SQL For Data Analytics

kasperanalytics.
com
9311386511
SQL FOR DATA

ANALYTICS
hr@kasperanalytics.com
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SQL : Basic to Advance
History of SQL:
SQL, short for Structured Query Language, has a history rooted in the 1970s when
IBM developed the System R project. It aimed to create a database management
system that could handle and manipulate structured data efficiently. As part of
System R, IBM introduced a language called Structured English Query Language
(SEQUEL), which
later evolved into SQL The name "SEQUEL" was already taken by another company.
The creators of the language didn't want to get sued, so they changed the name
to ‘SQL’. SQL is a backronym for "Structured Query Language." The language was
influenced by Edgar F. Codd's relational model, which introduced the concept of
organizing data into tables with relationships. Over time, SQL became the
standard language for interacting with relational databases and was
standardized by ANSI and ISO. Today, SQL is widely adopted and utilized in various
database systems, enabling organizations to manage and analyze structured
data effectively.
Let’s first understand the Data modeling and database: What is Data Modeling?
Data Modeling is a critical step in defining data structure, creating data models to
describe associations and constraints for reuse. Data model is the conceptual
design
or plan for organizing data. It visually represents data with diagrams, symbols, or
text to visualize relationships.
Enhancing data analytics, data modeling assures uniformity in nomenclature,

rules, semantics, and security. Regardless of the application, the emphasis is on
the arrangement and accessibility of the data.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Advantages of Data Modelling
• The following are the essential advantages of Data Modelling:

• The data model helps us choose the right data sources to populate the
model.
• The Data Model improves communication throughout the company.
• The data model aids in the ETL process's documentation of the data
mapping.
• We can use data modeling to query the database's data and generate
various reports based on the data. Data modeling supports data analysis
through reports.
Data Modeling Terminology:
• Entity: Entities are the objects or items in the business environment for
which we need to store data. Defines what the table is about. For example,
in an e-commerce system, entities can be Customers, Orders, or Products.
• Attribute: Attributes provide a way to structure and organize the data within
an entity. They represent the specific characteristics or properties of an
entity. For instance, attributes of a Customer entity can include Name,
Address, and Email.
• Relationship: Relationships define how entities are connected or associated
with each other. They explain the interactions and dependencies between
entities. For example, the relationship between Customers and Orders
represents that a customer can place multiple orders.
• Reference Table: A reference table is used to resolve many-to-many
relationships between entities. It transforms the relationship into one-to-
many or many-to-one relationships. For instance, in a system with
Customers and Products, a reference table called OrderDetails can be
used to link customers with the products they have ordered.
• Database Logical Design: It refers to designing the database within a
specific data model of a database management system. It involves
creating the structure, relationships, and rules of the database at a
conceptual level.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
• Logical Design: Logical design involves the creation of keys, tables, rules,
and constraints within the database. It focuses on the logical structure and
organization of data without considering specific implementation details.
• Database Physical Design: It encompasses the decisions related to file
organization, storage design, and indexing techniques for efficient data
storage and retrieval within the database.
• Physical Model: The physical model is a representation of the database
that considers implementation-specific details such as file formats,
storage mechanisms, and index structures. It translates the logical design
into an actual database implementation.
• Schema: A schema refers to the complete description or blueprint of the
database. It defines the structure, relationships, constraints, and
permissions associated with the database objects.
• Logical Schema: A logical schema represents the theoretical design of a
database. It is typically created during the initial stages of database
design, similar to drawing a structural diagram of a house. It helps visualize
the relationships and organization of The database entities and attributes
Levels of Data Abstraction:
Data modeling typically involves several levels of abstraction, including:
Conceptual level: This is the highest level of abstraction. It's about what data you
need to store, and how it relates to each other. You can use diagrams or other
visual representations to show this.
Example: You might decide that you need to store data about customers,
products, and orders. You might also decide that there is a relationship between
customers and orders, and between products and orders.
Logical level: This is the middle level of abstraction. It's about how the data will be
stored and organized. You can use data modeling languages like SQL or ER
diagrams to show this.
Example: You might decide to store the data in a relational database. You might
create tables for customers, products, and orders, and define relationships
between the tables. Physical level: The physical level is the most basic or lowest
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
abstraction. It concerns the particulars of how the data will be kept on disc. Data
types, indexes, and other technical information fall under this category.
Example: You might decide to store the data in a specific database server, and
use a specific data type for each column. You might also decide to create indexes
to improve the performance of queries.
Important perspectives of a data model:
1. Network Model:
The Network Model represents data as interconnected records with predefined

relationships. It allows for many-to-many relationships and uses a graph-like
structure.
For example, in a company's database, employees can work on multiple projects,

and each project can have multiple employees assigned to it. The Network Model
connects employee records to project records through relationship pointers,
enabling flexible relationships.
Check the below image:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
2. Entity-Relationship (ER) Model:
The ER Model represents data using entities, attributes, and relationships. Entities
are real-world objects, attributes describe their properties, and relationships
depict connections between entities. For instance, in a university database,
entities could be Students and Courses, with attributes like student ID and course
name. Relationships, such as "Student enrolls in Course," illustrate the associations
between entities.
3. Hierarchical Model:
Data is arranged in a tree-like structure with parent-child relationships using the

hierarchical model. There is one parent and several children per record. Consider
the
organizational hierarchy, where the CEO is at the top and is followed by the
managers, employees, and department heads. These hierarchical links are
graphically represented
by the hierarchical model, allowing top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top navigation.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
4. Relational Model:
The Relational Model organizes data into tables consisting of rows and columns.
It create relationships between tables using primary and foreign keys. For
example, in a customer and orders scenario, customer information is stored in
one table,
while order details are stored in another. The Relational Model connects the tables
using a shared key, like a customer ID, to link relevant records.
What is Database?
A database is like a digital warehouse where data is stored, organized, and

managed efficiently. Database is a physical or digital storage system that
implements a specific data model. Database is the actual implementation of that
design, where the data is stored and managed. It acts as a central hub for
information, making it easier to access and analyze data.
Key Components of a Database:
• Data: Data is the raw information stored in a database, such as customer

details, product information, or financial records. It can be in different
formats like text, numbers, dates, or images.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
• Tables: Tables are like virtual spreadsheets within a database. They have
rows and columns, where each row represents a specific record or
instance, and each column represents a particular piece of data. For
example, a table for customers may have columns like ID, Name, Address,
and Contact.
• Relationships: Relationships define how tables are connected within a
database. They establish associations based on shared data elements. For
instance, a customer's ID in one table can be linked to their orders in
another table. This helps maintain data consistency and enables efficient
data retrieval.
• Queries: Queries are like search commands that allow users to extract
specific data from the database. Users can search, filter, and sort data
based on the criteria they specify. For example, a query can be used to find
all customers who made a purchase in the last month.
There are various types of databases used in different scenarios based on their
design and functionality. Here are some common types of databases:
• Relational Databases (RDBMS): Relational databases separate data into

rows and columns and tables, and they build associations between tables
using keys. They are frequently used in business applications that
manipulate data using Structured Query Language (SQL). Oracle, MySQL,
and Microsoft SQL Server are a few examples.
• NoSQL Databases: NoSQL databases are Non-relational databases that
offer flexible data models without using a fixed schema. They can manage
enormous amounts of semi- or unstructured data. MongoDB, Cassandra,
and Couchbase are a few examples.
• Object-Oriented Databases: Similar to object-oriented programming,
OODBs store data as objects. They are helpful for programs that deal with
intricate interactions and data structures. Examples are ObjectDB and
db4o.
• Hierarchical Databases: Hierarchical databases organize data in a tree-like
structure, where each record has a parent-child relationship. They are
suitable for representing hierarchical relationships, such as organization
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
structures. IMS (Information Management System) is an example of a

