of India or
(c) Increase in Indian cultural activities
(d) Linkage between Bollywood and Hollywood
47. Why PIOs got significant attention during the end of 1990s?
(a) Emerging Indo-US economic cooperation
(b) Indo-US Nuclear civil deal
(c) Pokhran-II and American sanctions
(d) India-America defence deal
50. India has the Kalapani territorial dispute with which country?
(2021)
(a) Indonesia
(b) Nepal
(c) Singapore
(d) Malaysia
Answer Key
16. Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) signed between the United
States and the Soviet Union on 3 July 1974. TTBT established a
nuclear threshold through the prohibition of nuclear tests that
exceed 150 kilotons. This threshold limits prevents the testing of
new or existing nuclear weapons that goes above the limit.
21.
The General Security of Military Information Agreement
(GSOMIA) was signed by the government of Atal Bihari
Vajpayee back in 2002.It aims to protect the military information
shared by the US.
The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)
was signed a full 14 years later in 2016. It aims to provide
mutual logistics support around the world.
The Communication Compatibility and Security Agreement
(COMCASA) was signed in 2018. It aims to facilitate
communication between the weapons platforms of the two
armed forces.
The Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement largely
pertains to geospatial intelligence, and sharing information on
maps and satellite images for defence. BECA will provide Indian
military systems with a high-quality GPS to navigate and
missiles with real-time intelligence to precisely target the
adversary. It was signed in 2020.
30.
40. During the Indira Gandhi years, India’s Monroe Doctrine was
buttressed by the principle of bilateralism. Under the so- called
Indira Doctrine, India insisted that the problems in the region must
be resolved bilaterally and that external powers should have no
role in the region. Since then, the principle has been a matter of
faith for Indian foreign policy makers. Recall the 1987 agreement
Rajiv Gandhi signed with Sri Lanka which insisted that Colombo
not offer bases to any other country. It equates India’s security with
that of South Asia.
Hence, the correct answer will be C.
UNIT VII
Political Institutions in India
INTRODUCTION
The Constitution of India is a document that evolved through the legislative
steps taken during the British Empire in India. The making of the Constitution
of India can be divided into two phases: Colonial Legislation (1858–1935) and
Constituent Assembly (1946–49).
The British government commenced various elements of governance
when the power was transferred from the East India Company to the British
Crown in the form of various Acts which included the representation of Indians
in the institutions of governance. The East India Company got the right to
collect the revenue i.e., Diwani Rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa after the
Battle of Buxar (1764).
To sort out the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773, the British
Parliament passed the Amending Act of 1781. It was also known as the Act of
Settlement.
CHARTER ACTS
Simon Commission
The Government of India Act 1919 Act provided for appointing a royal
Commission after 10 years of the enactment of the Act. Therefore in 9
November 1927, 2 years before schedule the British government
announced for its appointment as the Indian Statutory Commission which
submitted its report in 1930 and recommended to abolish the diarchy and
extending the responsible government in the provinces, establishing of
Federation of British India and the princely states and to continue the
electorates.
Communal Award
It was announced as a scheme for the representation of minorities, in August
1932 by the then-British Prime Minister, Ramsay McDonald. It extended
the separate electorates to the depressed classes (Scheduled Castes) along
with continuing it for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, and
Europeans. However Poona Pact in 1932 prevented this extension of
separate electorates to Scheduled Caste and therefore, Scheduled Caste got
the reservation cancelling the idea of a separate electorate.
I.Introduction of the
1. Government
bicameral legislature
of India Act,
for the first time.
1858.
II.Complete Imperial
2. Indian Control by the
Councils Secretary of State for
Act, 1861. India.
A B C D
(a) II III IV I
(b) III II I IV
(c) II IV III I
(d) III IV I II
3. Which of the following act led to the introduction of a dual system o
government in India?
(a) Pitts India Act, 1784
(b) The Regulating Act, 1773
(c) Charter Act 1813
(d) Charter Act 1833
9. Which Act was the final step towards centralization in British India?
(a) Charter Act of 1813
(b) Charter Act of 1833
(c) Charter Act of 1853
(d) Regulating Act of 1773
Codes:
(a) A, B, C, and E
(b) B, D, and E
(c) B, C, D, and E
(d) A, C, D, and E
13. In which of the following Acts, the provincial subjects were divided into
transferred and reserved subjects?
(a) Indian Council Act, 1892
(b) Indian Council Act, 1909
(c) Montague Chelmsford Reforms Act, 1919
(d) Government of India Act, 1935
15. Which Act provided for the establishment of The Reserve Bank of
India?
(a) Indian Independence Act, 1947
(b) Government of India Act, 1935
(c) Government of India Act, 1919
(d) Indian Council Act, 1909
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 12. 14. 15.
(b) (a) (b) (a) (c) (c) (b)
2. 5. 8. 11.
13. (c)
(a) (d) (b) (d)
3. 6.
9. (b)
(a) (d)
INTRODUCTION
M. N. Roy proposed the concept of a constituent assembly for the first
time in 1934. The Congress Party adopted the demand as an official
demand in 1935. In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru declared that the
‘Constitution of free India must be framed, without outside interference, by
a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of the adult franchise’. This
was accepted by the British in the August Offer of 1940.
Elections for the constituent assembly were held under the Cabinet
Mission Plan of 1946. The constituent assembly was formed to draft a
constitution for independent India.
COMPOSITION OF THE CONSTITUENT
ASSEMBLY
On 9 December 1946, the first meeting was held. Dr Sachchidanand
Sinha (the oldest member) served as the meeting’s temporary president.
The Constituent Assembly formally began its task of drafting the Indian
Constitution on 13 December 1946, when Jawaharlal Nehru
introduced the Objectives Resolution. It laid down the fundamentals and
philosophy of the constitutional structure. This resolution was unanimously
adopted by the assembly on 22 January 1947.
Rajendra Prasad was elected President of the Constituent
Assembly, with Two Vice-Presidents V. T. Krishnamachari and H. C.
Mookerjee. Sir B. N. Rau was appointed as the assembly’s
constitutional advisor. The elephant was adopted as the symbol (seal) of
the Constituent Assembly.
MAJOR COMMITTEES
1. Union Powers Committee: Presided by Jawaharlal
Nehru.
2. Union Constitution Committee: Presided by Jawaharlal
Nehru.
3. Provincial Constitution Committee: Presided by Saradar
Vallabhbhai Patel.
4. Drafting Committee: President by Dr B. R. Ambedkar.
5. Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights,
Minorities, and Tribal and Excluded Areas: Presided by
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. It had the following sub-
committees:
A. FR Sub-committee: J. B. Kripalani
B. Minorities Sub-committee: H. C. Mukherjee
C. North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam exclu
and partially excluded areas sub-committee: Gopi
Bardoloi
D. Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Commi
A. V. Thakkar
6. Rule Procedure Committee: Dr Rajendra Prasad
7. States Committee for Negotiating with States:
Jawaharlal Nehru
8. Steering Committee: Dr Rajendra Prasad
DRAFTING COMMITTEE
The most important committee was the Drafting Committee set up on 29
August 1947. It consisted of seven members, they were: Dr B. R.
Ambedkar (Chairman), N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi
Krishnaswamy Ayyar, Dr K. M. Munshi, Syed Mohammad
Saadullah, N. Madhava Rau (he replaced B. L. Mitter), T. T.
Krishnamachari (he replaced D. P. Khaitan).
11. Who proposed the Constituent Assembly for the very first time?
(a) M. K. Gandhi
(b) Subash Chandra Bose
(c) Aurobindo Ghosh
(d) M. N. Roy
13. For which purpose was the Cabinet Mission sent to India?
(A) To establish a national government.
(B) To work out a constitutional arrangement for the transfer of pow
(C) To suppress the intensity of the national movement.
(D) A Constituent Assembly to be elected by provincial assem
through proportional representation.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B, and C only
(b) B, C, and D only
(c) A, B, and D only
(d) A and D only
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Every constitution has a philosophy of its own. The constitution lays down
the basic governing set of principles of governance to establish the primary
organs and structure, functions, composition, and powers of government.
Regarding the philosophy of the Indian Constitution, we must look back into
the Objective Resolution (22 January 1947), of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Preamble
QUOTES ON PREAMBLE
‘Identity card of the constitution.’—N. A. Palkhivala
‘The preamble to our constitution expresses what we had thought or
dreamt so long.’—Sir Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
‘The horoscope of our constitution.’—Dr K. M. Munshi
‘It is the soul of the constitution. It is a key to the constitution. It is a
jewel set in the constitution. It is a proper yardstick with which one
can measure the worth of the constitution.’—Pandit Thakur Das
Bhargava
‘Key-note of the constitution.’—Sir Ernest Baker
‘Preamble is the soul of our constitution, which lays down the pattern
of our political society. It contains a solemn resolve, which nothing
but a revolution can alter.’—Former Chief Justice of India, M.
Hidayatullah
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Part III Articles 12–35 of the Indian Constitution provides a list of
fundamental rights and is termed as a Magna Carta of India. They are
called fundamental because of two reasons: first, they are enshrined in the
constitution which guarantees them, and second, they are justiciable
(enforceable by courts).
Gandhian Principles
Article 40 The State shall take steps to organize
village panchayats as units of self-
government.
Article 43 The State shall endeavour to promote
cottage industries on an individual or
cooperative basis in rural areas.
Article 43B To promote voluntary formation,
autonomous functioning, democratic
control and professional management of
cooperative societies.
Article 46 The State shall promote the
educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of
the people, particularly that of the
Scheduled Castes (SCs),
Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other
weaker sections.
Article 47 The State shall take steps to improve
public health and prohibit the
consumption of intoxicating drinks and
drugs that are injurious to health.
Article 48 To prohibit the slaughter of cows,
calves and other milch and draught
cattle and to improve their breeds.
Socialist Principles
Liberal-Intellectual Principles
Article 44 A Uniform Civil Code.
Article 45 Early childhood care and education till the
age of six years of age.
Article 48 Agriculture and animal husbandry on
modern and scientific lines.
Article 48A Protect and improve the environment and
to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country.
Article 49 Protect every monument or place of artistic
or historic interest.
Article 50 Separate the judiciary from the executive
in the public services of the State.
Article 51 To establish international peace and
security.
B. The word Republic implies that India will have the president as a
head and its position will not be open to all citizens.
C. Regarding the philosophy of the Indian Constitution, we must loo
the Objective Resolution.
D. In the Berubari Union and Exchange of Enclaves case, the c
held that the constitution is the key to opening the minds of
makers of the constitution.
Select the correct answer from the options below:
(a) Only A, B, and C
(b) Only B, C, and D
(c) Only A, B, and D
(d) All
Article Contents
11. What is the correct order in which the following terms are enshrined
in the Preamble to the Constitution of India?
(a) Equality
(b) Liberty
(c) Justice
(d) Fraternity
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) (a), (b), (c), and (d)
(b) (c), (b), (a), and (d)
(c) (b), (a), (c), and (d)
(d) (c), (a), (b), and (d)
14. Which of the following two statements are correct regarding the
Preamble of the Indian Constitution?
(A) Justice—Social, Economic, and Political
(B) Liberty of Thought, Expression, Belief, Faith, and Worship
(C) Equality of Status, Character, and Opportunity
(D) Fraternity Assuring the Dignity and Respect of the Individual
Choose the correct option:
(a) (A) and (C)
(b) (A) and (D)
(c) (C) and (D)
(d) (A) and (B)
15. Which one of the following Acts have not been passed under Article
34 of the Indian Constitution?
(a) The Border Security Force Act
(b) The Police Forces (Restriction of Rights) Act
(c) Armed Forces Special Power Act
(d) The Army Act
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
Rule of law is a principle that was part of Indian society since ancient times.
During the era of the Indian Independence Movement, Indian leaders
understood the drawbacks of an authoritarian government due to the
misuse and atrocities of the British administration. The founder of modern
India had a clear vision of India as a country of empowered masses, the
constitutional democratic path was put forward during the national
movement and it culminated with the establishment of a constituent
Assembly and then the enactment of the Indian Constitution on 26 January
1950.
Though sailing successfully into its seventy-fifth year, as a constitutional
democracy, India’s journey has been of many back and forths. Cherished
as the ‘living document’, the constitutional history of India is full of landmark
moments that not only strengthened Indian democracy but at times created
new public discourse about the relevance and meaning of being a
democratic polity.
For the first time, it was the Regulating Act of 1773 which started the
tradition of governing through statutes in India. Other than the acts of the
British Raj, the Indian National Movement also contributed significantly
towards the process of ‘constitutionalism’ of the Indian Freedom Movement,
for instance, the idea of the constitution forwarded by M. N. Roy,
Jawaharlal Nehru Report of 1928, and Karachi Session of Indian National
Congress in 1931.
Objective Laws/Act
Acts for Welfare and # The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, # The
Empowerment of Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act, 2005, # The Prohibition of
Women Child Marriage Act, 2006, # The Sexual
Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal)
Act, 2013, and
# The Muslim Women (Protection of
Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019.
Acts for Vulnerable # National Rural Employment Guarantee
Sections of Act, 2005, # The Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, #
Populations, Health, The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection
Education, and Human of Children) Act, 2015, # The Protection of
Resource Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012,
# National Food Security Act, 2013, # The
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act,
2016, and
# The Transgender Persons (Protection of
Rights) Act, 2019.
Objective Laws/Act
Acts Promoting # The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988,
Transparency in # The Central Vigilance Commission Act,
2003, and
Governance # The Right to Information Act, 2005.
Acts Protecting # The Indian Forest Act, 1927, # The
Environment and Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, # The
Environment Protection Act, 1986, # The
Biodiversity Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, and
# The Scheduled Tribes and Other
Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of
Forest Rights) Act, 2006 [Also known as
FRA—Forest Rights Act].
Acts for # The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, #
Consolidations and The North-eastern Areas (Reorganization)
Act, 1971, # The J&K Reorganization Act,
Reorganizations 2019, and
within the Country # The Goods and Services Tax
and Economic Legislation, 2017.
Integration
Legislature Control
On Judiciary: Power to impeach and remove the judges. Power to
amend laws declared ultra vires by the court and revalidate them.
On Executive: Through a no-confidence vote Legislature can
dissolve the government. It has the power to assess the working of the
executive through the question hour and zero hour. It can also impeach the
head of state i.e., the President.
Executive Control
On Judiciary: Making appointments to the office of Chief Justice and
other judges.
On Legislature: Powers under delegated legislation. Authority to
make rules for regulating their respective procedure and conduct of
business subject to the provisions of this constitution.
Judicial Control
On Executive: Judicial review i.e., the power to review executive action
to determine if it violates the constitution. Power to judicial review under
Articles 13, 32, and 226.
On Legislature: Unamend ability of the constitution under the basic
structure doctrine pronounced by the Supreme Court in Kesavananda
Bharati Case 1973. The doctrine of ‘due process of law’.
CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT
Sixty-First, Reduced the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the
1989 Lok Sabha and state legislative assembly elections.
One-
Constitutional status was granted to the National
Hundred
and Second, Commission for Backward Classes under the
2018 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment of
India.
Removal of the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian
community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies.
104th
Extension of deadline for the cessation of seats of
Amendment
Act, 2020 SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and states
assemblies to 80 years.
Removal of the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian
community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies.
No. & Year Reason Amendments
4. Which of the following is not a way to check and balance the power o
the legislature?
