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Rare Earths 101: Rare Earth Elements and The Green Energy Economy

Rare Earth Elements (REE) play an important role in enabling green energy technologies like hybrid vehicles, wind turbines, and energy efficient lighting. REE are critical components of permanent magnets, rechargeable batteries, electric motors, and other applications that help reduce fossil fuel usage and greenhouse gas emissions. While REE are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, they are difficult to find in economically viable concentrations, and China currently dominates global REE production and supply. Demand for REE is increasing as the world shifts toward renewable energy and energy efficient technologies that rely on REE materials and components.

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103 views

Rare Earths 101: Rare Earth Elements and The Green Energy Economy

Rare Earth Elements (REE) play an important role in enabling green energy technologies like hybrid vehicles, wind turbines, and energy efficient lighting. REE are critical components of permanent magnets, rechargeable batteries, electric motors, and other applications that help reduce fossil fuel usage and greenhouse gas emissions. While REE are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, they are difficult to find in economically viable concentrations, and China currently dominates global REE production and supply. Demand for REE is increasing as the world shifts toward renewable energy and energy efficient technologies that rely on REE materials and components.

Uploaded by

jj831983
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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RARE EARTHS 101

Rare Earth Elements and the Green Energy Economy

RARE EARTH BASICS


Rare Earth Elements (REE) are non-toxic elements essential to a cleaner environment and reduced reliance on fossil fuels. Also, REE are an enormous potential benefits to human health.

There are 16 REE in total, as defined by the U.S. Geological Survey, 15 lanthanide elements appearing at the bottom on the Periodic Table, with atomic numbers ranging from lanthanum (57) to lutetium (71), plus the metal yttrium (39); all of which display similar physical and chemical properties. REE deposits tend to occur in two sub-groups:

Light rare earth elements (LREE), which include lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), and samarium (Sm) Heavy rare earth elements (HREE), which are less common and more value, include europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb) and lutetium (Lu)
Yttrium (Y) most commonly occur in association with HREE sub-group REE are not particularly rare; similar abundance in the earths crust to nickel or tin, but generally not concentrated in commercial ore deposits.

COMMON PROPERTIES OF RARE EARTHS


Silvery-white metals that tarnish when exposed to air, thereby forming their oxides Relatively soft metals; hardness increases with higher atomic numbers Reacts with water to liberate hydrogen gas, slowly in cold/quickly upon heating Most REE compounds are strongly paramagnetic Burns easily in air; at elevated temperatures many rare earths ignite and burn vigorously Many REE compounds fluoresce strongly under ultraviolet light Reacts with dilute acid to release hydrogen gas rapidly at room temperature High melting and boiling points

RARE EARTH ECONOMICS


Global Supply & Demand
1794... 1953... 1965... 2003... 2008... 2015... First commercial production of rare earths flints in Austria Demand approximately 1,000 tons (US$25 million) First stand-alone rare earths mine opened at Mountain Pass, US Demand approximately 85,000 tons (US$500 million) Demand approximately 124,000 tons (US$1.25 billion) Demand approximately 200,000 tons (US$2-3 billion)

Source: IMCOA Sept 2009

Today, China produces over 95% of the worlds rare earth elements (REE). New sources are being developed in Canada, USA and Australia. In aggregate, demand and supply will be balanced; however, light rare earth elements (LREE) are expected to be in surplus while heavy rare earth elements (HREE) in deficit.

Rare Earth Elements Pricing


REE are not exchange traded therefore they are less volatile and not subject to market speculation. Prices are tracked based on industry off-take contracts. In most REE deposits, 97-99% comprise of LREE. Deposits having a high proportion of HREE are very rare. Consequently, HREE are much more valuable. Below is a five year price chart for dysprosium (HREE) vs. neodymium (LREE).

Source: metals-pages.com

RARE EARTH APPLICATIONS


REE are used in everyday products such as hybrid cars, catalytic converters, wind turbines, household appliances, industrial motors, MRI machines, computers and medical applications. These technologies contribute towards the Green Energy Economy. NdFeB PERMANENT MAGNETS (NEO MAGNETS) are much more
powerful than alternatives, providing better performance with a smaller size which has lead to many miniaturisation applications. Rare earth magnets have been advanced by neodymium (Nd), dysprosium (Dy), samarium (Sm), praseodymium (Pr) and terbium (Tb).

HYBRID VEHICLES cut


fossil fuel use by combining a gasoline engine, battery-powered electric motors and brakes that capture energy from stopping. Components requiring REE include: the metal hydride component of a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery; the electric motor, generator and regenerative braking systems which are dependent on rare earth magnets. Typical hybrid vehicle contains approximately 30 kgs of REE, with the majority contained in a typical NiMH battery (approx. 15 kgs).