hierarchical database.
• Network Databases: Network databases are similar to hierarchical
databases but allow for more complex relationships. They use a network
model where records can have multiple parent and child records. CODASYL
DBMS (Conference on Data Systems Languages) is an example of a
network database.
• Graph Databases: Graph databases store data in a graph structure with
nodes and edges. They are designed to represent and process
relationships between data points efficiently. They are commonly used for
social networks, recommendation engines, and network analysis. Examples
include Neo4j and Amazon Neptune.
• In-Memory Databases: In-memory databases store data primarily in
memory, resulting in faster data access and processing compared to disk-
based databases. They are suitable for applications that require high-
speed data operations. Examples include Redis and Apache Ignite.
• Time-Series Databases: Time-series databases are optimized for storing
and retrieving time-stamped data, such as sensor data, financial data, or
log files. They provide efficient storage and retrieval of time-series data for
analysis. Examples include InfluxDB and Prometheus.
Let’s Understand DBMS and RDBMS:
Although they are both software system used to manage databases, DBMS
(Database Management System) and RDBMS (Relational Database Management
System) have different qualities.
Why required DBMS?
A DBMS is required to efficiently manage the flow of data within an organization. It

handles tasks such as inserting data into the database and retrieving data from
it. The DBMS ensures the consistency and integrity of the data, as well as the
speed at which data can be accessed.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Why required RDMS?
Similarly, an RDBMS is required when we want to manage data in a relational

manner, using tables and relationships. It helps in reducing data duplication and
maintaining the integrity of the database. RDBMS ensures that data is stored in a
structured manner, allowing for efficient querying and retrieval.
Differences between DBMS and RDBMS:
What is Normalization?
The process of normalization data in a database ensures data integrity by

removing duplication. A database must be split up into various tables, and
linkages must be established between them. Different levels of normalization exist,
such as 1NF (First Normal Form), 2NF (Second Normal Form), 3NF (Third Normal
Form), and BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
1NF (First Normal Form):
In 1NF, each column in a table contains only atomic values, meaning it cannot be
further divided. There should be no repeating groups or arrays of values within a
single column. Each row in the table should be uniquely identifiable. Here's an
example:
Original Table:
1NF Table:
2NF (Second Normal Form):
In 2NF, the table is already in 1NF, and each non-key column is dependent on the
entire primary key. If there are partial dependencies, those columns should be
moved to a separate table. Here's an example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Original Table:
2NF Tables:
Table 1: Products
Table 2: Orders
3NF (Third Normal Form):
In 3NF, the table is already in 2NF, and there are no transitive dependencies. Non-
key columns should not depend on other non-key columns. If there are such
dependencies, those columns should be moved to a separate table. Here's an
example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Original Table:
3NF Tables:
Table 1: Customers
Table 2: Product
BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form):
BCNF is an advanced form of normalization that addresses certain anomalies

that can occur in 3NF. It ensures that there are no non-trivial functional
dependencies of non- key attributes on a candidate key. Achieving BCNF involves
decomposing tables further if necessary.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Binary Relationships:
A binary relationship exists when two different relationship are involved.

Accordingly, every entity in the connection has a unique association with one
entity in the other entity. For instance, a passport can only be issued to one
individual, and a person is only allowed to have one passport at a time. An
illustration of a one-to-one relationship might be this.
Cardinality:
Cardinality refers to the number of instances of an entity that can be associated

with an instance of another entity. There are four types of cardinality:
One-to-One
Each instance of one entity can only be linked to one instance of the other, and
vice versa, in a one-to-one relationship. It is commonly used to represent one-to-
one things in the actual world, such a person and their passport, and is the
strictest kind of relationship.
Example: A person can have only one passport, and a passport can be issued to
only one person.
One-to-Many
A one-to-many relationship means that each instance of one entity can be

associated with multiple instances of the other entity, but each instance of the
other entity can only be associated with one instance of the first entity. This is a
common type of relationship, and it is often used to represent hierarchical
relationships in the real world, such as a parent and their children.
Example: A customer can place multiple orders, but each order can only be
placed by one customer.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Many-to-One
An entity in A is associated to no more than one entity in B in this particular

cardinality mapping. Or, we may say that any number (zero or more) of entities or
things in A can be connected to a unit or thing in B.
Example: A single surgeon performs many operations in a specific institution. A

many-to-one relationship is one of these relationships.
Many-to-Many
A many-to-many relationship means that each instance of one entity can be

associated with multiple instances of the other entity, and each instance of the
other entity can also be associated with multiple instances of the first entity. This
is the most common type of relationship, and it is often used to represent
relationships where the order of the entities does matter, such as a student and
their courses.
Example: A student can take multiple courses, and each course can be taken by
multiple students.
Introduction to SQL:
The computer programming language SQL (Structured Query Language) was

developed especially for managing and changing relational databases. It
provides commands and statements to connect to databases, retrieve and
modify data, construct database structures, and perform numerous data tasks.
More details are provided below:
Definition and Purpose of SQL:
According to its definition and intended application, SQL is a declarative language

utilized for relational database management. By constructing queries, it enables
users to interact with databases to access, alter, and manage structured data. No
matter what database management system is used underneath, SQL provides a
standardized and efficient method for working with databases.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Why SQL?
Due to its adaptability and efficiency in maintaining relational databases, SQL is

frequently used in data science and analytics. The main justifications for SQL's
high value are as follows:
• The core activities of inserting, updating, and deleting data in relational

databases are made available to data professionals via SQ. It gives a
simple and effective method for changing data.
• SQL gives customers the ability to get particular data from relational
database management systems. Users can provide criteria and conditions
to retrieve the desired information by creating SQL queries.
• SQL is useful for expressing the structure of stored data. Users can define
the structure, data types, and relationships of database tables as well as
add, change, and delete them. SQL gives users the ability to handle
databases and their tables efficiently. In order to increase the functionality
and automation of database operations, it facilitates the construction of
views, stored procedures, and functions.
• SQL gives users the ability to define and edit data that is kept in a relational
database
• Data constraints can be specified by users, preserving the integrity and
consistency of the data.
• Data Security and Permissions: SQL has tools for granting access to and
imposing restrictions on table fields, views, and stored procedures. Giving
users the proper access rights promotes data security.
SQL constraints
• Rules for the data in a table can be specified using SQL constraints.
• The kinds of data that can be entered into a table are restricted by
constraints. This guarantees the reliability and accuracy of the data in the
table. The action is stopped if there is a violation between the constraint
and the data action.
• Column-level or table-level constraints are both possible. Table level
restrictions apply to the entire table, while column level constraints just
affect the specified column.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
In SQL, the following restrictions are frequently applied:
• NOT NULL: A column cannot have a NULL value by using the NOT NULL flag.
• UNIQUE: A unique value makes sure that each value in a column is distinct.
• PRIMARY KEY: A NOT NULL and UNIQUE combination. Identifies each table row
in a unique way.
• FOREIGN KEY: Prevent acts that would break linkages between tables.
• CHECK - Verifies if the values in a column meet a certain requirement.
• DEFAULT: If no value is specified, DEFAULT sets a default value for the
column.
• CREATE INDEX - Used to easily create and access data from the database.
NOT NULL constraint
• A column may by default contain NULL values.

• A column must not accept NULL values according to the NOT NULL
constraint.
• This forces a field to always have a value, thus you cannot add a value to
this field while adding a new record or updating an existing record.
Syntax:
Check Constraint:
• The value range that can be entered into a column is restricted by the
CHECK constraint. Only specific values will be permitted for a column if
you define a CHECK constraint on it.
• A table's CHECK constraint can be used to restrict the values in specific
columns based on the values of other columns in the same row.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example: Create check constraint:
SQL DEFAULT CONSTRAINT:
• A column's default value is set using the DEFAULT constraint.

• If no alternative value is supplied, the default value will be appended to all
new records.
• Example: Create Default.
By utilizing operations like GETDATE, the DEFAULT constraint can also be utilized to
insert system data ()
Various key types
We'll talk about keys and the many types that exist in SQL Server. Let's define keys
to get this topic started.
What is the Key?
In RDBMS systems, keys are fields that take part in the following operations on
tables: To establish connections between two tables.
• To keep a table's individuality.