(a) Judicial Review
(b) Judicial Activism
(c) PIL
(d) No confidence motion
4. Decentralized Governance.
Codes:
(a) Only 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 and 3
(c) Only 1 and 3
(d) All are correct
9. Articles 13, 32, and 226 of the Indian Constitution are tools of?
(a) Legislative Control
(b) Executive Control
(c) Judicial Control
(d) None of the above
11. The first amendment in the Constitution of India was made in the
year?
(a) 1951
(b) 1952
(c) 1956
(d) 1957
13. The idea of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution was
discussed in the?
(a) S. R. Bommai Case
(b) Golak Nath Case
(c) Kesavananda Bharti Case
(d) Sajjan Singh Case
14. The total number of Ministers including the Prime Minister and
Deputy Prime Minister shall not exceed:
(a) 20% of members of the Lok Sabha.
(b) 10% of members of the Lok Sabha.
(c) 15% of members of the Lok Sabha.
(d) 25% of members of the Lok Sabha.
19. Which of the following is not true about the amendment of the
Constitution under Article 368?
(a) The Bill may be introduced in either house of Parliament.
(b) The Bill must be passed by a special majority (2/3rd present
voting and more than 50% of the total membership).
(c) In case of disagreement between the houses joint sitting ma
called.
(d) The President is bound to give assent to the Bill duly passed
ratified.
Answer Key
20. The Sixteenth Amendment Act of 1963 has two provisions as follows:
INTRODUCTION
Articles 52 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution deals with the Union
Executive. The Union Executive consists of the President, the Vice-
President, the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as the head to
aid and advise the President, and the Attorney General of India.
PRESIDENT
The President of India is the head of state of the Republic of India. Article
52 of the Indian Constitution says that ‘There shall be a President of
India’. The President is the formal head of the executive, legislature, and
judiciary of India and is also the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed
Forces. He is the first citizen of India and acts as a symbol of unity,
integrity, and solidarity in the nation.
Election of President
The Constitution prescribes an indirect election through an electoral
college composed of:
Impeachment of President
President is removed through the process of impeachment. Article 61
deals with the procedure of impeachment. It is a quasi-judicial process.
Article 70: Empower parliament to make provisions for the contingency
when the offices of both the president and the VP fall vacant by reason of
death, resignation, removal or otherwise
The process of impeachment can be initiated in either House of
Parliament and must be passed by not less than two-thirds of the total
membership of the House in which it has been moved. If the other House
investigates the charge and a two-thirds majority of that House finds him
guilty, the President stands impeached from office from the date of
passing of the resolution. Important pointers about the process of
President’s Impeachments:
PRIME MINISTER
Prime Minister is the real executive authority i.e., the head of the
government. He is the head of the government while President is the
head of the state. He is directly elected by the people. Some important
Articles in Indian Constitution regarding the Prime Minister are:
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
The Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister is the real
executive authority in our politico-administrative system. The principles of
the parliamentary system of government are not detailed in the
constitution, but Articles 74 & 75 deal with them. They are appointed by
the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of
Ministers along with the Prime Minister of India constitutes 15% of the
total strength of the Lok Sabha (Ninty-First Amendment Act).
Role Description
Ramsay Muir—‘Dictatorship of the Cabinet’.
Ramsay Muir—‘The Cabinet is the steering wheel of the ship of the
state.’
Gladstone—‘The Cabinet is the solar orb around which the other
bodies revolve.’
Barker—‘The Cabinet is the magnet of policy.’
Bagehot—‘The Cabinet is a hyphen that joins, the buckle that binds the
executive and legislative departments together.’
4. Which Article says that ‘The President will exercise his functions in
accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers’?
(a) Article 61
(b) Article 57
(c) Article 60
(d) Article 74
10. Which among the following amendment set the limit on the size of
the Council of Ministers?
(a) Fifty-Second Constitutional Amendment Act
(b) Ninty-First Constitutional Amendment Act
(c) Eighty-Sixth Constitutional Amendment Act
(d) Forty-Fourth Constitutional Amendment Act
13. To elect the President of India, which one of the following election
procedures are used?
(a) System of proportional representation by means of the si
transferable vote.
(b) Secondary Voting System.
(c) Proportional representation through a list system.
(d) Collective Voting System.
15. Which article states that there shall be a Council of Ministers to aid
and advise the President?
(a) Article 75
(b) Article 74
(c) Article 78
(d) Article 123
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 12. 14. 15.
(d) (d) (b) (b) (d) (c) (b)
2. 5. 8. 11.
13. (a)
(c) (c) (b) (d)
3. 6.
9. (a)
(d) (a)
CHAPTER 6
Union Parliament
INTRODUCTION
The Parliament of India is the legislative organ of the union government. The
constitution of India deals with the organization, duration, composition,
procedures, privileges, and powers of the Parliament in part 5 (Articles 79–
122).
Constitutional
1. He/she must be a citizen of India,
2. he/she must make and subscribe to an oath or affirmation, and
3. he/she must not be less than 30 years of age in the case of Rajya
Sabha and must not be less than 25 years in the case of Lok Sabha.
And other qualifications as prescribed by the Parliament of India.
Speaker vs Chairman
Article
80 Composition of the Council of States that is Rajya Sabha.
81 Composition of the House of the People that is Lok Sabha.
83 Duration of Houses of Parliament.
84 Qualification for membership of the Parliament of India.
89 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of
States.
90 Vacation, resignation or removal of the office of Deputy
Chairman.
91 Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform
the duties of the office of Chairman.
92 The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while
a resolution for his or her removal from office is under
consideration.
93 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the
People that is Lok Sabha.
94 Vacation, resignation and removal from the office of
Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
95 Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform
the duties of the office of Speaker.
Article
96 The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a
resolution for his or her removal from office is under
consideration.
97 Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy
Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
98 Secretariat of Parliament.
99 Affirmation by the Members of the Parliament.
100 Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding
vacancies and quorum.
(a) Simple Closure: When a member of the House moves that the matter
having been sufficiently discussed be now put to vote.
(b) Closure by Compartments: Before the commencement of the
debate, there is a grouping of the clauses of a bill or a lengthy
resolution into parts and the debate covers the part as a whole and
the entire part is put to vote.
(c) Kangaroo Closure: Taking up the important clauses for debate and
voting. The intervening clauses are skipped and taken as passed.
(d) Guillotine Closure: When the undiscussed clauses of a resolution or
a bill are put to vote along with the discussed ones due to the
requirement of time.
PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES
A Parliamentary Committee means a committee that:
2. A bill pending in the Rajya Sabha which has not been passed by
Sabha, shall not lapse on the dissolution of the Lok Sabha.
Codes:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. The speaker can ask a member of the house to stop speaking and le
another member speak this phenomenon is known as?
(a) Decorum
(b) Crossing the Floor
(c) Interpolation
(d) Yielding the Floor
Codes:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
11. Regarding a Money Bill, which of the following statement/s is/are true?
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
(i) The decision of the Speaker of the House of the People shall be
to decide whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not.
(ii) The decision of the Speaker about a Bill being a Money Bill is ope
question only in a Court of Law.
(iii) The decision of the Speaker about a Bill being a Money Bill sha
be open to question either by the President or even the Parliament
Codes:
(a) Only (i) is true.
(b) Only (i) and (ii) are true.
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are true.
(d) (i), (ii), and (iii) are true.
12. Which of the following are the exclusive powers of the Lok Sabha?
(A) Introduction of the money bill.
(B) Ratification of the declaration of emergency.
(C) To pass a motion of no-confidence against the council of ministers.
(D) To impeach the President.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) A and C only
(c) A and D only
(d) A, B, and C only
Answer Key
11. The decision of the Speaker of the House of the People shall be final to
decide whether a bill is a Money Bill or not. This decision cannot be
questioned in the Court of Law.
CHAPTER 7
Judiciary
INTRODUCTION
Judiciary performs the function of rule adjudication. Indian constitution
created an independent and integral judicial system. The supreme court of
India is at the apex of the Indian judicial hierarchy, followed by high courts
and lower courts. The supreme court of India is considered a ‘constitutional
watchdog’.
A single system of the judiciary was adopted by the government of India
Act 1935, and the supreme court was established on 28 January 1950. Part
V of the constitution deals with the supreme court, its powers, and functions
(Articles 124–147) and Part VI deals with the high court (Articles 214–231).
Appointment of Judges
The judges of the supreme court and high courts including the chief justices
are appointed by the president.
The judges of the supreme court can hold office till the age of 65 years
and the of high courts till the age of 62.
They can also resign from the post by writing to the president and can
be removed by the president on the recommendation of the parliament.
Appointments based on the collegium system established under the Three
Judges Case of 1968. The word ‘consultation’ used for appointments has
led to various interpretations by the supreme court in various cases.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
Judicial activism denotes the proactive role played by the judiciary in
safeguarding and upholding the rights of citizens of the country and
ensuring justice in society. Originated in the US and the term ‘judicial
activism’ is believed to have been coined by an American historian Arthur
M. Schlesinger in 1947. In India, the phenomenon was introduced in the
mid–1970s by justice P. N. Bhagawati, justice V. R. Krishna Iyer, and
justice O. Chinappa Reddy & D.A. Desai.
3. The collegium system for judicial appointments came into being for the
first time in which case?
(a) First Judge Case
(b) Second Judge Case
(c) Third Judge Case
(d) Fourth Judge Case
Articles Provisions
Options:
I. 1–(D), 2–(C), 3–(B), 4–(A)
II. 1–(A), 2–(B), 3–(C), 4–(D)
III. 1–(B), 2–(D), 3–(C), 4–(A)
IV. 1–(C), 2–(D), 3–(A), 4–(B)
7. The judges of the supreme court and high courts can be removed by?
(a) the president alone.
(b) the president after approval from parliament.
(c) the president after taking advice from the prime minister and co
of ministers.
(d) the president cannot remove the judges.
8. Which of the following cases opened the doors for judicial activism in
India?
(a) Golaknath Case
(b) Maneka Gandhi Case
(c) Keshavanad Bharati Case
(d) ADM Jabalpur Case
Answer Key
8. 9. 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
(d (c 0.
(b) (d) (c) (a) (a) (c) (a)
) ) (b)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(d) (a)
INTRODUCTION
The state government also follows the parliamentary system of
government like the central government. Some states have a bicameral
legislature and some states have a unicameral legislature. The
executive is the part of a government that is largely responsible for
execution and administration. The executive branch of government is
responsible for carrying out the laws and policies passed by the
legislative.
The state legislature occupies a prominent and central position in
the political system of a state. Articles 168 to 212 in Part 4 of the Indian
constitution deal with the organization composition duration officer’s
procedures, privileges, powers, and so on in the state legislature.
Though these are similar to that of parliament. The structure of
government is as follows:
GOVERNOR
The governor is the head of the state. He is appointed by the president
of India and holds office at the pleasure of the president. The governor
acts in a ‘dual capacity’ as the constitutional head of the state and as
the representative. He is part of the federal system of Indian polity and
acts as a bridge between union and state governments. The governor
performs the same duties as of president, but for the state. Governor
stands as the executive head of a state and the working remains the
same as the office of the president of India under the constitution of
India.
Governor is the nominal executive authority (de jure executive).
Part 6 of the constitution deals with the government in the states.
Articles 153 to 167 in Part 6 of the constitution deal with the state
executive.
Executive Powers
Every executive action that the state government takes, is to be
taken in the name of the governor of that state.
Chief ministers and other ministers of the states are appointed
by the governor himself.
The governor appoints the advocate general of states and
determines their remuneration.
He appoints the people for the following posts:
state election commissioner,
chairman and members of the state public service commission,
and
vice-chancellors of the universities in the state.
He can make rules for more convenient transactions of the
business of the state government and for the allocation among
ministers
Judicial Power
According to Article 161 of the Indian constitution, The governor can
grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remission of punishments. He
also can suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person
convicted of an offence against the law.
CHIEF MINISTER
The chief minister is the head of the state government. The chief
minister is the real executive authority (de facto executive). The leader
of the majority party or coalition of parties is appointed as the chief
minister by the governor. Thus, the position of the chief minister at the
state level is analogous to the position of the prime minister at the
centre.
The chief minister has the power to preside over the meetings of the
cabinet and makes policy decisions for the government. The chief
minister is also the mediator between the governor and the council of
ministers in making all cabinet-related decisions such as administrative
and legislative proposals. All the major appointments made by the
governors are made on the advice of the chief minister.
STATE LEGISLATURE
The legislature is the state’s law-making body. It is one of the three-
state organs. It has the power to enact laws as well as run the state.
According to Article 168 of the Indian constitution, a state can have a
unicameral (which should be the legislative assembly) and a bicameral
legislature (legislative council and legislative assembly). Every state
must have a legislature that includes the governor. The constitution
provides for the abolition or creation of legislative councils in states.
Accordingly, the parliament can abolish a legislative council or create it,
if the legislative assembly of the concerned state passes a resolution to
that effect.
The upper chamber of the state legislature i.e., the legislative council
shall not have more than one-third of the total membership of the state
legislative assembly but not less than 40. The state council is a
permanent house, and hence it is not dissolved. Members are
elected/nominated for a period of six years. One-third of its members
retire after every two years.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 10. 11.
(d) (a) (c) (c) (b) (a) (c)
2. 4. 6.
8. (c)
(a) (c) (a)
CHAPTER 9
Federalism in India
INTRODUCTION
A federal governance structure refers to the division of powers between
the federal and provincial governments; i.e., central and state
governments, where both structures have separate jurisdiction and no
one derives its authority from the other. It is an arrangement of power-
sharing between two levels of government. The term ‘federation’ is
derived from the Latin word ‘foedus’ meaning ‘treaty’ or ‘agreement’.
The constitution of India provides for a federal system of government
in the country. However, the term ‘federation’ is nowhere mentioned in
the constitution. Article 1 of the Indian constitution simply describes India
as a ‘Union of States’. ‘Union of States’ indicates two things:
i. the Indian state is not the result of an agreement among the states
like the American federation and
ii. the states have no right to secede from the federation.
Basically, the union is indestructible. The Indian federal system is
modelled upon Canadian federalism.
iv. the residuary powers have also been left with the centre.
Note: The union list has 100 subjects, the state list has 61
subjects, and the concurrent list has 52 subjects.
The 42nd CAA 1976 transferred 5 subjects to concurrent list from
the state list
2. States not indestructible:
i. the states in India have no right to territorial integrity and
Fiscal Asymmetry
Statutory transfers of funds from the centre to states are made on the
recommendations of the finance commission. The cost of implementing
centrally sponsored schemes to bring about welfare is co-shared by both
the centre and the sub-national units. In the NITI Aayog era, the centre
has considerably reduced the share of its revenue to implement centrally
sponsored schemes.
INTERGOVERNMENTAL COORDINATION
MECHANISMS
Zonal Councils
The zonal councils are the statutory bodies established by an Act of the
parliament, i.e., under the States Reorganization Act, of 1956. The act
divided the country into five zones (northern, central, eastern, western,
and southern). The union home minister happens to be the chairperson
of all the five zonal councils and each chief minister acts as a vice-
chairman of the council by rotation, holding office for a period of one year
at a time.
The zonal councils aim at promoting cooperation and coordination
between states, union territories, and the centre. They discuss and
recommend matters like economic and social planning, linguistic
minorities, border disputes, inter-state transport, and so on. They are only
deliberative and advisory bodies.