WIND TURBINE
power generation is directly proportional to the sweep area of the blades and the cube of wind-speed (similar principles underlie TIDAL POWER), hence wind turbine blade spans are getting larger and the overall assemblies taller. New designs use Neo magnets for direct drive turbines connected to permanent magnet generators. New designs eliminate gearboxes thereby reducing energy losses in the machines internal operations, risk of failures and maintenance costs. Rule of thumb (if there is one), approximately 0.6 - 0.9 tonnes of Neo magnets per megawatt, of which approximately 30% is REE. Larger wind turbine-generators units require 2,000 kilograms of Neo magnets each.

REE play a critical role in automotive catalytic converters, which transform the primary pollutants in engine exhaust gases into non-toxic compounds.

ELECTRIC MOTORS can


be made smaller, lighter weight, quieter and more energy efficient with REE magnets. Used in turn-drum type washer and dryer motors helping to reduce the vibration and noise, vacuum cleaners motors, elevator wind-up motors, and compressor motors.

MRI MACHINES,
used for medical imaging and diagnostics, now incorporate rare earth permanent magnets to generate high strength magnetic fields. Permanent magnets are replacing expensive traditional systems of super cooling wire coils in liquid helium system to reduce the electrical resistance in the wire coils. New units also provide wider, less claustrophobic space for the patient.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)


are 80% more efficient than incandescent lighting, and 40% more efficient than compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). LEDs have an expected life of 50,000 hours and some are sold with five-year warranties. LED market value was approx. $4.6 billion in 2007, and expected to be more than $11 billion in 2012. Global policy shift of banning incandescent light bulbs, to be replaced by CFLs and LEDs, is gaining momentum. CFLs increasingly seen as an interim step, as they present mercury disposal management issues.

MONITORS for
computers and plasma televisions are coated with phosphors, which generate the primary colours red, blue, and green. Red requires europium, new blue europium phosphor retains brightness ten times longer than previous blue phosphors, and green is generated by phosphor doped with terbium. A combination of these primary colour phosphors are used to create the white backlight used in LCD screens and the energy efficient tri-phosphor light bulbs.

HARD DISK DRIVES, CD-ROMs


and DVDs, and voice coil motors that control the arm that reads and writes information onto a disk use Neo magnets which give better control and allows for thinner tracks and more information storage.

CONSUMER ELECTRONICS,
such as Apples iPod music players as well as other high performing speakers, headphones or buds, are driven by tiny Neo magnets, resulting in smaller, lighter speakers with faster base response and lower overall distortion.

FLUID CRACKING CATALYSTS use


lanthanum and cerium in the refining of crude oil, and is the major contributor to the process that enables the transformation of heavy molecules into lighter compounds that make up gasoline and other fuels (e.g. gas, jet fuel and diesel).

GLASS PRODUCTS
such as those used in monitors, requires cerium oxide, with unique physical and chemical properties, as a building block for very efficient polishing compounds through chemical dissolution and mechanical abrasion, such as solar cell protective glass. Rare earths used to produce highstrength glass substrates, which feature optimal properties for use in hard disks.

THIN-FILM SOLAR PANEL


made from copper, indium, gallium, (di)selenide (CIGS) are thinner and cheaper to produce.

MEDICAL:
Rare earths play a wide range of applications in drug treatments, diagnostic techniques and equipment. Catalyst in biomedical and chemical research. Organize complexes used in intravenously administered contrasting agents to enhance imaging. Laser cases and radioisotopes used in cancer treatments.

HONOURABLE MENTION: Lithium is


not a REE, although it is a rare metal, however also closely aligned to the automotive industries drive towards a sustainable green energy future. Energy storage is critical to all hybrid, hybridelectric and all-electric vehicles, and as well as for the safe and efficient operation of industrial and home tools and appliances.

THE GREEN ENERGY ECONOMY


The Green Energy Economy is an emerging marketplace that seeks to optimize the combination of social, environmental and financial values. Effectively, a triple bottom line. Environmentally sustainable based on the belief that our biosphere is a closed system with finite resources and a limited capacity for self-regulation and self-renewal. Socially just based on the belief that culture and human dignity are precious resources like our natural resources. Vibrant economic systems involve all people having access to a decent standard of living and full opportunities for personal and social development. Locally rooted based on the belief that there is an authentic connection to place and that it is an essential pre-condition to sustainability and justice. The Green Energy Economy is a global aggregate of individual communities.

Advancing the Green Energy Economy


To achieve the goals of the Green Energy Economy, we need to reduce our consumption and meet the reduced energy demands with renewable fuels (e.g. wind, sun and water). Rare Earth Elements (REE) are playing an ever-increasing role in reducing the energy needs of the equipment and infrastructure that produce, transmit, consume and store energy. Refer to Rare Earth Applications for examples.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions & Carbon Trading


Governments are taking initiatives to set specific greenhouse gas and carbon limits on industry sectors and individual companies. Carbon trading, a market valued at $100 billion globally in 2008, is expected to help reduce greenhouse gases by allowing industry to buy and sell emissions cuts. Companies can sell pollution permits to other companies that are unable to cut emissions as effectively.

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