• To maintain accurate and consistent data in the database.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
• Possibly speed up data retrieval by enabling indexes on column (s).
The following list includes the many key types that SQL Server supports:
• Candidate Key
• Primary Key
• Unique Key
• Alternate Key
• Composite Key
• Super Key
• Foreign Key
Candidate Key:
A candidate key is a table's primary key that has the potential to be chosen. There
may be several candidate keys in a table, but only one can be chosen to serve as
the main key. Example: The candidate keys are License Number, Employee Id, ,
and Passport Number.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Primary Key
• The table's primary key was chosen as a candidate key to uniquely identify
each record.
• Primary keys maintain unique values throughout the column and do not
permit null values. Employee Id is the primary key of the Employee table in
the example above. In SQL Server, a heap table's main key automatically
builds a clustered index (a table which does not have a clustered index is
known as a heap table). A table's nonclustered primary key can also
• be defined by explicitly specifying the kind of index.
• A table can have only one primary key, in SQL Server, the primary key can
be defined using SQL commands below:
• CRETE TABLE statement (at the time of table creation) – In this case, system
defines the name of primary key
• ALTER TABLE statement (using a primary key constraint) – User defines the
name of the primary key
• Example: Employee_Id is a primary key of Employee table.
Unique Key
• Similar to a primary key, a unique key prevents duplicate data from being
stored in a column In comparison to the primary key, it differs in the
following ways:
• One null value may be present in the column.
• On heap tables, it by default creates a nonclustered index.
Alternate Key
• The alternate key is a potential primary key for the table that has not yet
been chosen.
• For instance, other keys include License Number and Passport Number.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Composite Key
Each row in a table is uniquely identified by a composite key, sometimes referred

to as a compound key or concatenated key. A composite key's individual columns
might not be able to identify a record in a certain way. It may be a candidate key
or a primary key.
Example: To uniquely identify each row in the salary database, Employee Id and
Salary Month Year are merged. Each entry cannot be individually identified by the
Employee Id or Salary Month Year columns alone. The Employee Id and Salary
Month Year columns in the Salary database can be used to build a composite
primary key.
Super Key
• A super key is a group of columns from which the table's other columns
derive their functional dependence. Each row in a table is given a unique
identification by a collection of columns. Additional columns that are not
strictly necessary to identify each row uniquely may be included in the
super key. The minimal super keys, or subset of super keys, are the primary
key and candidate keys.
SQL syntax:
SQL syntax is the set of rules that govern how SQL statements are written. It is a
language that is used to interact with relational databases. SQL statements can
be used to create, read, update, and delete data in a database.
The basic syntax of a SQL statement is:
Keyword [parameter_1, parameter_2, ...]
The keyword is the name of the SQL statement. The parameters are the values
that are passed to the statement.
For example, the following is a SELECT statement that selects the Name and
Department ID columns from the Students table:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SELECT Name, Department ID FROM Students;
The keyword is SELECT, and the parameters are Name and Department ID.
SQL Commands
• The set of guidelines governing the writing of SQL statements is known as

SQL syntax. The commands CREATE, DROP, INSERT, and others are
employed in the SQL language to do the necessary activities.
• A table receives instructions from SQL statements. It is used to perform
some Tasks on the database. Additionally, it is utilized to carry out
particular duties, functions, and data inquiries. Table creation, data
addition, table deletion, table modification, and user permission setting
are just a few of the activities that SQL is capable of.
The five main categories into which these SQL commands fall are as follows:
• Data Definition Language (DDL)

• Data Query Language (DQL)
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Data Control Language (DCL)
• Transaction Control Language (TCL)
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
DDL (Data Definition Language)
The SQL statements that can be used to specify the database schema make up
DDL, or Data Definition Language. It is used to create and modify the structure of
database objects in the database and only works with descriptions of the
database schema.
Although data cannot be created, modified, or deleted with DDL, database

structures
can. In most cases, a typical user shouldn't use these commands; instead, they
should use an application to access the database.
DDL commands list:
CREATE: Create the database or its objects using the CREATE (like database, table,
index, function, views, store procedure, and triggers).
SYNTAX:
DROP: Use the DROP command to remove objects from the database.
SYNTAX:
TRUNCATE: This function is used to eliminate every record from a table, along with
any spaces set aside for the records.
SYNTAX:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
RENAME: This command is used to rename an existing database object.
SYNTAX
DQL (Data Query Language)
DQL is a sublanguage of SQL that is used to query data from a database.
It is a declarative language, which means that you tell the database what you
want, not how to get it.
DQL statements are made up of keywords, operators, and values.
Some common DQL keywords include SELECT, FROM, WHERE, and ORDER BY.
SYNTAX
DML (Data Manipulation Language)
The majority of SQL statements are part of the DML which is used to manipulate
data that is present in databases. It is part of the SQL statement in charge of
managing database and data access. Essentially, DML statements and DCL
statements belong together.
DML commands list:
INSERT :Data is inserted into a table using the INSERT command.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
DELETE: Delete records from a database table using the DELETE command.
SYNTAX:
LOCK: Concurrency under table management.
SYNTAX:
CALL: Call a Java or PL/SQL subprogram.
SYNTAX:
EXPLAIN PLAN: It outlines the data access route.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
DCL (Data Control Language)
DCL comprises commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which largely deal with
the rights, permissions, and other controls of the database system.
List of DCL commands:
GRANT: This command gives users access privileges to the database.
Syntax:
REVOKE: his command withdraws the user’s access privileges supplied by using
the GRANT command.
Syntax:
TCL (Transaction Control Language)
A group of tasks are combined into a single execution unit using transactions.
Each transaction starts with a particular task and is completed once every activity
in the group has been properly completed. The transaction fails if any of the tasks
are unsuccessful. Therefore, there are only two outcomes for a transaction:
success or failure. Here, you may learn more about transactions. As a result, the
following TCL commands are used to manage how a transaction is carried out:
TCL commands list:
BEGIN: Opens a transaction with BEGIN Syntax:
COMMIT: Completes a Transaction. Syntax:
COMMIT;
Rollback: When an error occurs, a transaction is rolled back. Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SAVEPOINT: Creates a transactional save point. Syntax:
The SAVEPOINT NAME;
SQL query Execution Order
SQL Statements:
The specific queries or operations entered into the database using the SQL
language are known as SQL statements. They are employed to access, modify, or
administer data stored in database tables. Keywords, expressions, clauses, and
operators make up SQL statements.
SELECT STATEMENT: MySQL
To choose data from a database, use the SELECT statement.
The information received is kept in a result table known as the result-set.
For example, in the code below, we're choosing a row from a table called
employees for a field called name.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Input
Output
SELECT *
All of the columns in the table we are searching will be returned when SELECT is
used with an asterisk (*).
Input
Output
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SELECT DISTINCT
If there are duplicate records, SELECT DISTINCT will only return one of each;
otherwise, it will provide data that is distinct. The code below would only retrieve
rows from the Employees table that had unique names.
Input
Output
Aliases (AS):
Aliases are frequently used to improve the readability of column names. An alias
only exists while that query is running.
By using the AS keyword, an alias is produced.
For instance, we're renaming the name column in the code below to fullname: AS
renames a column or table with an alias that we can choose.
Input
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
Alias for Tables
From
FROM identifies the table from which we are obtaining our data.
SQL WHERE Clause
Records can be filtered using the WHERE clause.
It is used to exclusively extract records that meet a certain requirement.
The WHERE clause is a part of an SQL SELECT statement that tells the database
which rows to return. It uses a variety of operators to compare values in the
database to values that you specify.
Input
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
NOTE: Single quotes must be used around text values in SQL. However, quotations
should not be used around numeric fields:
Operators in the WHERE Clause:
Where Clause- Tricky Questions:
1. Can you use aggregate functions in the WHERE clause?
No, you cannot use aggregate functions directly in the WHERE clause. Instead, you
typically use them in the HAVING clause to filter the results of aggregate queries.
2. What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING clauses?
The WHERE clause is used to filter rows before they are grouped or aggregated,
while the HAVING clause is used to filter grouped or aggregated results. The
HAVING clause can use aggregate functions, unlike the WHERE clause.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
3. Can you use multiple conditions in the WHERE clause?
Yes, you can combine multiple conditions using logical operators such as AND
and OR. For example:
What happens if you use a column alias in the WHERE clause?
The WHERE clause is evaluated before the SELECT clause, so you cannot use
column aliases defined in the SELECT clause directly in the WHERE clause.
However, you can use the original column name or wrap the query in a subquery.
Remember, the WHERE clause is a powerful tool for filtering and retrieving specific
data
from a table based on conditions. It allows you to narrow down the result set and
perform complex queries to meet your specific requirements.
And, or, and not operators in SQL:
• Operators like AND, OR, and NOT can be used with the WHERE clause.
• To filter records based on multiple criteria, use the AND , OR operators:
• If every condition that is divided by AND is TRUE, the AND operator displays
a record.
• If any of the terms divided by OR is TRUE, the OR operator outputs a record.
• If the condition(s) is/are NOT TRUE, the NOT operator displays a record.
AND - INPUT:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
OR – OPERATOR
Input
Output
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
NOT OPERATOR
Input
Output
SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The result set can be sorted in either ascending or descending order using the
ORDER BY keyword.
Records are typically sorted using the ORDER BY keyword in ascending order. Use
the DESC keyword to sort the records in descending order.
Example: Ascending Order by
Input
Example: Descending Order by
Input
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
Example of ORDER BY Several Columns
In this example as you can see SQL Statement selected all column from
athlete_event3 table and order by with multiple column.
Input
Output
INSERT INTO STATEMENT
To add new records to a table, use the INSERT INTO statement.
INSERT INTO Syntax
There are two methods to format the INSERT INTO statement:
1. Specify the values to be inserted together with the column names.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
2. You do not need to provide the column names in the SQL query if you are
adding values to every column of the table. However, make sure the values are
arranged in the same order as the table's column headings. In this case, the
syntax for INSERT INTO would be as follows:
Input
Output
Additionally, you can insert data entry to certain columns.
IS NULL OPERATOR
Testing for empty values is done with the IS NULL operator (NULL values). To check
for non-empty values, use the IS NOT NULL operator (NOT NULL values).
Example: The SQL statement below lists every employee whose "city" fiel has a
NULL value:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SQL DELETE Statement
Existing records in a table can be deleted using the DELETE statement. Reminder:
Take care while eliminating records from a table! In the DELETE statement, pay
attention to the WHERE clause. Which record(s) should be removed is specified by
the WHERE clause. All records in the table will be erased if the WHERE clause is left
off. Example: Check below , delete statement deleteing city toronto from
employees table
Output: Toronto city deleted.
LIMIT CLAUSE:
The number of rows to return is specified using the LIMIT clause.
On huge tables with tens of thousands of records, the LIMIT clause is helpful.
Performance may be affected if many records are returned.
The SELECT TOP clause is not supported by all database management systems. In
contrast to Oracle, which employs FETCH FIRST n ROWS ONLY and ROWNUM,
MySQL supports the LIMIT clause to restrict the number of records that are
selected.
EXAMPLE: from employees table only 2 records display
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Input
Output
SQL UPDATE Statement
The existing records in a table can be changed using the UPDATE command.
When updating records in a table, take caution! In the UPDATE statement, pay
attention to the WHERE clause. The record(s) to be modified are specified by the
WHERE clause. The table's records will all be updated if the WHERE clause is left off!
UPDATE A multiple Of Records
How many records are updated is determined by the WHERE clause.
Note: When updating records, exercise caution. ALL records will be updated if the
WHERE clause is not included!
Example: Update records fullname rana where city is London
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
SQL aggregation function:
A number of aggregation functions exist in SQL that can be used to conduct