North-Eastern Council
Formed under the North-Eastern Council Act of 1971. Its members
include Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Tripura, Meghalaya, and Sikkim. It has an objective to formulate a unified
and coordinated regional plan covering matters of common importance.
To review from time to time the measures taken by the member states for
the maintenance of security and public order in the region.
NITI Aayog
NITI Aayog succeeded the planning commission as the principal policy
think tank of the union government. With this, the erstwhile top to bottom
approach paved the way for the bottom-to-top approach for development
and governance and provided more room for states to deliberate upon
policy-making at national levels. The NITI Aayog aims to foster the spirit
of cooperative as well as competitive federalism and intends to align the
broader national agenda of development in sync with the needs and
aspirations of different regions of the country. Through its initiatives like
the Healthy States Progressive India Report and School Education
Quality Index, it nudges the states to adopt the best practices and
governance reforms to improve their rankings in specific socio-economic
sectors.
GST Council
A constitutional body under Article 279(A). It is a joint forum of both the
centre and the states comprising the union finance minister as the
chairperson and the finance ministers of the states among others. The
GST councils play an important role in the realm of fiscal federalism by
making recommendations to the centre and the states on issues of
taxation and the list of items that may come under GST purview. It also
addresses the concerns of states with regard to their shares in GST, and
the issue of compensation for the loss of revenue arising on account of
the introduction of GST.
Inter-State Council
Article 263 stipulates the establishment of an inter-state council for
effective coordination between the states and between the centre and
states. The Sarkaria Commission on centre–state relations made a
strong case for the establishment of a permanent inter-state council
under Article 263. The Janata Dal government headed by V. P. Singh
established the inter-state council in 1990. It consists of:
ii. chief ministers of all the states and union territories having
legislative assemblies,
iii. administrators of union territories not having legislative
assemblies,
iv. governors of states under the president’s rule, and
v. six central cabinet ministers including the home minister to be
nominated by the prime minister.
IMPORTANT BOOKS
K. C. Wheare: Federal Government
K. Santhanam: Union-State Relations in India
Ivor Jennings: Some Characteristics of the Indian Constitution
C. H. Alexandrowicz: Constitutional Development in India
Morris Jones: The Government and Politics in India
Granville Austin: The Indian Constitution-Cornerstone of a
Nation
Options:
(a) A–(IV), B–(III), C–(II), D–(I)
(b) A–(III), B–(IV), C–(I), D–(II)
(c) A–(I), B–(II), C–(III), D–(IV)
(d) A–(II), B–(I), C–(IV), D–(III)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (c) (b) (d) (a) (b) (d)
2. 4. 6. (c)
(d) (a)
CHAPTER 10
Electoral Process and Election
Commission of India
INTRODUCTION
Part XV of the Indian constitution deals with elections and establishes an
election commission, as an autonomous and independent constitutional
authority responsible for administering union and state elections. The body
administers elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and state legislative
assemblies, and the offices of the president and vice-president. The election
commission was established following the constitution on 25 January 1950.
Articles 324 to 329 of the constitution deals with the powers, function, tenure,
eligibility, etc., of the election commission and its members.
Election Machinery
Election commission of India
Chief Electoral officer
District Election Officer
Returning officer
Electoral registration Officer
Presiding officer
observers
1. general conduct,
2. meetings,
3. procession,
4. polling day,
5. polling booth,
6. observers,
7. party in power, and
8. election manifestos.
3. Which of the following was not among the powers and functions of th
election commission of India?
A. Determine the electoral constituencies based on Delimitation Co
Act.
5. Given below are two statements one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the
other as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): The model code of conduct provides guidelines
regarding speeches, polling booths, election manifestos, processions,
etc.
Reason (R): Any person who tries to violate the guidelines issued by
the model code of conduct can be punished immediately.
Choose the correct answer from the following:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect and (R) is correct.
6. Which of the following does not come under the eight provisions relate
to the model code of conduct?
(a) Meetings
(b) Demonstrations
(c) Observers
(d) Election Manifestos.
7. Which state was the first to use the model code of conduct in India?
(a) Karnataka
(b) Bihar
(c) Orrisa
(d) Kerala
10. Which Amendment Act reduced the minimum age of voting from 21
years to 18 years?
(a) Fifty-Second Amendment Act
(b) Sixty-First Amendment Act
(c) Seventy-Third Amendment Act
(d) Hundredth Amendment Act.
Reforms Yea
13. Which of the following are not among the suggested reforms by the
election commission in India?
(a) Simultaneous Polls
(b) Right to Information (RTI) Act
(c) State Fund
(d) Minister Level
14. Which part of the Indian constitution deals with the election commission
of India?
(a) Part XIV
(b) Part XV
(c) Part XVI
(d) Part XX
15. The removal of the chief election commissioner requires which of the
following process?
(a) One-thrid majority
(b) Three-fourth majority
(c) Two-third majority
(d) One-fourth majority
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
The history of local government institutions as a key decentralized decision-
making body dates back to the Chola Kingdom of ancient times. However, it
was only after independence that these bodies evolved into a firm base of
vibrant Indian democracy. Inspired by M. K. Gandhi, the Indian constitution
initially put the provision of local government or Panchayati Raj into a non-
justiciable part of the constitution i.e., Article 40 under directive principles of
state policy.
TIMELINE OF EVOLUTION
In 1952 with the increasing complexities and centralization of power, it
was felt that India needed a robust grassroots democracy, and as a
result, some ‘pre-Panchayat Raj Institutions’ were introduced, one
among them being the ‘Community Development Programme’ of 1952.
Later on, in 1959, the journey of Panchayati Raj Institutions formally
began.
The amendment phase began with the Sixty-Fourth Amendment Bill
(1989) which was introduced by Rajiv Gandhi seeking to strengthen
the Panchayati Raj Institutions but the bill was not passed in the Rajya
Sabha.
Seventy-Third and Seventy-Fourth Constitutional Amendments were
passed by parliament in December 1992. Through these amendments,
local self-governance was introduced in rural and urban India. The Acts
came into force as the Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act,
1992 on 24 April 1993 and the Constitution (Seventy-Fourth
Amendment) Act, 1992 on 1 June 1993. 24th April is celebrated as
National Panchayati Raj Day since 2010.
Committee Recommendations
Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee (1957) The committee observed that the major
reason for the failure of the community
development programme was the lack of
people participation.
The committee suggested three-tier
Panchayati Raj Institutions, namely, Grama
Panchayats at the village level, Panchayat
Samiti at the block level, and Zilla Parishad at
the district level.
As a result, democratic decentralization was
launched in the Nagaur district of Rajasthan
on 2 October 1959.
Ashok Mehta
Committee (1977) The committee recommended a two-tier
Panchayat Raj Institutional structure
consisting of Zilla Parishad and Mandal
Panchayat.
In order to use planning expertise and secure
administrative support, the district was
suggested as the first point of decentralization
below the state level.
Based on its recommendation, some of the
states like Karnataka incorporated them
effectively.
Committee Recommendations
Hanumantha Rao
Committee (1983)
The committee advocated separate district
planning bodies under either the district
collector or a minister.
G. V. K. Rao
Committee (1985) Make the ‘district’ as the basic unit of
planning.
Hold regular elections.
L. M. Singhvi
Committee (1986) More financial resources.
Constitutional status to the Panchayats to
strengthen them.
P. K. Thungan
Committee (1989) Constitutional recognition for the local
government bodies.
Article Provision
243A Gram Sabha
243B Constitution of Panchayats.
243C Composition of Panchayats.
Article Provision
243D Reservation of seats.
243E Duration of Panchayats.
Compulsory Provisions
Constitution of Gram Sabha in a village or a group of villages.
Establishment of Panchayats at village, intermediate, and district.
Direct elections to all the above.
Indirect election to the post of the chairperson of the Panchayats at the
intermediate and district level.
21 years to be the minimum age for contesting.
Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Panchayats at all levels.
Reservation of one-third of seats for women in Panchayats.
Fixing of tenure of 5 years and holding elections within six months in
any event of supersession of any Panchayat.
Establishment of the state election commission.
Constitution of state finance commission after every 5 years to review
the financial position of the Panchayats.
Voluntary Provisions
Giving representation to members of the parliament and state
legislature at various levels of the Panchayats.
Providing reservation of seats for backward classes.
Granting powers and authority to Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Devolutions of powers and representation.
Granting financial powers to the Panchayats.
Article Provision
243P Definitions
243Q Constitution of municipalities.
2. Political accountability.
3. Democratic decentralization.
4. Financial mobilization.
3. Assertion (A): In states or union territories with less than two millio
inhabitants there are only two levels of Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Reason (R): Seventy-Third Amendment Act, 1993 includes a three-
tier Panchayati Raj Institution system as a compulsory provision.
Choose the correct answer:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not the correct explanatio
(A).
(c) Only (A) is correct and (R) is incorrect.
(d) Only (R) is correct and (A) is incorrect.
Article Provision
i. State Finance Commission
1. 243A
Options:
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Only 3
(d) None
2. Meghalaya
3. Mizoram
4. Manipur
Options:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3, and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3 only
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (b) (c) (c) (b) (a) (d)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(d) (c)
CHAPTER 12
Constitutional & Statutory Bodies
INTRODUCTION
The constitutional bodies are established by the constitution itself and derive
their authority from it. It also means any changes in the structure or function
require a constitutional amendment. It includes important constitutional bodies
like the election commission, finance commission, union public service
commission, etc.
The statutory bodies are also known as non-constitutional bodies as they
are established not by the constitution but by an act of parliament. It includes
the national human rights commission, central information commission, etc.
Independence
He is provided with the security of tenure. He can be removed by the
president only in accordance with the procedure mentioned in the constitution.
Thus, he does not hold his office till the pleasure of the president, though he is
appointed by him. He is not eligible for re-appointment, either under the
government of India or of any state after he ceases to hold his office. No
minister can represent the comptroller & auditor general of India in parliament
and no minister can be called upon to take responsibility for any actions done
by him.
#A
chairperson,
vice
chairperson
National # A constitutional +3 # Commissions are
Commission body. members. vested with the
for # They are power to regulate
# Article 338
Scheduled appointed by their own procedure.
Castes # Sixty-Fifth
the # It has a function to
Amendment Act
president. investigate and
1990 established
National # It is under monitor all matters
Commission for SCs the Ministry relating to the
and STs. of Social constitutional and
Justice & other legal
# In Eighty-Ninth safeguards for the
Empowerme
Amendment Act scheduled castes
nt.
2003 bifurcated it and to evaluate their
into two separate work.
bodies, i.e., National
Commission for # To inquire into
Scheduled Castes specific complaints
(Article 338), and with respect to the
National deprivation of rights
Commission for and safeguards of
Scheduled Tribes the scheduled
(Article 338A). castes.
# Advise the
government on
scheduled castes-
related issues.
# To present a report
annually to the
president.
Name Type of Body & Members & Power & Function
Related Articles Compositio
& Act n
5. Which one of the following is the Nodal Ministry for the National Huma
Rights Commission?
(a) Ministry of Human Resource Development
(b) Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
(c) Ministry of Home Affairs
(d) Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions
10. The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes under which ministry?
(a) Ministry of Human Resource Development
(b) Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
(c) Ministry of Tribal Affairs
(d) Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions
13. Which one of the following commissions are the statutory body?
a. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
Answer Key
3. Which one of the following Acts has not been passed under
article 34 of the Indian Constitution? (2017)
(a) The Border Security Force Act
(b) The Police Forces (Restriction of Rights) Act
(c) Armed Forces Special Power Act
(d) The Army Act
12. Which of the following statements are true about the powers of
a Governor? (2018)
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
I. Members of State Public Service Commission can be remove
the President on the report of the Governor.
II. Unlike the President, the Governor has no power to appoint jud
of the State High Court.
III. Like the President, the Governor can nominate two member
the Anglo-Indian community to the Legislative Assembly of
state.
IV. The Governor is to be consulted by the President in
appointment of the Chief Justice and the judges of the High C
of the state.
Codes:
(a) I and II only
(b) II and III only
(c) II and IV only
(d) III and IV only
13. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Union Territory) (High Court Jurisdictio
(A)Lakshdeep (i)Bombay
(B)Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ii) Madras
(C)Dadra and Nagar Haveli (iii) Kerala
(D)Pondichery (iv) Calcutta
Codes:
(a) (A)-(iv), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(ii)
(b) (A)-(iii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(c) (A)-(iv), (B)-(i), (C)-(iii), (D)-(ii)
(d) (A)-(iii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)-(ii)
16. For which purpose was the Cabinet Mission sent to India?
(2018)
(A) To establish a national government
(B) To workout a constitutional arrangement for the transfer of pow
(C) To suppress the intensity of the national movement
(D) A Constituent Assembly to be elected by Provincial Assemb
through proportional representation
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and C only
(b) B, C and D only
(c) A, B and D only
(d) A and D only
List I List II
(A)42nd Amendment I.1978
(B)44th Amendment II.1963
(C)15th Amendment III. 1975
(D)38th Amendment IV.1976
23. In which case the Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot
amend the ‘basic structure1 of the constitution? (2018)
(a) Golak Nath Vs. State of Punjab
(b) A K. Gopalan Vs. State of Madras
(c) Romesh Thapper Vs. State of Madras
(d) Keshwanand Bharti Vs. State of Kerala
25. Provincial autonomy was granted under the Act of: (2018)
(a) 1919
(b) 1861
(c) 1935
(d) 1892
26. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Articles (Provision)
)
(A)Article (i)Reservation of seats of SC
243 K and ST in panchayats
(B)Article (ii) Eligibility criterion for urba
243 Q government institutions
(C)Article (iii) Establishment of State
243 V Election Commission
(D)Article (iv) Formation of urban local
243 D government institutions
Codes:
(a) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
(b) (A)-(iii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(ii), (D)-(i)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(d) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iv)
27. Who among the following Prime Ministers served for the
longest tenure? (2019)
(a) V.P. Singh
(b) Chandra Shekar
(c) P.V. Narsimha Rao
(d) H.D . Deva Gowda
29. Which one of the following functions is NOT the concern of the
local government? (2019)
(a) Public health
(b) Sanitation
(c) Public utility services
(d) Maintenance of public order
31. Which Article of the Constitution of India lays down that the
President cannot act without the aid and advice of the Council
of Ministers? (2019)
(a) Article 75
(b) Article 74 (1)
(c) Article 73
(d) Article 72
32. Match List-I with List-II and identify the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Name of (Directive Principle)
Philosophy)
(C)Gandhian
3. Promotion of international peace and
Philosophy
security
34. Which of the following statements are not true about the
process of constitutional Amendment in India? (2019)
(A) The Parliament can amend the Constitution with a special majo
(B) State Assemblies can propose amendment in the Constitution.
(C) A bill for Constitutional Amendment can eb introduced only in
Lower House of the Parliament.
(D) Deadlock between the two Houses of Parliament over a Bil
Constitutional Amendment can be removed by a joint sessio
the Parliament.
(E) The President of India enjoys the veto power over Constituti
Amendment Bills passed by the Parliament.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
(a) (A), (C) and (D)
(b) (B), (C) and (e)
(c) (A), (D) and (E)
(d) (A), (B) (C) and (D)
37. Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and President are part of _________
of India. (2019)
(a) Parliament
(b) Judiciary
(c) Executive
(d) Panchayati Raj
39. Among the following, who said in a speech, “Poor people who
wander about, find no work, no wages and starve, whose lives
are a continual round of sore affliction and pinching poverty, cannot
be proud of the Constitution or its law”. (2020)
(a) Dr. B R. Ambedkar
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Dr. K.M. Munshi
(d) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
45. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct
answer from the codes given below: (2020)
Assertion (A): Democratic decentralization stimulates increased
political participation.
Reason (R): Democratic decentralization has the capacity to
reduce poverty, inequality and social exclusion.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true, and (R) is the co
explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true but (R) is not the co
explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
46. Who among the following has suggested that the office of the
Comptroller and Auditor General should be abolished ? (2020)
(a) Asok Chanda
(b) Paul Appleby
(c) K.C Wheare
(d) A D Gorwala
50. The Supreme Court of India in its order dated 24th August
2017 in Justice. K.S. Pultaswamy (Retd) vs Union of India
declared that: (2020)
(A) The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the rig
life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of
freedoms.
(B) The Union government must amend the Constitution and ad
provision for the right to privacy.
(C) The right to privacy is protected by Article 14 (equality before
law), Article 19 (Right to freedom), Article 21 (Protection of life
personal liberty).
(D) Right to privacy is derived from Article 25 (Right to freedom
religion) and Article 14(Protection of interests of minorities)
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A only
(b) B only
(c) A and D only
(d) C and D only
53. Which of the following states of India have the same number of
representatives in the Lok Sabha? (2020)
(a) Chandigarh, Delhi and Puducherry
(b) Manipur, Meghalaya and Himachal Pradesh
(c) Arunachal Pradesh, Goa and Tripura
(d) Uttarakhand, Nagaland and Haryana
55. Which one of the following is NOT a factor for reforms in the
Indian judicial system? (2020)
(a) The slowness and inaccessibility of the judicial process
(b) The antiquated nature of court procedure and managem
practices
(c) Flaws in procedural law
(d) Public Interest Litigation
59. How long can the Vice-President act as President, when the
office of President falls vacant? (2021)
(a) Six months
(b) One year
(c) Two years
(d) Five years
Answer Key
6. Constitution of India was came into the force of 26th January 1950
First Loksabha election was held in 1952 on 489 Loksabha seats
Congress won 264 seats, Communist Party of India won 16 seats
Socialist party (India) won 12 seats. Ganesh Vasudev Mavlanka
was the first speaker of the Loksabha.
22. Chief Justice and other Judges of Supreme Court are appointed by
the President after the consultation of Collegium system. Article
124 (4) and the Judges inquiry ac 1968 deals with the procedure of
removal of judges. If Motion for removal of a judge passed by
parliament then it investigated by Committee of 3 judges of the
Supreme Court and a distinguished jurist.
27. Among given options PV Narsimha Rao had the longest term as
Prime Minister. He served as PM of India for 4 years and 330 days
during 1991-96.
Hence, the correct answer will be C.
37. Part V and Article 79-122 of the Constitution of India deals the
Parliament. It provides organization, composition, duration, officers,
procedures, privileges, and powers of the Parliament. Indian
Parliamentary adopted from Westminster system from Britain.
Indian Parliament consists of three parts- president, Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha.
39. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan said in his speech, “Poor people who wander
about, find no work, no wages and starve, whose lives are a
continual round of sore affliction and pinching poverty, cannot be
proud of the Constitution or its law”.
Hence, the answer will be D.
Planning in India
The goals of economic planning in India are: economic development,
increased employment, self-sufficiency, economic stability, social welfare,
regional development, economic inequality reduction.
Eleventh 9% 8%
FYP 2007– The growth is both rapid and
12 inclusive.
Gender inequality is being
reduced
Twelfth 8%
FYP 2012– Faster, sustainable and more
17 inclusive growth
Merits Demerits
Merits Demerits
STABILISING MEASURES
The prime objective of the macroeconomic policy is to bring and enhance
macroeconomic stability. Therefore, to control the economic crisis of
1990s, some stabilising measures were taken which are short-term
measures taken by the government to curb rising prices, unfavourable
balance of payments and falling foreign exchange reserves. In economic
context, stabilization plays an important role which includes:
Reduction in fiscal deficit so as to improve the budgetary balance
in the country.
Correction of adverse balance of payment along with increase in
the supply of foreign exchange to finance export needs.
Control of inflation in order to assist improvement in economic
growth as a whole. These stabilization measures are emergency
measures.
Benefits
Free inflow of Enables Greater
Liberalisation Privatisation Globalization
capital in the the investmen
country expansion ts, new
Enabled of private jobs
diversification enterprise Increase
of investor s in exports
portfolios Infuses a Increase
Improved the competitiv in
agricultural e technologi
sector by environme cal
resulting in nt in the developm
greater economy ent, trade
investments, resulting volume
diversification in fair will
of cropping pricing of ultimately
patterns goods and increase
services the world’s
Job GDP
creation Improved
Improves product
the quality quality
of goods while
and lowering
services prices
produced FPI and
FDI are
both
improving
significantl
y
Increase
in forex
reserves
Liberalisation Privatisation Globalization
Limitations
Economic Developm Increase
destabilizatio ent of a in the
n monopolis trade
Increased tic deficit
competition environme Widening
from large nt the
multinationals Being economic
threatened fragmente inequalitie
the existence d, with no s.
of several person Increased
smaller firms taking the
Increased responsibil disparity
potential for ity in their between
mergers and hands. rural and
acquisitions Certain urban
posed a strategic Indian
threat to the sectors joblessnes
employees of cannot be s
smaller firms privatized Certain
due to MSMEs
security were
and completely
strategic eliminated
concerns Only a few
May sectors
become attracted
politically investmen
motivated t
4. Who was the finance minister during the 1991 economic crisis?
(a) PV Narsimha Rao
(b) R Venkataraman
(c) RK Shanmukham Chetty
(d) Manmohan Singh
10. Twenty Point Programme was established during which Five Year
Plan?
(a) Third
(b) Fourth
(c) Fifth
(d) Sixth
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(c) (d)
CHAPTER 2
Process of Globalization
INTRODUCTION
The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 are
credited with giving rise to the modern era of globalization. Liberalization
and privatization policies have led to globalization. Through a global
communication, transportation, and trade network, globalization links
different cultures, societies, and ways of life.
Typically, globalization is used as a simple method of disseminating
technologies, industry, and communication around the world. It also covers
how ideas and technologies flow. Regions are interacting more with one
another as a result of globalization. Globalization has an impact on people’s
physical comfort as well as the cultures, environments, political systems,
and economic advancements of all countries.
GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA
When Dr. Manmohan Singh, the country’s then-Finance Minister,
started the economic liberalization plan in the 1990s, India began to see the
effects of globalization. India has slowly evolved since then into one of the
world’s economic powerhouses. With an average growth rate of about 7to
8%, it has now established itself as one of the economies that are
expanding the fastest. The average income per person and the standard of
living have both increased significantly.
One of the best examples of globalization is found in India, where even
25 years ago it was unthinkable to purchase items such as Levi’s jeans or a
color television within the borders of the nation. All of our parents have told
us tales about how they would request these items when someone they
knew or someone else knew was traveling abroad. Now that we are a part
of globalization, all we have to do to get anything we could want is leave
our homes and go to the market; all we need is the cash to do so.
B. Exporting
C. Assembly operations
D. Population mobility especially of labour
Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) A and D
(b) B and A
(c) B and D
(d) C and D
7. Which among the following step is not taken from the perspective o
Globalization after 1991?
(a) Amendment of the Monopolies and the Restrictive Trade Prac
Act
(b) Introduction of phased Manufacturing Programme
(c) Liberalization of foreign technology import
(d) Establishment of private and foreign banks
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (c) (b) (b) (c) (d) (d)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(d) (d)
CHAPTER 3
Identity Politics in India
INTRODUCTION
In a multicultural society like India, Identity is the building block of Political
mobilization, representation as well as communication. Indian society
deeply rooted in the cultural aspect and cultural background determine their
orientation towards politics. Identity politics is a political approach where the
identity of people such as race, nationality, religion, gender, sexual
orientation, social background, social class etc. are used as a political tool.
Political agendas and strategies are formed on the basis of these identities
to capture power.
Causes of Communalism
There are four main theories of the role of religion in politics. These include:
♦ Land owners
♦ Numerical majority
As a result of these two, these dominant castes acquire
dominance in politics.
There is a lack of consensus among the scholars about the role
played by Caste in Indian Politics. Some believe that caste has
strengthened Indian democracy
Rajni Kothari
Yogendra Yadav
Christophe Jafferlot
Satish Deshpande
Others believe that Caste has weakened the Indian Democracy.
These includes
Andre Beteille
CP Bhambri
Ashutosh Varshney
Rajni Kothari has given the concept of “politicization of caste”. It
means not only caste has shaped politics but caste itself also got
shaped by politics.
He has talked about secularization, integration and consciousness
generation roles of Caste.
Yogendra Yadav has explained interaction between caste and
politics in India as democratic upsurge.
First Democratic Upsurge: 1960s (When OBCs came out of
Congress Rainbow)
Second Democratic Upsurge: 1990s (When Dalits came out of
Congress).
The Committee in its report came to the conclusion that there was need
for linguistic redistribution of provinces but recommended that in view of
economic and administrative reasons such reorganization should be
postponed for the time being.
It, however, made an exception in the case of Andhras,
where it favored the formation of a linguistic state.
Accordingly, the new state of Andhra Pradesh came into
existence on October 1, 1953.
Scholar Idea
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both
(d) None
6. Identify the statements which suggest that it is not politics that get
caste-ridden, it is the caste that gets politicized.
a. When governments are formed, political parties take c
representatives of different castes find a place in it.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (d)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(c) (d)
CHAPTER 4
Social Movements in India
INTRODUCTION
A social movement is a mass movement and a concerted effort by people to
promote change or to fight change. In India, social changes were instigated
with the help of social movements of various kind. The issues of social and
economic inequalities were addressed and brought to the limelight with the
help of social movements in post and as well as pre-independence period in
India.
DALIT MOVEMENTS
The term Dalit was firstly used by Jyotirao Phule for the oppressed classes or
untouchable castes of the Hindu. Mahatma Gandhi used Harijan for the
oppressed or depressed or Dalit classes which means ‘Children of God’.
Depressed 1924 BR
Classes Ambedkar For the upliftment of
Welfare depressed classes.
Institute, i.e. Against untouchability
Bahishkrit Depressed Classes Institution
Hitkarni
was founded in 1924.
Sabha
(Mahar Marathi fortnightly Bahiskrit
Movement) Bharat was started in 1927.
Establishment of Samaj Samta
Sangh in 1927.
Establishment of Scheduled
Caste Federation in 1942 that
propagated their views on
depressed classes.
Self-Respect 1925 EV
Movement Ramaswami Against caste system and
Naicker or biased approach of Brahmins.
Periyar Kudi Arasu journal was started
by Periyar in 1910.
Movement Year Founder Features
Dravida 1944 Conjeevara
Munnetra m Natarajan
Kazhagam Annadurai &
Ramaswami
Naicker
TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
Tribal Movements can be classified on the basis of their orientation into four
types:
WOMEN MOVEMENTS
The beginning of the women’s movement in India can be traced back to the
nineteenth-century social change development. Unlike the Western feminist
movement, India’s feminist movement, according to Maitrayee Chaudhuri,
was started by males and later joined by women.
PRE-INDEPENDENCE
POST INDEPENDENCE
PEASANT MOVEMENTS
India has a long history of peasant or farmers’ movement, dating back to the
colonial period when farmers in different parts of India revolted against
Zamindars, landlords, British colonial masters or powers including feudal
lords. The Farmers movement is a social movement involved
with the agricultural policy. Peasants movement have a long history
that can be traced to the numerous peasant uprisings that occurred in various
regions of the world throughout the human history.
PRE INDEPENDENCE
Champaran 1917
Satyagraha Against Tinkathia System
Led by Gandhi Ji
Enactment of the Champaran
Agrarian Act, 1918 freed
peasants from special imposts
levied by planters
Telangana 1946-51
Movement In Hyderabad against Nizam
officials
POST INDEPENDENCE
LABOUR MOVEMENTS
Labour movement can be defined as an organised effort on the part of
workers to improve their economic and social status by United action through
the medium of labour unions. It is a broad term for the development of a
collective organisation of working people, to campaign in their own interest for
better treatment from their employers and political organisation, through
implementation of specific loss governing labour relations.
PRE INDEPENDENCE
POST INDEPENDENCE
Post-independence, India has also witnessed different unions coming
together to address a common issue. These include the crippling railway
strike of 1974 and the Great Bombay textile strike, 1982. However, such
strikes are seen to get less public support post-1991. There is also an
increased focus on informal labour. This is due to the particularly vulnerable
situation of unorganised labour.
2. The movement opposed the payment of house tax and other oppress
7. Consider the following about the Munda Ulgulan of late 19th century.
1. The uprising was concentrated in the region of Satpura forest.
2. The main cause of the uprising was the interference of Christian Mis
into the religious matters of Munda Tribes.
Code:
(a) a-i, b-iv, c-iii, d-ii
(b) a-iv, b-i, c-ii, d-iii
(c) a-i, b-iii, c-ii, d-iv
(d) a-i, b-ii, c-iv, d-iii
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
According to World Bank, Civil Society refers to a wide array of
organizations, community groups, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), labor unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith-
based organizations, professional associations and foundations.
Civil Society is a broader concept that encompasses all those
institutions and associations that lie outside the realm of state or market.
Hence, it is often referred to as the third sector of the society. Globally,
the term ‘Civil Society’ became popular in 1980s when it started to be
identified with non-state movements defying authoritarian regime
especially in Eastern Europe and Latin America.
India too has a strong and vibrant history of civil society activism right
from Chipko Movement to campaign for Right to Information or Anna
Hazare movement.
Options:
(a) 1(A)2(B)3(C)4(D)
(b) 1(C)2(B)3(D)4(A)
(c) 1(D)2(C)3(B)4(A)
(d) 1(C)2(D)3(A)4(B)
II.Kailash Satyarthi
2. India Against Corruption
Options:
(a) A(IV)B(III)C(II)D(I)
(b) A(I)B(II)C(III)D(IV)
(c) A(II)B(I)C(IV)D(III)
(d) A(III)B(I)C(II)D(IV)
II.Naz
Foundation
2. Improvement in electoral procedures
Options:
(a) I-(A), II-(B), III-(C), IV-(A)
(b) I-(D), II-(C), III-(B), IV-(A)
(c) I-(C), II-(D), III-(A), IV-(B)
(d) I-(B), II-(C), III-(A), IV-(D)
9. Name the organization popularly known for the demand for Citize
Ombudsman in India.
(a) PUCL
(b) ADR
(c) Swaraj Abhiyan
(d) India Against Corruption
NGO Objectives
Options:
(a) I-(A); II-(B); III-(C); IV-(D)
(b) I-(D); II-(C); III-(B); IV-(A)
(c) I-(C); II-(D); III-(A); IV-(B)
(d) I-(B); II-(A); III-(D); IV-(A)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (a) (a) (c) (b) (d) (a)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(b) (d)
CHAPTER 6
Regionalization of Indian Politics
INTRODUCTION
A strong attachment to one’s own region is referred to as regionalism. It is
the expression of a shared sense of identity and purpose by people living in a
specific geographical region that is united by its own language, culture, and so
on. In a positive sense, it encourages people to cultivate a sense of
brotherhood and oneness while in a negative sense it means an excessive
attachment to one’s region, which poses a significant threat to the country’s
unity and integrity.