calculations on a collection of rows and return a single value. Here are a few
aggregation functions that are frequently used:
SUM()= Determines the total of a column or expression using SUM().
for instance:
Output
AVG()= Determines the average of a column or phrase using AVG().
for instance:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
COUNT() = Returns the number of rows in a table or the number of rows that meet
a condition using the COUNT() function.
Example:
Output
MAX()= The MAX() function displays the highest value in a column or expression.
Example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
MIN()= Function display the lowest value in the column.
Output
Like Operator:
To look for a specific pattern in a column, use the LIKE operator in a WHERE clause.
Two wildcards are frequently combined with the LIKE operator:
The percent sign (%) denotes a character or many characters. The underscore
character (_) stands for a single character.
Please take note that MS Access substitutes an asterisk (*) for the percent sign
(%) and a question mark (?) for the underscore ( ).
Additionally, you can combine the underscore and the % sign!
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example: Find fullname starts with w from employees table
Output
IN SQL Operator
You can define several values in a WHERE clause by using the IN operator. The
numerous OR conditions are abbreviated as the IN operator.
Syntax:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
BETWEEN OPERATOR:
The BETWEEN operator chooses values from a predetermined range. The values
could be text, integers, or dates.
The BETWEEN operator includes both the begin and finish variables.
BETWEEN EXAMPLE: select order amount between 2100 to 2900 from customer
orders
Not between:
Example: select order amount which not in range 2100 to 2900 from customer
orders table
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
Between- Tricky Questions:
Does the BETWEEN operator include the boundary values?
Yes, the BETWEEN operator includes the boundary values. It is an inclusive range
operator, so values equal to value1 or value2 will be included in the result.
Can the BETWEEN operator be used with non-numeric data types?
Yes, the BETWEEN operator can be used with non-numeric data types such as
dates, strings, or timestamps. It compares the values based on their inherent
order or alphabetic sequence.
What happens if value1 is greater than value2 in the BETWEEN operator?
The BETWEEN operator still functions correctly even if value1 is greater than value2.
It will return rows where the column value falls within the specified range,
regardless of the order of value1 and value2.
Can you use the NOT operator with the BETWEEN operator?
Yes, you can use the NOT operator to negate the result of the BETWEEN operator.
For example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Can you use the BETWEEN operator with NULL values?
No, the BETWEEN operator cannot be used with NULL values because NULL
represents an unknown value. Instead, you can use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL
operators to check for NULL values. Can you use the BETWEEN operator with
datetime values and timestamps? Yes, the BETWEEN operator can be used with
datetime values and timestamps to filter rows within a specific date or time
range. Remember, the BETWEEN operator provides a convenient way to filter rows
based on a range of values. It is widely used for various data types and allows for
inclusive range comparisons. Understanding its behavior and nuances will help
you accurately retrieve the desired data from your database.
SQL joins
Data is kept in several tables that are connected to one another in relational
databases like SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL, and others via a common key value. As
a result, it is frequently necessary to combine data from two or more tables into
one results table. The SQL JOIN clause in SQL Server makes this simple to do. A
JOIN clause is used to combine rows from those tables based on a shared
column between two or more of the tables. They allow you to retrieve data from
multiple tables in a single query, based on common data points. Here's a detailed
explanation of SQL joins:
Types of JOINS:
Inner join/ Equijoin:
If the criteria is met, the INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables. By
merging all rows from both tables that meet the requirement—that is, have the
same value for the shared field—this keyword will provide a result set. Inner joins
are a useful way to combine data from two tables where there is a relationship
between the two tables.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Here are some of the benefits of using inner joins:
They can be used to get a more complete picture of a set of data. They can be
used to identify customers who have placed an order. They can be used to join
tables that have different schemas.
Here are some of the limitations of using inner joins:
They can return less data than other types of joins.
They can be inefficient if there are a lot of rows in the two tables that do not have
matching values.
The join condition is typically an equality comparison between the related

columns in the two tables.
You can use table aliases to simplify the syntax and improve readability.
You can join more than two tables by extending the join operation using
additional INNER JOIN clauses.
Check the below image.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example: First create table T1, and T2.
Insert values:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Right join:
This join gives back all the rows from the table on the right side of the join as well
as any matching rows from the table on the left. The result-set will include null for
any rows for which there is no matching row on the left. RIGHT OUTER JOIN is
another name for RIGHT JOIN. Similar to LEFT JOIN is RIGHT JOIN.
In simple language,
All rows from the right table are returned by the right join.
The result will exclude any rows that are present in the left table but not the right
table. Limitations: Complex queries: When using RIGHT JOINs in complex queries
involving multiple tables, it can be challenging to maintain clarity and understand
the relationship between tables. Careful consideration of table order and join
conditions is necessary to produce accurate results.
Code readability: RIGHT JOINs, especially in more complex queries, can make the
SQL code less readable and harder to interpret.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Left join:
The rows that match for the table on the right side of the join are returned along
with all of the rows from the table on the left side of the join. The result-set will
include null for all rows for which there is no matching row on the right side. LEFT
OUTER JOIN is another name for LEFT JOIN. Left joins are a useful way to get all the
data from one table, even if there is no matching data in another table.
Here are some of the benefits of using left joins:
They can be used to get a complete overview of a set of data.
They can be used to identify customers who have not yet placed an order. They
can be used to join tables that have different schemas.
Here are some of the limitations of using left joins:
They can return a lot of data, which can make it difficult to analyze.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
They can be inefficient if there are a lot of rows in the right table that do not have
a matching row in the left table.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Full Outer Join:
By combining the results of both LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN produces the
result-set. The rows from both tables are all included in the result-set. The result-
set will contain NULL values for the rows where there was no match. Full outer joins
are a useful way to get all the data from two tables,his can be helpful for getting a
complete
overview of a set of data.
Here are some of the benefits of using full outer joins:
They can be used to get a complete overview of a set of data.
They can be used to identify customers who have not yet placed an order.
They can be used to identify orders that have not yet been assigned to a
customer.
Here are some of the limitations of using full outer joins:
They can return a lot of data, which can make it difficult to analyze.
They can be inefficient if there are a lot of rows in the two tables that do not have
matching values.
Benefits of CROSS JOIN:
Cartesian product: A CROSS JOIN generates a Cartesian product of the two tables
involved, combining every row from the first table with every row from the second
table. This can be useful in scenarios where you need to explore all possible
combinations between two sets of data.
Data expansion: CROSS JOIN can be used to create additional rows, especially
when working with dimension tables or reference tables that have a small
number of rows. This expansion can be beneficial for creating test data or
generating comprehensive reports.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Limitations of CROSS JOIN:
Result set size: The result set of a CROSS JOIN can grow rapidly, especially when
joining large tables or multiple tables. The Cartesian product generates a number
of rows equal to the product of the number of rows in the joined tables, which can
lead to a significant increase in the dataset's size. Performance impact: Due to the
potential for a large result set, a CROSS JOIN operation can have a performance
impact on the database. It can consume significant resources and take longer to
execute compared to other types of joins. Check the below image:
Input
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output
Natural Join:
The NATURAL JOIN is a type of join operation in SQL that combines tables based on
columns with the same name and data type. It automatically matches columns
between tables and returns only the matching rows. Here's a detailed explanation
of the NATURAL JOIN, and the difference between NATURAL JOIN and CROSS JOIN:
Synatx:
Benefits of NATURAL JOIN:
Simplicity: NATURAL JOIN simplifies the join operation by automatically matching

columns with the same name and data type between the joined tables. It
eliminates the need to explicitly specify the join conditions, reducing the
complexity and potential for errors in the query.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Readability: NATURAL JOIN can enhance code readability as it reflects the inherent
relationship between tables based on column names. It improves query
comprehension and makes the code more intuitive and self-explanatory.
Limitations of NATURAL JOIN:
Ambiguous column names: If the joined tables contain columns with the same
name but different meanings, using NATURAL JOIN can lead to confusion or
produce incorrect results. It relies solely on column names and data types,
disregarding any semantic differences.
Lack of flexibility: NATURAL JOIN provides limited control over the join conditions. It
may not suit complex scenarios where more specific or custom join conditions
are required.
Performance implications: NATURAL JOIN might impact performance, especially

when joining large tables or in cases where indexing is not optimized for the
matching columns.
Difference between CROSS JOIN and NATURAL JOIN:
CROSS JOIN: A CROSS JOIN, or Cartesian join, combines every row from the first
table with every row from the second table, resulting in a Cartesian product. It
does
not consider any column matching or relationships between tables. It generates a

large result set that includes all possible combinations between the joined tables.
NATURAL JOIN: A NATURAL JOIN combines tables based on columns with the same
name and data type. It automatically matches the columns between tables and
returns only the matching rows. It considers the column names as the join
condition, without explicitly specifying it.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Benefits of Self Joins:
Comparing related data: Self joins allow you to compare and analyze related
data within the same table. For example, you can compare sales data for
different time periods or evaluate hierarchical relationships within organizational
data. Establishing relationships: Self joins enable you to establish relationships
between rows within a table. This is common in scenarios where data has a
hierarchical structure, such as an employee table with a self-referencing
manager column. Simplifying complex queries: Self joins simplify complex queries
by enabling you to consolidate related information in a single result set. This can
help in performing calculations, aggregations, or generating reports based on
self-related data.
Limitations of Self Joins:
Performance impact: Self joins can have a performance impact, especially on

large tables or when the join condition is not optimized. It is important to ensure
proper indexing on the relevant columns for improved performance.
Code complexity: Self joins can make the SQL code more complex and potentially
harder to read and understand. It is crucial to provide clear aliases and document
the purpose and logic of the self join for easier comprehension and maintenance.
Tricky questions related to joins:
What is a self join, and when would you use it?
A self join is a join operation where a table is joined with itself. It is useful when you
want to compare rows within the same table or establish relationships between
different rows in the table, such as hierarchical data or comparing related
records.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Can you perform a JOIN operation without specifying the JOIN condition?
No, specifying the join condition is essential for performing a join operation in SQL.
It defines the relationship between the tables being joined and determines how
the rows are matched.
How does a LEFT JOIN differ from a RIGHT JOIN?
A LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table and the matching rows from the
right table. A RIGHT JOIN, on the other hand, returns all rows from the right table
and the matching rows from the left table.
What is the result of joining a table with itself using a CROSS JOIN?
Joining a table with itself using a CROSS JOIN, also known as a Cartesian join,
results in the Cartesian product of the table. It combines every row from the table
with every other row, resulting in a potentially large result set.
Can you JOIN more than two tables in a single SQL query?
Yes, it is possible to join more than two tables in a single SQL query. This is often
required when you need to combine data from multiple tables to retrieve the
desired information.
How can you simulate a FULL OUTER JOIN in a database that does not support it?
In databases that do not support a FULL OUTER JOIN, a FULL OUTER JOIN can be
simulated by combining a LEFT JOIN and a RIGHT JOIN using the UNION operator.
What is the difference between a natural join and an equijoin?
A natural join is a join operation that automatically matches columns with the
same name and data type between the joined tables. An equijoin, on the other
hand, is a join operation that explicitly specifies the equality condition between
columns in the joined tables.
Can you use the WHERE clause to perform a JOIN operation?
While it is possible to use the WHERE clause to filter rows in a join operation, it is
generall recommended to use the JOIN condition in the ON clause for specifying
the relationship between the tables being joined.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
How can you exclude rows that match in a JOIN operation?
To exclude rows that match in a JOIN operation, you can use an OUTER JOIN (LEFT
JOIN or RIGHT JOIN) and check for NULL values in the columns of the non-
matching table. Rows with NULL values indicate that they exist in one table but not
in the other.
Can you join tables with different data types in SQL?
Yes, it is possible to join tables with different data types in SQL as long as the join
condition is based on compatible data types. SQL will automatically perform
necessary data type conversions if possible.
How can you optimize the performance of a JOIN operation?
To optimize the performance of a JOIN operation, you can ensure that the join
columns are properly indexed, use appropriate join types (e.g., INNER JOIN instead
of CROSS JOIN), and apply relevant filtering conditions to reduce the result set
size.
Is it possible to JOIN tables based on non-matching columns?
Yes, it is possible to join tables based on non-matching columns by using

conditions other than equality in the JOIN clause, such as using greater than or
less than operators.
What are the implications of using a Cartesian product (CROSS JOIN)?
The Cartesian product can result in a large result set, especially if the joined
tables have many rows. It can consume significant resources, impact query
performance, and lead to unintended data duplication if not used carefully.
Can you JOIN tables that have different column names?
Yes, it is possible to join tables that have different column names. In such cases,
you can specify the column names explicitly in the join condition using aliases or
by using the ON clause to specify the relationship between the columns with
different names.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
GROUP BY Statement:
In database management systems like SQL, the group by clause is a strong tool fo
categorizing rows of data based on one or more columns. It enables data
aggregation and summarization, delivering insightful data and facilitating
effective analysis. The COUNT(), MAX(), MIN(), SUM(), and AVG() aggregate
functions are frequently used with the GROUP BY statement to group the result set
by one or more columns. Although this feature has many advantages, it also has
some drawbacks and particular applications.
Benefits of Group By:
Data Summarization: Grouping enormous datasets according to specified criteria