The Indian Constitution was enacted in 1950, and it divided the constituent
units of the Indian Union into four parts, which are as follows:
3. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the cod
given below:
Code:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (iii) (iv) ((i) (ii)
(b) (iii) (ii) ((iv) (i)
(c) (ii) (iii) ((iv) (i)
(d) (iv) (i) ((iii) (ii)
5. The demand for ‘Harit Pradesh’ is related to which one of the followin
regions in India?
(a) Western Uttar Pradesh
(b) Bundelkhand
(c) Uttaranchal
(d) Vidharbha
9. Which state was carved out of the state of Bihar in the year 2000?
(a) Chhattisgarh
(b) Jharkhand
(c) Uttarakhand
(d) None
10. How many states were formed after the State Reorganisation Act,
1956?
(a) 14 States and 7 Union Territories
(b) 16 States and 3 Union Territories
(c) 16 States and 6 Union Territories
(d) 14 States and 6 Union Territories
4. JVP committee formally rejected language as the basis for the reorg
of States.
1. Malwa i.Maharashtra
2. Konkan ii.Rajasthan
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
The gender divide is commonly perceived as found in social expectations and
preconceptions. In most nations, women have a minor role in public life,
particularly politics, and India is not an exception. Equality and representation
for women have been drawing more serious attention in India since
independence. One should ask why women’s rights are needed to be
recognized by law in India where people have a habit of worshipping them as
goddesses. The answer lies in the patriarchal and socio-political and cultural
characteristics of Indian society which are supported by unexamined and
illogical social conventions and customs. Gradually, the question of gender
became more prominent in politics. It advocated for women’s political, legal
status, and educational and career prospects to be improved.
2. By which phrase the 2019 Lok Sabha election was known regardin
gender politics in India?
(a) Great revolution of women’s empowerment
(b) Silent revolution of women empowerment
(c) Great revolution of self-empowerment
(d) Silent revolution of self-empowerment
B. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Act has provided the re
of 1/3rd of the total number of seats for women in local bodies.
4. Given below are two statements. One is labeled as Assertion (A) and th
other as Reason (R)
Assertion: Religion is one of the reasons in India for gender
discrimination.
Reason: Patriarchal system in society, the gap of gender
discrimination between men and women has arisen.
Choose the correct answer:
(a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is correct and R is incorrect
(d) A is incorrect and R is correct.
10. Which article of the Indian constitution provides equal pay for equal
work for both men and women?
(a) Article 38(a)
(b) Article 39(a)
(c) Article 38(d)
(d) Article 39(d)
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (b) (c) (b) (c) (b) (d)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(d) (a)
CHAPTER 8
Ideology and Social Basis of
Political Parties
INTRODUCTION
India has a multi-party system. The Election Commission of India (ECI)
accords recognition to the national level and the state level political
parties based upon objective criteria. A recognised political party enjoys
privileges like a reserved party symbol, free broadcast time on state-run
television and radio, consultation in the setting of election dates, and
giving input in setting electoral rules and regulations. Other political
parties that wish to contest local, state or national elections are required
to be registered by the Election Commission of India. Registered Parties
are upgraded as recognised National Party or State Party by
the ECI if they meet the relevant criteria after a Lok-Sabha or State
Legislative Assembly election.
Before the amendment in 2016 (came into force with effect from 1
January 2014), if a political party failed to fulfil the criteria in the
subsequent Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly election, they lost
their status as a recognised Party. In 2016, the ECI announced that such
a review would take place after two consecutive elections instead of
every election.
People’s
Democratic
Front
Kerala Kerala Jose K. Mani 1979
Congress (M)
Lok Janshakti Bihar Chirag Paswan 2000
Party
Maharashtra Maharashtra Raj Thackeray 2006
Navnirman
Sena
Maharashtrawa Goa Deepak Dhavalikar 1963
di Gomantak
Party
United People’s Assam Urkhao Gwra 2015
Party Liberal Brahma
Samajwadi
Janata Party
(Rashtriya)
Communist Bihar Dipankar 1974
Party of India Bhattacharyya
(Marxist –
Leninist)
Liberation
Goa Forward Goa Vijai Sardesai 2016
Party
Indigenous Tripura N. C. Debbarama 2009
People’s Front
of Tripura
Janta Congress Chhattisgarh Renu Jogi 2016
Chhattisgarh
Jan Nayak Haryana Dushyant Chautala 2018
Janta Party
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (c) (a) (d) (a) (b) (d)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(b) (c)
CHAPTER 9
Electoral Politics in India
INTRODUCTION
Electoral Politics can be understood as the politics which is related to
Elections and Electoral processes. Elections are an important aspect of
democracy. Elections is the process by which people choose their
representative to act on their behalf in a legislative body. Electoral politics
involves not only the occurrence of elections but also patterns of
mobilisation by political parties and leaders for voting in the elections. The
conduct of elections in a free and fair manner, and extent of participation of
people from various social groups is considered as a way to measure the
success of democracy. PSEPHOLOGY stands for studying elections.
PARTICIPATION
Electoral Participation rates depend on many factors including the type of
electoral system, the social groupings to which voters belong, the voter’s
personality and beliefs. The rate of electoral participation is impacted by the
level and type of the election. For instance, if electoral turn out is
considered, it is greater in the national level elections than in the state
elections and similarly it will be greater in the state elections than in local
elections. Person who support any political party would vote more often
those without a partisan identification. It can be seen that the extent of
polarization of ideology between the candidates all parties can affect the
competitiveness of the election and therefore it also affect the electoral turn
out.
In recent times, the Election Commission of India has signed
Memorandum of Understanding (MoUs) with over 1000 corporate houses to
monitor their electoral participation of their workforce and to publish them
on their websites and notice boards about those who do not vote. However
there is no provision of compulsory voting election.
Different provisions related to right to vote in India
Under section 171A(b) of IPC provided the “electoral right” which
defines it as the right of a person to stand, or not to stand as, all to
withdraw from being, a candidate or to vote or refrain from voting at
an election.
Article 326 of the Constitution of India guarantees the right to vote on
the basis of Adult Suffrage i.e., citizen of India who are 18 years or
above enjoys the right to vote until disqualified as said under article
326. The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act 1989 lower the voting
age of elections to the Lok Sabha and to the Legislative Assemblies
of States from 21 years to 18 years.
Under section 62 of the RPA 1951, it is ensured that every person
who is in the electoral roll of that constituency is entitled to vote.
In this Electoral system, the candidate who will secure the highest number
of votes will win the elections.
Proportional Representation with means of Single Transferable Vote:
In India, the PR with STV electoral system is used in the elections
of the President, the Vice President, Members of the Rajya Sabha
and Members of the State Legislative Council.
Generally proportional Representation with Single Transferable
Vote can be both a single as well as multi member constituency.
The candidate is declared winner only if he or she secures the
minimum number of votes and it is decided by a formula.
CONTESTATION
Contestation is a major component of a democratic system. It involves
issues with the position of incumbent and outgoing leaders of the
government of the day at the national, state and the local levels.
Participation by the citizens in election signifies their role in the future of the
country.
There is immense popular participation in the elections in India. The
candidates in elections in India try to seak support of the people by
promising greater social economic equity, better governance, poverty
alleviation etc.
In Union of India versus Association of Democratic Reforms 2002
case: Contesting candidates need to disclose all their assets
and liabilities, criminal convictions, etc. while filling their nomination
paper.
Following qualifications for contesting elections has been laid down by
the Parliament in the RPA, 1951:
Must be an elector in the constituency.
Must be a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe in any
state/UTs if he/she wants to contest a seat reserved for them.
Minimum age for becoming an MLA/MP (Lok Sabha) = 25 years
At the panchayat and municipality levels, the minimum age limit for
contesting elections is 21 years.
REPRESENTATION
After independence in 1947, it was felt that there is a need to hold general
elections to elect a representative government which should be on the
basis of universal adult suffrage. Article 325 of the Constitution of India
ensures the universal suffrage which stated that no person shall be in
eligible on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or any of them. Holding
of free and fair elections is the sine qua non of the democratic country.
Consequently the constituent assembly incorporated Part XV that is article
324–329 in the Constitution of India and empowered the Parliament to
make lose to regulate the process of elections. Therefore, the Parliament
has enacted the Representation of People Act, 1950 and the
Representation of People Act, 1951.
Some of the features of these Representation of the People Acts:
Generally every state gets its representation in the Lok Sabha in
proportion to its population as per census figures. The
Representation of People Act 1950 provides for delimitation.
A CEO either nominated or designated by the ECI in consultation
with the state government should be there in each state to supervise
the election work in the state and union territories.
There is ERO who is responsible for the preparation of the electoral
roll for each constituency.
There is a Returning Officer who is responsible for the conduct of the
election in a constituency and returns an elected candidate.
EMERGING TRENDS
In 2019 general elections, men and women voted in nearly equal
numbers while till 2010 the number of women voters was less than
men. ( Book – Women Voters in Indian Elections –
Changing Trends and Emerging Patterns, edited by Prof.
Sanjay Kumar)
Politicians are using social media as their medium to get their
messages out. As it is easy to message out in a tweet or Facebook
post than to conduct press conference. Does there are official
handles of government ministries and departments on Twitter,
Instagram etc.
There has been an increase in the participation of weaker sections
especially scheduled caste and Scheduled Tribes in Electoral
processes.
Right to education, Right to Information, Panchayati Raj Act have
empowered the common people.
According to the data compiled by the Inter Parliamentary Union
(IPU), of which India is a member, women represent 14.44% of the
total members of the Lok Sabha. In recent times, the representation
of women in the parliament of New Zealand has closed the 50%
mark. It is to be noted that New Zealand became the first nation to
allow women to vote in 1893.
There is an increase in participation of Regional Parties.
Recently Aam Aadmi Party will be declared a National Party.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (a) (d)
2. 4.
6. (d)
(c) (c)
8. Match List-I and List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
Movements Leader
Code:
(a) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
(b) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
(c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
(d) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
9. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Leaders) (Political Parties)
(A)Ram Vilas Paswan (i)Samajwadi Party
(B)H.D. Kumarswamy (ii) Nationalist Congress Pa
(C)Praful Patel (iii) Janata Dal (Secular)
(D)Akhilesh Yadav (iv) Lok Janshakti Party
Codes:
(a) (A)-(iii), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(i)
(b) (A)-(iv), (B)-(iii), (C)-(ii), (D)-(i)
(c) (A)-(ii), (B)-(i), (C)-(iv), (D)-(iii)
(d) (A)-(i), (B)-(ii), (C)-(iii), (D)-(iv)
11. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(A)Morris-Jones (1)The dominant Caste and Other Essays
(B)Srinivas M.N. (2)Government and Politics in India
(C)Rajni Kothari (3)State Politics in India
(D)Weiner Myron (ed.) (4)Politics in India
Codes:
(a) (A)-(2) (B)-(1) (C)-(4) (D)-(3)
(b) (A)-(3) (B)-(2) (C)-(1) (D)-(4)
(c) (A)-(4) (B)-(3) (C)-(2) (D)-(1)
(d) (A)-(1) (B)-(2) (C)-(3) (D)-(4)
14. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2018)
List I List II
(Authors) (Argument)
(A)Rob (i)Growing political clout of
Jenkins the ‘bullock capitalists’
(B)Atul Kohli (ii) Interplay between capitalists
rich farmers and the
bureaucracy
(C)Rudolphs (iii) An all-round crisis of
governability
(D)Pranab (iv) Economic reforms by ‘stealt
Bardhan
15. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A)
and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct
answer from the codes given below: (2018)
Assertion (A): Regional or self-determination movements in
India are said to have followed an inverse ‘U’ curve.
Reason (R): Heightened mobilization of group identities are
followed by negotiations, and eventually such movements decline
‘as exhaustion sets in…’
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true, and (R) is the co
explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true but (R) is not the co
explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
List I List II
(Name of State) (Demand for New State)
Saurashtra
1. Gujarat
Gorkhaland
2. Uttar Pradesh
C. Rajasthan Marupradesh
D. Maharashtra Vidarbha
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
19. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Author) (PUblications)
(A)Aseema (i)The puzzle of Indian
Sinha democracy: A
consociational
interpretation
(B)Selig (ii) The politics of India since
Harrson independence
(C)Arendt (iii) The regional roots of
Lijphant developmental politics in In
A divided Leviathan
(D)Paul R. (iv) India: The most dangerous
Brass decades
24. Which of the following was the initial ideology of the Bhartiya
Janata Party (BJP)? (2019)
(a) Radical Humanism
(b) Fabian Socialism
(c) Gandhian Socialism
(d) Hindutva
27. In the two lists given below, List I provide the list of names of
newspaper, while List II indicates Editors-in-chief, as of July,
2018. Match the two lists and choose the correct answer from the
given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Name of Newspaper) (Editor-in-Chief)
(A)The Hindu (i)Jaideep Bose
(B)The Times of India (ii) Raj Kamal Jha
(C)The Hindustan Times (iii) N. Ravi
(D)The Indian Express (iv) Sukumar Ranganatha
28. Which of the following taxes are levied by the Union but are
collected and appropriated by the States? (2019)
(A) Stamp duties
(B) Excise duties on medical and toilet materials
(C) Sales tax
(D) Land Revenue
Select the correct answer from the given options:
(a) (A) and (B) only
(b) (B) and (C) only
(c) (A), (B) and (C)
(d) (C) and (D) only
29. Match List-I with List-II and identify the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Demand for new State) (Existing State)
(A)Mithilanchal (i)Uttar Pradesh
(B)Coorg (ii) Rajastha
(C)Purvanchal (iii) Bihar
(D)Maru Pradesh (iv) Karnatak
(v)West Bengal
31. In the two lists given below, List I provide the list of
Perspectives, while List II indicates Criticisms of Indian
Democracy, as of July, 2018. Match the two lists and choose the
correct answer from the given below: (2020)
List I List II
(Perspective (Criticism of Indian Democracy)
)
(A)Hindu (i)Very limited space
Nationalist for direct and local
democracy
(B)Gandhian (ii) Not succeeded in ensuring
individual dignity and freedom
(C)Marxist (iii) Imitation of western democra
ignoring indigenous democrat
traditions
(D)Liberal (iv) Sham because it perpetuates
Democratic powers and privileges of the
dominant interests
Books Authors
Codes:
(a) (A)-(ii) (B)-(iii) (C)-(iv) (D)-(i)
(b) (A)-(iii) (B)-(ii) (C)-(i) (D)-(iv)
(c) (A)-(iii) (B)-(iv) (C)-(i) (D)-(ii)
(d) (A)-(i) (B)-(ii) (C)-(iii) (D)-(iv)
36. Who among the following was not a member of the ‘Syndicate’
group of the Congress party? (2020)
(a) MLN. Nijalingappa
(b) Morarji Desai
(c) K. Kamaraj
(d) Y.V. Chauhan
List I List II
(Author) (Books)
(A)Rabindra I.The Naxalites and their
Ray Ideology
(B)Ashish II.The Spring Thunder
Kumar Roy and After
(C)Carole III. Gender, Development an
Spary the State in India
(D)Sanjay IV.Indian Youth and
Kumar (ed) Educational Politics
42. Which one of the following tribal movements took place in post-
independence India? (2021)
(a) The Santhal Rebellion
(b) The Bodo Movement
(c) The Birsa Munda Rebellion
(d) The Kol Rebellion
43. When did the first labour agitation occur in India? (2021)
(a) 1875
(b) 1890
(c) 1900
(d) 1921
46. Match List-I with List-II and identify the correct answer from the
codes given below. (2021)
List I List II
(Approach to study (Name of Book and Author
Indian Politics)
C. Legal Approach
3. The modernity of Tradition,
Rudolphand Rudolph
D. Politico-sociological
4. The Republic of India, Allen
Approach
Gledhill
Codes:
(a) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
(b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
(c) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(d) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
47. For the First time the communist party of India came into
power in the state of (2021)
(a) West Bengal
(b) Tripura
(c) Kerala
(d) Goa
49. Match the pairs using the codes given below: (2021)
List I List II
(A)Political party (i)All India Kisan
Sabha
(B)Civil society (ii) Save the Smile Foundatio
campaign
(C)NGO (iii) Trinamool Congress
(D)Interest group (iv) Anna Hazare’s agitation f
Lokpal
Codes:
(a) (A) → (iii), (B) → (iv), (C) → (ii), (D) → (i)
(b) (A) → (ii), (B) → (i), (C) → (iv), (D) → (iii)
(c) (A) → (i), (B) → (ii), (C) → (iii), (D) → (iv)
(d) (A) → (iii), (B) → (ii), (C) → (iv), (D) → (i)
50. Civil Society Group that launched campaign in Delhi in the year
2011 under the leadership of Anna Hajare in 2011 is
_________ . (2021)
(a) Narmada Bachao Andolan
(b) India Against Corruption
(c) Lokpal
(d) Delhi Against Corruption
Answer Key
17. Congress was the only national party at the time of Independence
which was spread at the pan India level. Most of the popular
leaders were in Congress party. All of these factors played the key
role in congress dominance in India Polity from 1950-1967. After
the 1967 congress split and era of coalition governments began at
the state level, but congress was dominant at the state level. Rajni
Kothari conceptualized this era of Congress dominance as
‘Congress System’.
24. Bhartiya Janata Party which emerged after Jan Sangh in 1980s
incorporated Gandhian Socialism as its ideology for the party. Atal
Bihari Vajpayee, a founding member of BJP also reiterated that
BJP should now broaden its ideological horizon. Gandhian
socialism based on Gandhi’s interpretation of society and his work
Hind Swaraj.
47. Kerala was the first state where first communist party of India
government was elected. Under the leadership of EMS
Namboodiripad, communist party of India formed government in
first kerala legislative assembly in 1957.
INTRODUCTION
As a subject of study, Public Administration might seem like new and recently-
developed discipline of 20th century, but as a practice it is prevalent since time
immemorial. With the rise of civilization, the requirement of administration
originated and it excited in different forms and patterns since ancient times.
L D White said, “Public administration consists of all those operations
having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.”
Academicians argue that all executive aspect of government functioning
comprises public administration. Woodrow Wilson claimed that public
administration is a detailed and systematic application of law. One can also
say that public administration is nothing but the policies, practices, rules and
regulation etc., in action.
i) Comparative Administration
Systems Theory
Systems Theory comprehends society as a system consisting of various
subsystems within it. It sees society as an open system in which the agenda
of public administration gets infleucned by the environment within which it is
located. It rejects the closed system phenomena propagated by the classical
theory of organization.
Main proponent
David Easton in his book ‘The Political System’ (1953) and later ‘A Framework
of Policy Analysis’(1965) and ‘A system Analysis of Political Life’ asserted that
political system is part of the society which is engaged in ‘authoritative
allocation of values’.
Figure 1.2 Diagram of Eastonȉs System Approach
Decision-Making Theory
Decision-making is intricately interlinked with public adminitration. However,
decision- making is a conscious effort involving rational choices between
available options and involves complex processes such as identifying the
problem, looking for solutions, weighing on their desirability, examining its
efficiency, etc.
Public-Choice Theory
Public-choice theory is based on methodological individualism and rational
choice. It derives ideological support from the New Right philosophy. It
became famous in 1960s in the writings of Vincent Ostrom. Important
Thinkers: James Buchanan, Gordon Tullock, William A. Niskanen and William
C. Mitchell.
Public-choice theory envisages the role of citizen as a consumer with
emphasis on the element of choice. Vincent Ostrom aserts that public-choice
is the most apprpriate approach to study public administration. This school
argues that bureaucracy is a self-seeking agency which does more harm than
good to public welfare. Hence, Niskanen suggested measures such as stricter
control on bureucrats, competition, privatization and contracting out,
dissemination of information for public benefit, etc.
Bargaining Approach
Charles E. Lindblom is the main advocate. He suggested that decision-
making in public administration is value laden and conflcit –prone. In his
essay ‘The Science of Muddling Through’ (1959) , he came out with a
perspective called incremental approach of decision-making. Decision-making
is comprised of two varieties:
Lindblom argues that the second method reflects the administrative reality.
POSTULATES OF DECISION-MAKING
i. Decision-making is incremental in nature and decisions are not made
in single go but through small and calibrated steps.
ii. It is always incomprehensive. Administrators cannot take into account
whole range of options at their disposal.
iii. Policy is never made forever but is made and remade continuously
through small chains of comparisons.
iv. It rests on pluralist conception of public sector meaning competing
interest groups exert significant influence over policy decisions.
ECOLOGICAL APPROACH
Fred W. Riggs is the chief advocate of ecological approach. It incorporates the
socio-cultural, political and economic environment within which an
administrative apparatus is situated.
Famous works of Fred Riggs includes The Ecology of Public
Administration (1961) and Administration in Developing Countries: The
Theory of Prismatic Society (1964).
Rigg’s approach relies upon a structural-functionalism and attempts to
understand societies as typologies such as Fused, Prismatic and Diffracted
charcterizing underdeveloped, developing and developed societies,
respectively. Riggs analyzed the relationship between administrative systems
and ecological factors- history, social structures, traditions, customs,
economic situation, political symbols, technology and communication, etc., in
a larger perspective.
His models of ‘Agraria’, Industria,’ ‘Fused’, ‘Prismatic,’ and ‘Diffracted’
societies and their respective administrative systems are rooted in the
ecological approach.
Scholars Books
Options:
(a) I(A) II(B) III(C) IV(D)
(b) I(D) II(C) III(B) IV(A)
(c) I(B) II(D) III(A) IV(B)
(d) I(C) II(A) III (B) IV(D)
B. Heterogenity
C. Overlapping
D. Attainment values
(a) C and D
(b) A and B
(c) A, B and C
(d) All the above
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (a) (d) (b) (c) (b) (a)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(c) (d)
CHAPTER 2
Theories of Public Administration
and Concepts
In 1967, during one of the meetings of the group, Riggs outlined three broad
trends in CPA:
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
It was originated in the 1950s as a vehicle to usher in speedy ‘development’ in
the post-colonial Third World. The term ‘development administration’ was
coined by an Indian Civil Servant, U.L. Goswami in his article ‘The
Structure of Development Administration in India’ in 1955 in the
context of community development programmes.
However, its conceptual elaboration was done by Western scholars.
George Gant is known as the Father of Development Administration (DA).
Other prominent names associated with this school were F.W. Riggs, Edward
Weidner, John Montegomery and Alfred Diamant. Comparative Administrative
Group provided the intellectual substratum to DA.
Edward Weidner defined DA as ‘an action-oriented, goal-oriented
administrative system guiding an organization towards the achievement of
progressive political, economic and social objectives.
Context of Origin
‘Crisis of identity’ haunting public administration in the backdrop of turbulence
that had gripped American society amid a plethora of issues ranging from
Vietnam war to ethic skirmishes and campus clashes.
The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service was released in
the year 1967 which stimulated the need for developing a new vocabulary of
public administration. The Minnowbrook Conference I in 1968 at Syracuse
University was attended by young intellectuals from different branches of
social science. It was held under the chairmanship of Dwight Waldo. Waldo is
also known as the Father of New Public Administration.
In 1971, Frank Marini published a book ‘Towards a new Public
Administration’ . This book emphasizes on the following themes: -
GOALS OF NPA
a. Relevance
b. Value based
c. Social Equity
d. Change
e. Client Focused
CONTEXT OF ORIGIN
NPM was the outcome of Minnowbrook Conference II in 1988. It was held
under the chairmanship of H George Frederickson. Its proceedings were
published by Richard T. Mayor and Timmy Bailey under the title – ‘Public
Management in the Inter-Connected World: Essays in the
Minnow Brook Tradition’ (1990).
NPA NPM
Citizen as client Citizen as customer
Focuses on socio economic Focuses on competition and market
development
Follows blue-print approach → Learning process aproach →
bureaucratic empowerment for plan peoples’ empowerment in plan
formulation (professional public implementation (empowerment of
service dedicated to both efficiency individual customers to make their
& social equity) own choices)
State interventionism State minimalism
Social equity as a goal Market equity as a goal
State choice dominates upon public Public choice dominates upon state
choice choice
Leads to welfare government Leads to entrepreneurial
government
Values: Humanistic values, Values of: Individual choice,
institution building and professional provision of incentives, use of
competence, matters of justice & competition and market as a model
fairness broadly under the label of for govt.
social equity
Expenditure oriented government Revenue generation oriented
government
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE ERA OF
LIBERALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has brought a paradigm shift in the nature and scope of public
administration as it paved way for a more flexible, less hierarchical and
accommodative kind of discipline informed by networks and collaboration.
With the advent of globalization and gradual retreat of state from many
core areas, public administration has become more proactive and assertive
rather than taking the backseat. Globalization has rejuvenated the role of PA
from being an enabler to a facilitator. It has recalibrated itself and welcome the
help of civil society (such as NGOs) and market, i.e. private sector in
dispensing delivery of public goods and services.
B. Anti-Capitalist
C. Anti-Technical
D. Anti-Scientific
Options:
(a) A and C
(b) B and D
(c) A and D
(d) B and C
II.New Public
Management 2. Change oriented
Codes:
(a) I A, II C, III B, IV D
(b) I B, II A, III D, IV C
(c) I B, II C, III D, IV A
(d) I C, II D, III A, IV B
13. Which of the following goals was not prescribed by the New Public
Management Theory?
(a) Contracting out
(b) Maximum government
(c) Cost-Cutting in public services
(d) De-bureaucratization
Answer Key
INTRODUCTION
The principles of organisation are guidelines for planning an efficient
organisation structure. The old theories of organisations are classified as
classical theories of organisation. The origin of classical theories can be
traced back to the writings of F.W. Taylor, Max Weber, James Moorey, E.F.L.
Beach and Lois Allen. On the other hand, the modern organisation theory
considers the dynamic conditions at micro and macro levels. It recognizes the
dramatic changes taking place in the society. The Modern Organisation
Theory is a collection of views of different thinkers of organisation.
Functional Foremanship
Taylor advocated the concept of functional foremanship under which a worker
is supervised and guided by eight functional foremen (i.e., specialised
supervisors). Thus, he rejected the system of single foremanship.
Motion Study
It is a technique of standardisation of work methods. It is meant for finding out
the ‘one best way’ to do a work.
Time Study
Time Study It is used to determine the standard time for completion of work. It
facilitates planning of a large daily tasks and follows the motion study.
Piece-Rate Plan
Under this plan, workers are paid a low piece rate up to a standard, a large
bonus at the standard and a higher piece rate above the standard. He
suggested that a worker who is unable or unwilling to produce the standard
should be removed.
Exceptional Principle
It involves setting up a large daily task by the management, with reward for
achieving targets and penalty for not meeting it.
Taylor also developed others techniques as well to serve his principles of
scientific management, the prominent being are mentioned above.
Criticism
1. It was criticised as a mechanistic theory of organisation as it neglected
the human side of the organisation. It was opposed by the workers.
2. It underestimated and oversimplified human motivation. It explained
human motivation mainly in terms of economic factors and hence
came to be known as the ‘monistic theory’ of motivation.
3. It was described as the ‘physiological organisation theory’ by March
and Simon due to its concern with only that range of worker’s
behaviour which pertained to production.
4. It received the greatest opposition from the trade unions. The basic
ideals of scientific management and labour unionism were not
compatible. It was also opposed by the managers.
BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
The term “bureaucracy” was first coined by Vincent de Gourney, a French
economist in 1745. Thomas Carlyle described the spread of the term as “the
continental nuisance’. The systematic study of bureaucracy began with Max
Weber, the German sociologist.
Max Weber called his formulation of bureaucracy as ideal type. The
ideal type is a mental map (or mental construct). In its conceptual purity this
mental construct cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality. Thus, it is a
utopia. A few features are important to know about Weberian Model:
Of the three types of authority, Weber preferred the legal type of authority
because it inherits rationality. He states ‘legal authority’ is suitable for the
modern governments.
Weber designed his ‘ideal type of bureaucracy’ keeping the ‘legal-
rationality’ in mind.
His model of bureaucracy is also known as ‘Weberian Model of
Bureaucracy’.
Weber provided Six Principles of Bureaucracy.
Principle Explanation
Authority Hierarchy A bureaucratic organization has two fundamental
components:
Chains of command and Positional roles or
functions in an organization
Formal Rules and Guidelines that dictate how things should be done.
Regulations
Division of Labour Jobs are divided into simple, routine, and well-
defined tasks.
Impersonality The relationship between employees must be
professional. Controls and rules and regulations are
applied to all uniformly, irrespective of the members’
personalities, positions, and preferences.
Principle Explanation
Career Orientation Employees should be given career paths where
they can grow into different roles over time, while
still getting opportunities to try new things
Formal Selection Members required by the organization are selected
Process on the basis of specific qualification as
demonstrated by their formal examination,
education, and training.
CRITICISM
Weber’s bureaucratic model was criticised by subsequent social scientists on
various grounds. They are:
Criticism
Mayo and his Human Relations Theory were criticised on the following
grounds:
B. Functional foremanship
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (c) (c) (d) (d) (d) (a)
2. 4.
6. (c)
(a) (b)
CHAPTER 4
Managing the Organization
INTRODUCTION
A person who is motivated works in a particular way to accomplish desired
goals because they are in a state of mind that is energized and enthusiastic.
Motivation is a factor that encourages someone to work harder and be more
committed even when the odds are stacked against them. Human activity
frequently takes the form of sustained motivation. Many motivation theories
have been proposed by many psychologists after extensive research and
observation of human behavior. These theories fall into one of two categories:
1. Content-based theories
2. Process-based theories
He saw that the effects of each component were different. Even though
eliminating sources of unhappiness is important, sources of enjoyment can
increase people’s motivation. He developed the “Dual Unipolar Trait
Theory,” which argued that the satisfiers and dissatisfiers did not represent
the two extremes of a single continuum, but rather belonged to independent
continuums.
Benevolent
authoritative One-way Employee Competiti
Based on rewards s more on can
Decision making in motivated cause
centralized team
Master-servant conflict
relationship Only
motivated
by
rewards
Leadershi Characteristics Advantages Disadvantage
p Style s
Consultative
Two-way Employee Decision
communication but s feel Making
upward more process
communicationn is freedom can take
limited to longer
Lower level communi
employees are cate and
seen as make
consultants company
The decision decisions
making is limited Lower
and decentralized level
Managers talk to employee
their subordinates s are
about problems more
and action plans likely to
before they set accept
organizational change
goals because
of their
involveme
nt in
decisions.