enables us to summarize them. It makes it possible to compute several summary
statistics for each group, including counts, averages, sums, minimums,
maximums, and more. Understanding the broad traits and patterns in the data is
made easier by this summary. Simplified Data Analysis: Group by streamlines the
analysis process by combining relevant data. It aids in the discovery of patterns,
trends, and connections in the data. A clearer image is created by grouping data
according to pertinent criteria, which also facilitates efficient decision-making.
Restrictions for Group By:
Data Loss: Only aggregated results are shown when using the Group by clause;
the original detailed information is lost. This could be a drawback if specific data
points or
individual records must be scrutinized for more in-depth research. In some

circumstances, complex computations or unique aggregations might be
necessary, which the Group
by clause might not directly handle.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Syntax:
Example: sum up price for each city wise from aemf2 table.
Output:
HAVING clause
Since the WHERE keyword cannot be used with aggregate functions, the HAVING
clause was added to SQL
Utilizing aggregate function-based conditions, the HAVING clause in SQL is used to

restrict the results of a query. To filter grouped data, it is frequently combined with
the GROUP BY clause. After grouping and aggregation, the HAVING clause enables
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
you to apply criteria to the grouped data. In most cases, the HAVING clause is
used in conjunction with the GROUP BY clause.
The HAVING Clause's advantages include:
• Grouped Data Filtering: The HAVING clause's capacity to filter grouped data
depending on conditions is its main advantage. You can use it to specify
complicated conditions that incorporate aggregate functions and column
values to limit the result set to only the groups that match particular
requirements. Flexible Aggregate Filtering: The HAVING
• clause allows for flexible aggregate filtering of data. It enables you to
specify constraints on an aggregate function's output.
The having clause has some restrictions.
• Order of Evaluation: The GROUP BY and aggregate procedures are assessed
before the HAVING clause. Because they are not yet available during the
evaluation of the HAVING condition, column aliases and aggregate
functions established in the SELECT clause cannot be used in the HAVING
clause. Performance Impact: When working with huge datasets, the HAVING
clause may have an effect on performance.
Syntax:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example: count the person capacity who have grater then 2 with each city from
aemf2 table.
Output:
Difference between Group by and having:
Purpose:
GROUP BY: The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows together based on one or
more columns. It creates distinct groups of data based on the specified columns.
HAVING: The HAVING clause is used to filter the grouped data after the grouping
and aggregation have taken place. It applies conditions to the result of aggregate
functions.
Usage:
GROUP BY: The GROUP BY clause is used in conjunction with aggregate functions
to perform calculations and summarizations on the grouped data.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
HAVING: The HAVING clause is used to filter the grouped data based on conditions
involving aggregate functions. It narrows down the result set to only those groups
that satisfy the specified conditions.
Placement:
GROUP BY: The GROUP BY clause is placed after the FROM and WHERE clauses but
before the ORDER BY clause (if used) in a SQL query.
HAVING: The HAVING clause is placed after the GROUP BY clause in a SQL query. It
follows the GROUP BY clause and precedes the ORDER BY clause (if used).
Evaluation:
GROUP BY: The GROUP BY clause operates on the original rows of data and creates
groups based on the specified columns. It does not filter or remove any rows from
the original dataset.
HAVING:
The HAVING clause operates on the grouped data after the GROUP BY and
aggregation steps. It applies conditions to the aggregated results and filters out
groups that do not satisfy the specified conditions.
Tricky Interview Questions with Answers:
Q: What is the difference between the WHERE clause and the HAVING clause?
A: The WHERE clause is used to filter rows before grouping and aggregation, while
the HAVING clause is used to filter the grouped data after grouping and
aggregation. Q: Can you use the HAVING clause without the GROUP BY clause? A:
No, the HAVING clause is always used in conjunction with the GROUP BY clause. It
operates on the grouped data resulting from the GROUP BY clause. Q: What
happens if you include a column in the SELECT statement that is not in the GROUP
BY clause? A: In most SQL implementations, including a column in the SELECT
statement that is not in the GROUP BY clause will result in an error. However, some
databases allow it with specific configuration settings. Q: Can you have multiple
HAVING clauses in a single SQL query? A: No, a SQL query can have only one
HAVING clause. However, you can use multiple conditions within the HAVING
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
clause using logical operators such as AND and OR. Q: How is the ORDER BY clause
different from the HAVING clause? A: The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the final
result set based on specified columns, while the HAVING clause is used to filter the
grouped data based on conditions involving aggregate functions. Q: Is it possible
to use aggregate functions in the HAVING clause? A: Yes, the HAVING clause is
specifically designed to work with aggregate functions. It allows you to apply
conditions to the results of aggregate functions. Q: Can you use the GROUP BY
clause without the HAVING clause? A: Yes, the GROUP BY clause can be used
independently to group rows of data without applying any conditions or filters.
Q: What is the order of execution for the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses in a SQL
query?
A: The GROUP BY clause is executed first to create the groups, followed by the
HAVING clause, which filters the groups based on the specified conditions.
Q: What happens if you interchange the positions of the GROUP BY and HAVING
clauses in a SQL query?
A: Swapping the positions of the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses will result in a
syntax error. The GROUP BY clause should always precede the HAVING clause.
Q: Can you use non-aggregated columns in the HAVING clause?
A: No, non-aggregated columns should be used in the GROUP BY clause. The

HAVING clause operates on aggregated results and conditions should involve
aggregate functions.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Subquery
A subquery, also known as a nested or inner query, is a query nested within

another SQL query.
It's used to retrieve data that will be used in the main query to filter, sort, or
perform calculations.
Subqueries can return a single value, a single column, or a result set (a list of rows
and columns).
In-Line Subquery (Scalar Subquery):
Rules:
An in-line subquery is enclosed in parentheses and placed within the WHERE or

HAVING clause of the main query.
It must return a single value.
When to Use:
In-line subqueries are used when you need to compare each row in the main
query with a specific value or condition. They are handy when filtering or joining
based on a single value from the subquery.
Why Use:
In-line subqueries allow you to retrieve and compare individual values for each
row. They help you filter or manipulate data dynamically.
Syntax:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Limitations:
Performance issues may arise when dealing with large datasets.
In-line subqueries should return results for every row in the outer query or handle
NULL values gracefully.
Ordinary Subquery (Single-Row Subquery): Rules: An ordinary subquery is a

standalone query embedded within another query. It can return multiple rows but
must be used with operators like IN, =, <, etc. When to Use: Use ordinary subqueries
when you need to compare data across different tables or retrieve data for
filtering, sorting, or calculations. Why Use: They help to extract data from one
query to be used in another, providing flexibility and clarity.
Syntax:
Limitations:
If not optimized, ordinary subqueries can impact performance when dealing with
large datasets.
3. Combined Subquery (Correlated Subquery):
Rules:
A correlated subquery refers to a column from the outer query.
It's used when data from both the main and subqueries are needed.
When to Use:
Combine subqueries are used when you need to access data from both the main
query and the subquery.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Why Use:
They enable you to perform calculations or filter data based on the relationship
between the main query and the subquery.
Syntax:
Limitations:
Correlated subqueries can be performance-intensive if not optimized.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Union and Union all:
To concatenate the result-set of two or more SELECT statements, use the UNION
operator.
Within UNION, all SELECT statements must have an identical number of columns.
Similar data types must also be present in the columns.
Every SELECT statement's columns must be in the same order.
Syntax:
UNION ALL Syntax
By default, the UNION operator only chooses distinct values. To allow duplicate
values, use UNION ALL:
Union and Union all Key Differences:
Duplicate Rows:
UNION: The UNION operator removes duplicate rows from the final result set. It
compares all columns in the result sets and eliminates duplicates.
UNION ALL: The UNION ALL operator does not remove duplicate rows. It includes all
rows from each SELECT statement, even if there are duplicates.
Perfor mance:
UNION: The UNION operator implicitly performs a sort operation to remove