Leadershi Characteristics Advantages Disadvantage
p Style s
Participative
Two-way Creativity Decision
communication Team Making
Leadership based commitm process
on group ent and can take
participation acceptan longer
The decision ce of
making is goals
decentralized Higher
Open minded productio
High trust n from
Values employee
relationships s
Team
members
hold each
other
accounta
ble
THEORY X
According to McGregor, the following traditional assumptions about human
nature are included in Theory X:
The majority of people despise work and will try to avoid it at all costs.
Because most people dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, directed,
and threatened with punishment in order to put forth adequate effort towards
the achievement of organizational objectives. Average people prefer to be
directed, avoid responsibility, have little ambition, and value security above all
else. Workers must be convinced and pushed to perform based on these
assumptions. External control is thought to be appropriate when dealing with
untrustworthy, irresponsible, and immature individuals.
According to McGregor, an organization based on Theory ‘X’ concepts will
have close supervision and control of subordinates, as well as a high level of
centralization of authority. Leadership in such organizations is likely to be
autocratic, with workers having little influence over decisions that affect them.
The climate in a Theory X organization would be impersonal. This theory
suggests using the ‘Carrot and Stick Approach.’
THEORY Y
He advanced Theory Y, which he claimed would better represent human
behavior. Work requires both physical and mental effort, and it is as natural as
play or rest. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only
ways to motivate employees to work towards organizational goals. People will
exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of goals to which they are
dedicated. The level of commitment to goals is proportional to the size of the
rewards associated with their achievement. Under the right conditions,
average people learn not only to accept but also to seek responsibility.
The central principle implicit in Theory Y’s assumptions is that behavior
integration is the key process in management because it results in the
creation of conditions conducive for members to achieve their own goals best
by directing their efforts towards the success of the enterprise.
2. security needs
3. esteem needs
4. social needs
5. self-actualization needs
(a) a, b, d, c, e
(b) a, d, b, c, e
(c) b, a, d, c, e
(d) b, d, a, c, e
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (b) (d) (d) (a) (a) (a)
2. 4. 6. (a)
(a) (c)
CHAPTER 5
Organizational Communication
INTRODUCTION
Man is a sociable animal and communication comes naturally to him. His
basic tendency is to share his emotions and ideas. In the same way that
food is where we get nourishment for our bodies, communication is
where we get nourishment for our social systems. Human growth in both
the physical and mental realms is inextricably related to communication.
The conversation keeps people connected from conception to death. One
matures and learns to comprehend the other. Human relationships can
be said to be built on communication.
MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
The Latin term communism, which means to convey or make common, is
where the word communication first appeared. Communication is the act
of exchanging ideas and emotions with another person, or of bringing
thoughts into general use and sharing them with others. Sanchar is the
translation of the English term into Hindi, which is a word that was
created from the word commune.
This implies that to exchange is to give. Ideas are exchanged in
communication, which is a two-way process. Without communication, it is
impossible to mobilize human resources. Albin Dye acknowledges the
significance of communication in management and claims that
“Communication is the basic difficulty of management.” According to
Theo Hymen, effective communication is essential for managerial duties
to succeed. According to Terry, communication serves as the lubricant
that keeps the management process flowing smoothly.
(i) Division
of
Labour
(ii) Scalar and
functional
Processes
(iii) Structure
(iv) Span of
Control
Formal
organization is a
result of
planning,
structure is
determined by
top
management.
STEPS IN COMMUNICATION
1. The message is composed by the sender, who also chooses the
best delivery method.
2. In the second phase, the message is sent, and the sender makes
every effort to ensure that there is no interference during
transmission and that the message can be understood by the
recipient without any interruption.
3. The receiver decodes the message and seeks to verify it if
necessary.
4. After comprehending the communication they have just received,
the receiver provides feedback to the sender.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Barnard suggested seven principles of communication which are
important in establishing and maintaining objective authority in an
organization.
ZONE OF INDIFFERENCE
Barnard identified the “zone of indifference” in accordance with the
accepted philosophy of authority. According to Barnard, the staff either
agrees or disagrees with the decisions, or they accept them partially or
wholeheartedly. Uncontested choices or commands are followed without
complaint since the workforce never loses hope. They frequently don’t
care about (or don’t respond to) such commands or judgments. An area
of indifference can only be produced by these. Here, the manager and
the employees can agree on the rules and directives. It is obvious that
the zone of indifference controls how authority is regarded.
Figure depicting zone of indifference
Answer Key
1. 4. 7.
10. (c)
(c) (a) (c)
2. 5. 8. (d)
(c) (b)
3. 6.
9. (d)
(b) (d)
CHAPTER 6
Management of Conflicts and
Objectives
1. It resolves once and for all the original conflict as it goes to the root o
the problem.
2. It makes use of better techniques and saves time and resources.
3. It leads to the emergence of new values and develops a new situation.
1. According to Follet, each side should recognise for itself what its rea
needs are and bring the differences into the open instead o
suppressing them.
2. Breaking down whole demands into their constituent
parts, to consider the demands of both sides involved in the conflict,
and to break them into their constituent parts involves the examination
of symbols, the use of which are unavoidable in organizational work.
3. Anticipation of the conflict, does not mean the avoidance of
conflict but responding to it differently. There is a need for preparation
for response as well.
M.P. Follet was a specialist in the field of administrative theory with a special
focus on individuals in organisation. Overcoming and managing conflicts was
a major part of her research.
ADVANTAGES OF MBO
Employees take joy in their work and are given goals that they know
they can attain based on their abilities, skills, and educational
background.
Assigning personalised goals gives employees a sense of importance,
increasing their performance and commitment to the organisation.
Management and staff communication is improved and can set goals
that will lead to the company’s success.
DISADVANTAGES OF MBO
Because MBO is focused on goals and targets, it frequently overlooks
other aspects of a firm, such as conduct culture, a healthy work ethos,
and opportunities for involvement and contribution.
Employees are under additional pressure to accomplish targets within
a given time window.
If management relies only on MBO for all management obligations, it
can be difficult in areas where MBO does not apply.
B. Compromise
C. Surrender
D. Integration
Select the most suitable answer from the options given below:
(a) A, B and C
(b) A, B and D
(c) B, C and D
(d) A, B, C and D
9. Who among the following was the first to advance the idea of worke
participation in management?
(a) Henry Fayol
(b) Herbert Simon
(c) F.W. Taylor
(d) Mary Parker Follet
B. Creative Experience
C. The New State
D. Dynamic Administration
(a) A, C, B, D
(b) A, B, C, D
(c) D, C, B, A
(D) A, D, C, B
Answer Key
1. 4. 7.
10. (a)
(b) (a) (c)
2. 5.
8. (a)
(b) (c)
3. 6.
9. (d)
(d) (b)
Previous Years’ Questions
3. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from the
codes given below: (2017)
Assertion (A): Weberian claim of bureaucracy representing highest
extent of rationality did not fit in with the real-life situation in public
administration.
Reason (R): Rationality maximisation is not what is intended in the
actual process of administering.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
4. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes
given below: (2017)
List I List II
(Author) (Books)
(A)Jayartanuja (i)Engaging the
Bandyopadhyay World
(B)J.N. Dixit (ii) Continuity and Change: India’
Foreign Policy
(C)I.K. Gujral (iii) Indian Foreign Policy and its
Neighbours
(D)Rajan Harshe and (iv) The Making of India’s Forein
K.M. Sethi Policy
List I List II
(A)Decision Making I.Fred Riggs
(B)Ecological Approach II.Edward Weidner
(C)New Public Administration III. Herbert
Simon
(D)Development IV.Minnowbrook Conference
Administration 1968
11. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other as Reason (R). Choose the correct answer using the
codes given below (2018)
Assertion (A): “Henri Fayol identified five elements as the primary
functions of management activity. “
Reason (R): According to Henri Fayol, “knowledge of administration is
needed at higher levels of an organisation, rather than technical
knowledge. “
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
12. Which one among the following is the correct ascending order of
Commission / Committees appointed in the USA? (2018)
(a) Hoover Commission, Taft Commission, The Grace Commis
Brownlow Committee.
(b) The Grace Commission, Hoover Commission Taft Commis
Brownlow Committee.
(c) Taft Commission, Brownlow Committee, Hoover Commission,
Grace Commission.
(d) Brownlow Committee, Taft Commission The Grace Commis
Hoover Commission.
19. Who among the following has coined the terms ‘The stick’, ‘The
deal’, ‘The kiss’, for influencing the decisions? (2019)
(a) E . E . Schattschneider
(b) Keith Boulding
(c) Robert Dahl
(d) Kate Millet
20. Match List-I and List-II and select the correct answer by using the
codes given below: (2019)
List I List II
Code:
(a) (A)-3, (B)-2, (C)-1, (D)-4
(b) (A)-2, (B)-4, (C)-3, (D)-1
(c) (A)-3, (B)-4, (C)-1, (D)-2
(d) (A)-3, (B)-2, (C)-4, (D)-1
List I List II
Books Authors
(A)Policy Science (I)Robert
Dahl
(B)Principles of Public Administration (II) Herbert
Simon
(C)Administrative Behaviour: A Study of Decision (III) D. Lerner
Making Processes in Administrative Herald
Organisations Larswele
(D)The Science of Public Administration: Three (IV) W.F.
Problems Willoughb
24. In the two lists given below, List I provide the list of Approaches,
while List II indicates Characteristics. Match the two lists and
choose the correct answer from the given below: (2019)
List I List II
(Approach) (Characteristic)
(A)Ecological (i)Legal-Rational
(B)Decision-making (ii) Negative Feedback
(C)Bureaucratic (iii) Agraria-Industria
(D)General system (iv) Fact-value Propositio9n
28. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below: (2020)
List I List II
(Articles) (Provision)
(A)Edward (i)Comparative Administration
Weidner Group
(B)Martin Landau (ii) Mixed Scanning
(C)Amitai Etzioni (iii) Development
Administration
(D)Herbert Simon (iv) Rational Approach
Codes:
(a) (A)-(iii), (B)-(ii), (C)-(i), (D)-(iv)
(b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(iii), (D)-(i)
(c) (A)-(iii), (B)-(i), (C)-(ii), (D)-(iv)
(d) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(iv), (D)-(ii)
29. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer from
the codes given below: (2020)
Assertion (A): The traditional theory of motivation complements the
‘economic man’ concept given by F.W. Taylor.
Reason (R): Material rewards are incentives for members of
organizations to work harder for more material benefits.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
34. Which of the following are the advanced ideas of Mary Follett?
(2020)
(A) Functional Foremanship
(B) Constructive Conflict
(C) Zone of Acceptance
(D) Integration
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(a) A and B only
(b) B and C only
(c) C and D only
(d) B and D only
List I List II
(A)Frederick Taylor I.Functions of the
Executive
(B)Peter Drucker II.Mental Revolution
(C)Chester Bernard III. Management by
Objectives
(D)Abraham IV.Motivation
Maslow
41. What was the name of the section which replaced Comparative
Administration Group of the American Society of Public
Administration? (2020)
(a) Section of American Public Administration (SAP)
(b) Section on Comparative Administration (SCA)
(c) Section on International Public Administration (SIP)
(d) Section on International and Comparative Public Administration (S
42. Domicile qualification for public appointments was first used in:
(2020)
(a) the U.K.
(b) the U.S.A .
(c) India
(d) Australia
44. Which one of the following is not included in the elements of Public
Policy by Austin Rammey ? (2020)
(a) A set of objectives
(b) A selected line of action
(c) An implementation of intent
(d) Reconsideration of objectives
48. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Choose the correct answer by
using the codes given below: (2021)
Assertion (A): “Both staff and auxiliary agencies assist the line
agencies but are distinct from each other”.
Reason (R): “Auxiliary agencies have no operating responsibilities”.
Codes:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
49. Assheton committee (1944) did not include one of the following in
the objects of training of civil servants: (2021)
(a) To produce reliable work-skill
(b) Flexibility
(c) To broaden the mind of the trainee
(d) To develop leadership qualities
50. Which one of the following is not a feature of new public
management ? (2021)
(a) Focus on policy
(b) Cost-cutting
(c) Emphasis on output targets and limited term contracts.
(d) Focus on management.
Answer Key
1. According to Blau and Scott, there are four types of organisations based
on cui bono or ‹who benefits› model. These are:
1. Mutual Benefit Association
2. Business Organization
3. Service Organization
4. Commonweal
10. Circular response rests upon the theory that the unit of social analysis
is the pattern of relations between actors, conceived as a single
situation produced by a union of their interests.
19. Keith Boulding coined the term ‘The stick’, ‘The deal’, ‘The kiss’ to
describe the decision making process. Boulding describes decision-
making requires or influenced by three ways- the stick (coercion), the
deal (negotiations and mutual agreements), and the kiss (loyalty or
commitment to individual).
24.
42. Domicile qualification for public appointments was first used by USA to
maintain federal structure of the US polity. Domicile means a person
record of his current residence. When countries are federating or
divided into states which follows two legal systems then citizenship will
be different. For example, one is citizen of India and domicile in Delhi.
INTRODUCTION
Governance is defined as the creation and administration of formal and
informal rules that govern the public realm, which is the arena in which state,
economic, and societal actors interact to make decisions.
Governance is more than just rule or administration. It has a broader
connotation because it also emphasises the purpose. That is, unlike public
administration, governance focuses not only on the structure and activities of
the organisation, but also on its goals, aims, and purpose of formation.
Governance as a whole is supported by ‘participatory democracy’ and
‘neoliberal reforms’ that brought about a shift in public administration. In the
age of globalisation, the transition from government to governance shows a
shift from coordinated hierarchical institutions and processes of social steering
to a network-based process of interchange and negotiation.
GOOD GOVERNANCE
In 1989, the concept of ‘Governance’ was first highlighted in the World Bank
document on Sub-Saharan Africa titled “Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crises to
Sustainable Growth”. Good Governance was meant, at that time, sound
development management.
In the 1992 report entitled “Governance and Development”, the World
Bank defined Good Governance. It defined Good Governance as “the manner
in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and
social resources for development”.
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), there
are eight core characteristics of good governance:
1. Participation: Participation of all sections of society is essential to
good governance; participatory governance allows citizens to
participate in government decision-making, implementation, and
monitoring.
2. Consensus-driven: Good governance necessitates the mediation
of many societal interests in order to create a wide consensus on what
is in the best interests of the entire society and how to achieve it. It
also demands a wide and long-term view of what is required for long-
term human development and how to achieve such goals.
3. Rule of Law: Fair legal frameworks that are impartially applied are
required for good governance. It also necessitates complete protection
of human rights, especially those of minorities and vulnerable people
in society.
4. Transparency:
6. The VVPAT (Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail) was used for election the
first in India in?
(a) Bye election in Noksen Assembly Seat, Nagaland
(b) State Elections in Goa
(c) Lok Sabha Election in 2014
(d) Indian President Election in 2012
8. Given below are two statements: one is labelled as Assertion (A) and th
other is labelled as Reason (R).
Assertion (A): The idea of ‘governance’ gained in prominence by
connoting a plurality of rules in place of the states’ monopoly.
Reasons (R): The idea of governance owes its origin to the World
Bank.
In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from the
options given below:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(c) (a) (d) (b) (a) (c) (a)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(b) (d)
CHAPTER 2
Accountability and Control in
India
INTRODUCTION
Accountability may refer to the legal and hierarchical views of
responsibility. It denotes specifically as the process of checking
whether actions are being taken as planned.
Article Provision
Article 13(2) Judiciary can review any legislative law made
by the Parliament.
Article 32 and 226 The Supreme Court and the High Court’s issue
writs to hold the executive and legislature
accountable.
Article 61 Impeachment of President.
Article 75 and 164 Council of Ministers responsible to Lok Sabha
and State Legislative Assembly, respectively.
Article 81 Disqualification of Members of Parliament.
Article 124 and Lay down the procedure for impeachment of
218 judges of the Supreme Court and High Court.
Article 148 Comptroller and Auditor General of India
appointed by the President is responsible for
auditing the finances made by the executive to
Parliament.
Budgetary Control
This is the most important technique of parliamentary control over
administration by which the Parliament controls the revenues and
expenditure of the Government funds. It can criticise the policies and
actions of the government and point out the lapse and failures of
administration during the process of enactment of the budget. Unless
the Appropriation Bill and the Financial Bill are passed, the executive
can’t incur expenditures and collect taxes respectively.
13. Which among the following has NOT 15 members from Lok
Sabha?
(a) Public Accounts Committee
(b) Estimates committee
(c) Committee on Public Undertakings
(d) Committee on Government Assurances
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 12. 14. 15.
(b) (d) (b) (a) (c) (c) (a)
2. 5. 8. 11. 13.
(b) (d) (c) (b) (b)
3. 6.
9. (b)
(d) (a)
CHAPTER 3
Institutional Mechanisms for Good
Governance
INTRODUCTION
In a volatile and competitive international environment, good governance
reflects competent administration and the protection of public resources.
The link between inputs and outputs is the key to effective and efficient
resource utilization. To maximize organizational performance in terms of
good governance, the best institutional processes, such as accountability,
leadership, the establishment of defined operational principles, and the
standard of control systems, should be improved.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION
According to the Indian Constitution, every individual has the right to share
his or her personal opinions with others and to express their own opinions
on any topic. Large democracies such as India are strengthened and
developed in a citizen-centered manner through the provision of right to
information.
Meaning of Right to Information: According to Right to Information, or
RTI, any Indian citizen may ask for any information from State or Central
Government agencies and departments that is regarded as public
information.
The Right to Information Act of 2005 was put into effect by the Indian
Parliament in response to this idea, strengthening Indian democracy and
bringing openness to government.
CITIZEN’S CHARTER
Although John Major created the Citizen’s Charter in the UK for the first
time in 1991, the original ideas behind it date back to Margaret Thatcher’s
era (1979–1990).
Programs like Efficiency Scrutinizer (1979), Financial Management
Initiative (1982), and Next Steps Program were created by Margaret
Thatcher (1988). It was said regarding the Citizen’s Charter in the report of
the Second Administrative Reforms Commission that it is one of these
documents. Making any organization open, accountable, and citizen-
friendly is the goal of Citizen’s Charter.
SEVOTTAM MODEL
Sevottam is a framework for achieving excellence in public service
delivery and was proposed by the 2nd Administrative Reforms
Commission (ARC).
Introduced by Department of Administrative Reforms and Public
Grievances (DARPG) in 2006.
Three component of Sevottam model :
Citizen’s Charter –Citizen input collection and setting the targets
according to requirement.
Grievance Redressal Mechanism – For satisfactory experience with
complaints’ response from the organisation.
Excellence in Service Delivery – Managing and improving
capabilities for service delivery.
Figure 3.2 Component of Sevottam Model
8. Name the committee which has investigated and submitted the repor
on the nexus of politicians and criminals.
(a) Gyan Prakash Committee
(b) Vohra Committee
(c) Goswami Committee
(d) Rajamannar Committee
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(b) (c) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (a)
CHAPTER 4
Grassroots Governance in India
INTRODUCTION
Grassroot Governance is the essence of democracy. It is on
empowerment of people at the grassroot level. Grassroot democracy
aims at empowering the powerless and giving voice to voiceless. It is the
instrument for participatory democracy and decentralization at the
grassroots level. It acts as a vehicle of socio-economic transformation. As
a result, it is critical that these bodies be effective and act meaningfully. A
bottom-up strategy is required, rather than one in which individuals are
merely observers and total dependents.
The idea of Swaraj given by Gandhi; Radical Democracy given by M.
N. Roy and Antodaya given by Deendayal Upadhyaya are Indian
versions of Grassroot Democracy.
3. The Three tier system of Panchayati raj was adopted by which state
for the first time?
(a) Rajasthan
(b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Bihar
(d) Karnataka
10. The Panchayati Raj System under the Part IX of the constitution of
India does not apply to the states of?
(a) Assam, Nagaland and Mizoram
(b) Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram
(c) Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya
(d) None
(a) A 1, B 4, C 2, D 3
(b) A 1, B3, C 2, D 4
(c) A 1, B 2, C 4, D 3
(d) A 1, B 2, C 3, D 4
Answer Key
1. 4. 7. 10. 12. 14. 15.
(a) (b) (d) (b) (c) (b) (a)
2. 5. 8. 11.
13. (a)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. 6.
9. (d)
(a) (a)
CHAPTER 5
Planning and Development in
India
INTRODUCTION
Keynesian economics is the foundation of development planning. By
clarifying roles, removing overlapping between sectors, and establishing
necessary linkages for set output levels, development planning is
expected to make the implementation process easier. India underwent a
transition in its developmental planning from macro policy planning to
neo-liberal policies in the 1990s. There has also been a gradual shift
towards Multi Level Planning in recent times.
1. Functional Decentralization
2. Financial Decentralization
3. Administrative Decentralization
4. Political Decentralization
Steps taken for better decentralisation planning:
E-Gram Swaraj portal: Launched by the Ministry of
Panchayati raj, aim to bring better transparency in planning and
program implementation.
Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA): To address the
challenges faced by the rural local bodies and increased fund flow
to Village Panchayati.
Panchayati empowerment and accountability
incentives: It is a central sector scheme aimed at incentivization
states for devolving funds, functions and functionaries
NITI AAYOG
Planning Commission was replaced by a new institution – NITI Aayog on
January 1, 2015 with emphasis on ‘Bottom-Up’ approach to envisage the
vision of Maximum Governance, Minimum Government, echoing the spirit
of ‘Cooperative Federalism’. NITI stands for National Institution for
Transforming India
Neither Constitutional nor statutory body - created by resolution of
Union cabinet.
Think-Tank of GOI
A staff agency - Advisory in nature
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(a) (a) (d) (a) (b) (b) (b)
2. 4.
6. (a)
(b) (b)
CHAPTER 6
Public Policy as an Instrument of
Socio–Economic Development
INTRODUCTION
Essentially, public policy is a set of laws, guidelines, and actions decided and
taken by governments in order to work in favor of the public. Public policy can
dictate things such as which laws are passed, where funding goes, and which
topics concern the general public. The greatest development of the post
second world war is that the two most dominant disciplines Political Science
and Economics have shifted their focus towards Policy Sciences. Harold
Laswell introduced the concept of public policy in his book ‘The Policy
Science’ co-edited by Daniel Lerner in the year 1952.
Policy has three ingredients:
1. Goals
2. A Process to achieve the goals
3. A Value Framework within which it functions
All statutory towns expected to become at least ODF+ and all cities
with less than 1 lakh population ODF++.
Focus on sanitation and solid waste management with special
emphasis on source segregation and sustainable solid waste
management.
Focuses on well- being of sanitation and informal waste workers.
Key Targets
i. To achieve universal access to good quality health care services
AYUSHMAN BHARAT
Launched in September 2018 as per the recommendations of National
Health Policy, 2017 to achieve the vision of Universal Health Coverage
(UHC) at all levels – primary, secondary and tertiary.
KEY TARGETS:
1. Reduce Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to 1/1000 live births
2. Reduce Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 25/1000 live births
3. Reduce Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to 2.1.
4. Prevention and reduction of anaemia in women aged 15 to49 years
5. Reduce household out-of-pocket expenditure on total health care
expenditure
Beneficiaries:
LATEST DEVELOPMENT
On 23rd December 2022, the Union Government announced free food
grains to beneficiaries under the NFSA for a year commencing in
January 2023, combining economic prudence and the need for a safety
net. However, PM-GKAY has been discontinued, merging it with NFSA.
As a result, more than 81.35 crore people will be provided 5 kg free
wheat/rice per person per month along with 1 kg free whole chana to
each family per month. This would incur an expenditure of ₹ 2 lakh
crore on food subsidy for the Union Government.
MGNREGA
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) is one of the largest employment guarantee programmes
in the world.
The NREGA Act was passed in the year 2005 and came into effect in
2006. It comes under Ministry of Rural Development.
The Act was first started in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh on
2nd February 2006 and initially covered 200 most impoverished
districts across India.
FEATURES OF MGNREGA
i. Primary objective of MGNREGA is to guarantee 100 days of unskilled
manual work to adult members of any rural household in a given
financial year.
ii. Adopts a rights-based approach by making right to employment a
legal entitlement.
iii. At least one-third of beneficiaries must be women.
iv. Wages to agricultural labourers must be paid according to Minimum
Wages Act, 1948.
v. Emphasis on decentralization by placing a significant role on
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in planning and implementing these
works.
vi. The Act mandates Gram Sabhas to recommend the works that are to
be undertaken and at least 50% of the work must be executed by
them.
vii. MGNREGA is a bottom –up, people oriented, demand driven, self
selecting and rights based programme. It is thus crucial for resource
management and livelihood.
RIGHT TO EDUCATION
The Right to Education (RTE) Act was enacted by the Indian
Parliament in 2009 and brought into effect from 1st April 2010.
The Act contains provisions to implement compulsory and free
education for all the children in the age group of 6 to 14 years old,
which was made a fundamental right under Article 21A in 2002 by 86th
Constitutional Amendment Act.
iii. Requires all private schools to reserve 25% of seats for children
belonging to disadvantaged sections of the society like SCs and STs,
socially backward class and differently based.
iv. Makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age
appropriate class.
6. What is the aim of AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urba
Transformation)?
(a) Ensure adequate robust sewage networks and water supply for u
households
(b) Ensure transformation of educational infrastructure in urban areas
(c) Ensure adequate robust sewage networks and water supply for
households
(d) Ensure transformation of educational infrastructure in rural areas
8. Which of the following statements are true about One Nation One Ratio
card scheme?
1. The scheme was launched in 2019.
4. The system runs with the support of two portals – Integrated Manag
Public Distribution System and Annavitran.
Codes:
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 2
2. Chiranjeevi Yojana
Codes:
(a) 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
10. Which among the following are features of Jal Jeevan Mission?
(a) It is envisioned to provide safe and adequate drinking water in
and urban areas.
(b) Based on a community approach to water.
(c) Jal Jeevan Mission (Urban) was announced by Finance Minister in
Union Budget 2021 – 22.
(d) Jal Jeevan Mission (Rural) was launched in August 2020.
Codes:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4
Answer Key
y
8. One Nation One Ration Card comes under NFSA and not MGNREGA.
INTRODUCTION
Monitoring is a continuous process of gathering and evaluating data to
evaluate a program’s effectiveness. Program planning, monitoring, and
improvement all involve the utilization of this data. India has not yet set
minimal requirements for evaluating public programs. It becomes difficult to
compare the same program across states and time because of the
considerable variance in quality and frequency of evaluations caused by their
absence. Additionally, this makes it simpler to challenge results, particularly
when they don’t live up to expectations.
There needs to be a shift in how evaluations are used in India from
primarily being used to confirm program performance to also be used for
budget and policy planning.
SOCIAL AUDIT
An organization or government uses the process of social audits to report to
its constituents on its social performance and work toward enhancing it in the
future. In 1972, Charles Medawar was a pioneer in the field.
A social audit aids in bridging the gaps between efficiency and
effectiveness as well as between the vision or aim and the real world. The
social performance of any government initiative or institution can be
measured, verified, reported on, and improved.
The Government of India and other national and international
organizations have invested a significant amount of money in human
resources since India’s independence, but the influence they have had on
social development initiatives has not been sufficient to justify their
expenditure.
B. Accountability in governance
C. Gender empowerment
D. Deepening of democracy
Select the correct answer from the below code
(a) a and d
(b) a and c
(c) b, c, d
(d) a, b, c and d.
9. Evaluation measure:
(a) The timeliness of a project‘s activities.
(b) The outcomes and impact of a project ‘s activities
(c) How closely a project kept to its budget
(d) How well the project was implemented.
Answer Key
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10.
(d) (b) (b) (c) (d) (b) (a)
2. 4.
6. (b)
(a) (c)
Previous Years’ Questions
List I List I
(A)Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act I.1988
(B)Reserve Bank of India Act II.2003
(C)Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act III. 1
(D)Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act IV.1934
List I List II
(A)E-Governance I.73rd Amendment Act
(B)Panchayati Raj II.NeGP
(C)Redressal of Grievances III. 20
(D)Right to Education IV.Ombudsman
12. The Institution of Lokayukta was created for the first time by
which state? (2018)
(a) Punjab
(b) Bihar
(c) Orissa
(d) Maharashtra
31. Which of the following are the salient features of Draft National
Water Policy 2012? (2019)
(A) Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority
(B) Incentivisation of recycle and re-use
(C) Community participation in managing the water resources proje
(D) Water user’s association should be given statutory powers
Choose the correct option from below:
(a) (A), (B) and (C)
(b) (A), (B),(C) and (D)
(c) (B), (C) and (D)
(d) (A), (B) and (D)
33. Which of the following are the main problems of nation building
in India? Select the correct answer from the code given below:
(2019)
(A) Poverty
(B) Illiteracy
(C) Trade Unions
(D) Corruption
(E) Regional Political Parties
(F) Terrorism
(a) (A), (B), (E), (F)
(b) (A), (C), (D), (E), (F)
(c) (A), (B), (D), (F)
(d) (B), (D), (E), (F)
Answer Key
1 9 17 25 33 41 49
(b) (b) (d) (c) (c) (c) (b)
2 10 18 26 34 42 50
(d) (d) (b) (a) (a) (d) (d)
3 11 19 27 35
43 (a)
(a) (a) (c) (a) (d)
4 12 20 28 36
44 (c)
(d) (d) (b) (b) (b)
5 13 21 29 37
45 (d)
(c) (d) (a) (c) (a)
6 14 22 30 38
46 (c)
(c) (c) (b) (a) (b)
7 15 23 31 39
47 (d)
(a) (d) (a) (b) (b)
8 16 24 32 40
48 (d)
(a) (b) (c) (c) (a)
30. The Consumer Protection Bill, 2019 was introduced in the Upper
House of Parliament by the Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food and
Public Distribution, Ram Vilas Paswan, on July 8, 2019. It was
passed by the Lok Sabha on July 30, 2019 and Rajya Sabha on
August 6, 2019.
33. Trade unions and regional political parties are part of the vibrant
political culture in India. So, they cannot be count as the problem
for nation building. Poverty, Illiteracy, corruption and terrorism are
big hindrance to the social and economic development of India.
Thus, the Correct answer is C.
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