duplicates.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
This additional sorting process can impact performance, especially when dealing
with large result sets.
UNION ALL: The UNION ALL operator does not perform any sorting or elimination of
duplicates, making it generally faster than UNION.
Result Set Size:
UNION: The size of the result set produced by the UNION operator may be smaller
than the sum of the individual result sets due to the removal of duplicate rows.
UNION ALL: The size of the result set produced by the UNION ALL operator is equal
to the sum of the individual result sets, including duplicate rows.
INTERSECT:
Use: The INTERSECT operator returns rows that appear in both result sets of two or
more SELECT statements.
Limitations:
Same column and data type requirements as UNION. Generally not supported in
all database systems.
When to Use: Use INTERSECT when you want to find common rows between two or
more result sets.
Syntax
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
SQL ANY and ALL Operators:
You can compare a single column value to a variety of other values using the ANY
and ALL operators.
The ANY Operator in SQL
Using the ANY operator provides a Boolean value in the form of TRUE if ANY of the
values returned by the subquery satisfy the condition ANY denotes that the
condition will hold true if the operation holds for ANY of the values in the range. It
can be used with comparison operators such as =, >, <, >=, <=, <> (not equal).
Syntax:
Operator ALL:
provides a boolean value that, when combined with SELECT, WHERE, and HAVING
statements, returns TRUE if ALL of the subquery values satisfy the criteria.
ALL denotes that the operation must be true for each and every value in the range
for the condition to be true.
Syntax:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Differences between ANY and ALL:
Comparison Logic:
ANY: The ANY operator returns true if the comparison is true for at least one value
in the set.
ALL: The ALL operator returns true if the comparison is true for all values in the set.
Usage in Subqueries:
ANY: The ANY operator compares the single value with each value in the set
individually.
ALL: The ALL operator compares the single value with all values in the set
collectively.
MySQL Functions:
There are several built-in functions in MySQL.
This reference includes sophisticated MySQL functions as well as string, numeric,

date, and other data types.
String Functions:
String data types can be manipulated and operated on using string functions in
SQL. They offer a range of options for extracting, changing, and editing string
values. Here is a thorough description of several typical SQL string functions:
1. CONCAT(str1, str2, ...): combines one or more strings into one. Example:
Output: Returns 'Hello World'.
2. LENGTH(str): returns the length of a string, or the number of characters. Example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output: 5 is returned by
3. UPPER(str): a string is changed to uppercase.
Example:
Output: “HELLO”
4. LOWER(str): lowercases a string of characters. Example: The result of SELECT

LOWER('WORLD'
Output: is "world".
5. SUBSTRING(str, start, length): extracts a substring with a specified length and

beginning at a particular location from a string.
Example:
Output: returns 'World'.
6. STRAIGHT(str, length): gets a certain amount of characters from a string's left

side.
Example:
Output: 'Data'.
7. Wrong(str, length): a string's right side is emptied of a certain amount of

characters.
For instance,
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output: gives "ble."
8. TRIM([characters FROM] str]): Removes certain characters or leading and

trailing spaces from a string.
Example:
Output: is "Hello".
9. REPLACE(str, replacement value, search value): replaces a substring with a new

substring wherever it appears in the string.
Example:
Output: Hello, SQL!
10. STRING(str, search str): returns the location of a substring's first occurrence
within a string.
Example:
Output: There are 7 results from the query.
11. REVERSE(str): Reverses the order of characters in a string.
12. LEFT(): Returns sub string from the left of given size or characters. Example:
Output: MYSQL
13. RIGHT(): Returns a sub string from the right end of the given size. Example:
Output: .com
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Date Functions:
In SQL, date functions are used to perform various operations on date and time
data types. They provide capabilities for manipulating, extracting, and formatting
date and time values.
1. CURRENT_DATE():
Returns the current date.
Example:
Output: gives the current date.
2. CURRENT_TIME():
Gives the current time.
Output: the current time.
3. CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(): Gives both the current date and time. Example:
Output: current date and time.
4. EXTRACT(part FROM date): Extracts a part of (year, month, day, hour, minute,
second, etc.) from a date.
Example:
Output: returns 2023.
6. DATEADD(datepart, interval, date): Adds a specific interval of time to a date.

Example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output: returns '2022-04-01'.
6. DATEDIFF(datepart, start_date, end_date): Calculates the difference between

two dates as per mentioned date part (year, month, day, etc.).
Example:
Output: returns 30.
7. DATEPART(datepart, date): Gives the mentioned part (year, month, day, hour,
minute, second, etc.) of a date.
Example:
Output: returns 9.
8. DATE_FORMAT(date, format): Change a date according to the specified format.

Example:
9. TO_CHAR(date, format): Converts a date to a string using the specified format.

Example:
10. DATE_TRUNC(part, date): Truncates a date to the specified part (year, month,
day, hour, minute, second, etc.).
Example:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
11. ADD_MONTHS(date, months): Adds the specified number of months to a date.

Example:
Output: Returns '2022-04-01'.
12. LAST_DAY(date): Gives the last day of the month for a given date. Example:
13. DAYNAME(date): Gives the name of the day for a given date. Example:
Output: returns 'Saturday'.
14. MONTHNAME(date): Gives the name of the month for a given date. Example:
Output: Returns 'January'.
15. NOW(): Gives the current date and time.
Example: SELECT NOW() Gives the current date and time.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Window Function- Advance:
SQL window functions are analytical operations on a group of rows known as a

"window" or "frame" within the result set. They enable the execution of calculations
and aggregations on a per-row basis while taking the window's context into
account. A thorough explanation of numerous window functions is provided
below, along with a sample code: but lets first understand what is difference
between aggregation function and window function.
In SQL, sets of rows in a table can be calculated using both aggregate functions
and window functions. The methods they use to organise and interpret the data
vary, though.
Aggregate functions:
Calculation scope: Aggregate functions operate on a set of rows and return a

single value for the entire set.
Grouping: They are typically used with the GROUP BY clause to partition the data
into groups and calculate a result for each group.
Result granularity: Aggregate functions collapse multiple rows into a single result
For example, SUM, AVG, COUNT, MAX, and MIN are aggregate functions.
Usage: They are used to obtain summary statistics or perform calculations such
as calculating the total sales per category, average salary per department, or
counting the number of orders per customer.
Syntax:
Window functions:
• Calculation scope: Window functions perform calculations on a "window" or

a subset of rows within a result set.
• Ordering: They are typically used with the ORDER BY clause to define the
window's ordering within the result set.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
• Result granularity: Window functions retain the individual rows in the result
set but can calculate values based on the window's defined scope.
• Usage: They are used to compute values that are related to the current row
but involve other rows in the result set. Examples of window functions
include RANK, ROW_NUMBER, LAG, LEAD, and SUM with the OVER clause.
HOW Window function works:
The OVER clause, which specifies the window's borders and ordering, is frequently
combined with window functions in programming.
SYNTAX:
function_name: Window function name you can use, such as ROW_NUMBER,

SUM, AVG, etc. arguments: Its optional arguments that the window function
accept. For example, SUM(column_name) would calculate the sum of the
specified column.
PARTITION BY: Optional clause that divides the rows into partitions or groups
based on one or more expressions. The window function is applied separately to
each partition.
ORDER BY: Optional clause that specifies the order in which the rows within each
partition should be processed by the window function. It can use one or more
columns and can be sorted in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.
ROWS/RANGE frame_clause: Optional clause that defines the window frame or

the subset of rows within each partition over which the window function operates.
1. ROW_NUMBER(): Each row in a window is given a distinct sequential number

using the ROW NUMBER() function.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example:
2. RANK():
Gives each row in a window a rank, leaving gaps for tied values.
3. DENSE_RANK():
Gives each row in a window a rank, leaving no gaps for tied values.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
4. NTILE():
Divides aExwainmdpolwe':s rows into a predetermined number of groups or "tiles."
5. LAG():
Accesses a previous row's value within a window.
Output:
6. LEAD():
AccessesEtxhaemvpalluee: of a subsequent row within a window.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output:
7. FIRST_VALUE():
Accesses a previous row's value within a window.
Output:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
CTE(Common Table Expression) IN SQL:
Known in SQL as a Common Table Expression (CTE), a temporary named result set
may be referred to within a query. Having the ability to build a subquery and
utilize it more tha once within a single query might help make complex queries
easier to comprehend and maintain. A detailed explanation of CTE is provided
below, along with an example:
A CTE's two constituent parts, the anchor member and the recursive member, are
defined by the WITH clause (optional for recursive queries). The anchor member
of the CTE serves as its foundation, while the recursive member builds upon it
through iterative processing.
Benefits of using CTE:
Improved Readability: CTEs make complex queries easier to understand by

breaking them into logical sections. This improves code readability and
maintainability.
Code Reusability: CTEs can be referenced multiple times within the same query,
eliminating the need to repeat the subquery logic. This improves code efficiency
and reduces the chances of errors.
Recursive Queries: CTEs can be used for recursive queries where a query refers to
its own output. This enables hierarchical and iterative processing, such as
retrieving hierarchical data or calculating running totals.
Simple Example:
Now, let's Extract the names of employees along with their corresponding
department names using a CTE.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Output:
Explaination:
In this example, we define a CTE as "EmployeeDepartments" using the WITH

clause. The CTE selects the employee details (EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName)
and their corresponding department names (DepartmentName) by joining the
"Employees" and "Departments" tables.
Finally, we use the CTE within the main query to directly select the desired
columns from the CTE, resulting in a clear and concise syntax.
Recursive Common Table Expression (CTE):
An SQL technique called a recursive Common Table Expression (CTE) enables you
to query hierarchical data or data with recursive relationships. It aids in the
resolution of issues where each row depends on the outcomes of earlier rows
returned by the same query. Here is a brief explanation in everyday language:
Consider a table of employees where the columns "EmployeeID" and "ManagerID"

indicate which employees report to which managers. You may locate every
employee in the reporting chain beginning with a single employee using a
recursive CTE.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example: Suppose, You have this employee data.
You want to find all employees reporting to EmployeeID 1. Here's a simple recursive
CTE to achieve that:
Input:
Output:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
In this example, we define a recursive CTE named "RecursiveCTE." We start with the
anchor member, which selects EmployeeID 1 from the Employees table.
Then, we have the recursive member, which joins the Employees table with the
Recursive CTE itself, matching the ManagerID of the current row with the
EmployeeID of the previous rows. It continues to add rows until no more matches
are found.
Finally, we select the EmployeeID and ManagerID from the RecursiveCTE, giving us
all the employees reporting to EmployeeID 1.
Recursive CTEs are helpful when dealing with hierarchical data structures like
organizational charts or family trees
Case When –Conditional :
The SQL CASE WHEN statement is a conditional expression that enables you to
take various actions in response to various situations. It resembles making
choices when writing SQL queries.
Rules:
The CASE statement allows you to perform conditional logic in SQL queries. You
can use it in the SELECT, WHERE, HAVING, and ORDER BY clauses.
It can return a single value (simple CASE) or multiple values (searched CASE).
CASE is followed by one or more WHEN clauses and an optional ELSE clause.
When to Use:
Use the CASE statement when you need to transform data conditionally or
categorize data into different groups.
It's handy for custom calculations, mapping values, and generating derived
columns. CASE is particularly useful when you need to create calculated fields in
your query results.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Why Use:
CASE adds a layer of flexibility to your SQL queries by allowing you to make
decisions based on data conditions.
It can simplify your queries by reducing the need for complex IF-THEN-ELSE logic in
your application code.
It's a valuable tool for data transformation and reporting.
Syntax:
Important Notes:
The ELSE clause is optional but recommended for handling unexpected or NULL
values. When CASE is used in the WHERE clause, it filters rows based on the
conditions.
In the SELECT clause, CASE creates a new column in the result set. In the ORDER BY
clause, it allows conditional sorting of the result set.
CASE can be used with any data type, and the result must be consistent in data
type across all branches.
Explanation:
Consider a database of students that includes the columns "StudentID,"

"FirstName," "LastName," and "Grade." You should put pupils into the following
categories depending on their grades: "Excellent," "Good," "Average," and "Below
Average." This is made possible via the CASE WHEN statement.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Example:
Let's say you have the following student data:
You want to categorize students based on their grades. Here is a easy example
using the CASE WHEN statement:
Input:
In this example, the grade category for each student is determined using the
CASE WHE statement within the SELECT statement. This is how it goes:
The CASE WHEN statement examines each condition individually for each row.
It labels the GradeCategory column as "Excellent" if the grade is more than or

equal to 90. The GradeCategory column is given the designation "Good" if the
grade falls within the range of 80 and 89 (inclusive).
The GradeCategory column is given the label "Average" if the grade falls within
the range of 70 and 79 (inclusive).
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
It labels the GradeCategory column as "Below Average" for any other grade
values.
The outcome will include the original columns (StudentID, FirstName, LastName,
Grade), as well as GradeCategory, another column.
Output:
When doing conditional evaluations and taking different actions in response to

particular circumstances, the CASE WHEN statement is helpful. It aids in classifying
or transforming data according to logical criteria in your SQL queries.
Pivoting and Unpivoting Techniques:
Pivoting: Using the pivoting and unpivoting techniques, SQL can change the
format of
data from row-wise to column-wise (pivoting) or from column-wise to row-wise

(unpivoting) (unpivoting). Here is a thorough explanation of both ideas with
straightforward examples: Turning rows into columns is known as pivoting. When
you wish to rotate or transform data to generate a summary view, it can be
helpful. For this, the PIVOT operator is frequently employed. Here's an Example:
Turning rows into columns is known as pivoting. When you wish to rotate or
transform data to generate a summary view, it can be helpful. For this, the PIVOT
operator is frequently employed. Here's an Example:
Suppose you have a table named "Sales" with columns "Product," "Region," and
"Revenue." The table captures the revenue generated by each product in different
regions.
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
You can use the PIVOT operator to pivot the data and display the revenue for
each product in separate columns based on the region:
Unpivoting:
The process of unpivoting involves changing columns into rows. When

normalising or transforming data to do analysis or other activities, it is helpful.
Usually, the UNPIVOT operator is employed for this. Here's an illustration.
Lets take last example: you have a table named "Sales" with columns "Product,"
"Revenue_East," and "Revenue_West." Each column represents the revenue for a
specific product in the respective region.
To unpivot the data and display the revenue for each product in different regions
in separate rows, you can use the UNPIVOT operator:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
The UNPIVOT operator is used in the example above to convert the columns into
rows. Each time a product and area are combined, a new row is created with the
matching revenue. This will have the following effects:
Output:
What is View in SQL:
In SQL, views are a subset of virtual tables. The rows and columns of a view are
identical to those in a database's actual table. By choosing fields from one or
more database tables, we can build a view. A view may include all table rows or
only certain rows according to a set of criteria. This post will teach us how to add,
remove, and update Views.
Example: Create View
Syntax:
view named employee_details is created that displays the employee ID, name,
and department for employees in the IT department.
See the data in View:
Create VIEW fro multiple tables:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
If you want to see all view tables: Syntax:
Stored Procedures:
SQL-prepared code that has been saved as a stored procedure can be used
repeatedly. So, if you frequently develop SQL queries, save them as stored
procedures and call them to execute them. Additionally, you may supply
parameters to stored procedures so that they can take action based on the
values of the parameters you pass. Pre-compiled SQL statements are saved in
the database as stored procedures. They enable you to combine several SQL
statements into a single, repeatable unit. Stored procedures have the ability to
process complex operations, receive input parameters, and return values or result
sets.
Lets Create Stored Procedure:
Syntax:
kasper-analytics
kasperanalytics.com
9311386511
Explanation of the Parameter
The parameters are the most crucial component. Values are passed to the
Procedure using parameters. There are various types of parameters, including the
following:
BEGIN: This is what actually executes, or we could say it is a section that can be
executed.
END: The code will run up until this point.
Execute the procedure
EXEC procedure_name parameter1_value, parameter2_value,
Triggers in SQL:
When a particular event takes place on a table, a SQL trigger is a database object
linked to that table that automatically executes a group of SQL queries. Within a
database, triggers are used to automate some tasks, ensure data integrity, and
enforce business rules. They can be triggered by a variety of actions, such as
inserting, updating, or deleting data from a table, and they let you carry out extra
actions in response to those actions.
How are SQL triggers implemented?
SQL triggers are associated with a particular table and defined using SQL
statements. The related trigger code is automatically executed when the
indicated trigger event (such as an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) takes place on that
table. The trigger code may
include SQL statements that enforce restrictions, modify data in the same or
different tables, or do other actions. Triggers can be set to run before or after the
triggering event and are defined to run inside the transaction scope.
kasper-analytics

SQL For Data Analytics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SQL For Data Analytics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SQL For Data Analytics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

kasperanalytics.

SQL FOR DATA

SQL : Basic to Advance

Enhancing data analytics, data modeling assures uniformity in nomenclature,

Advantages of Data Modelling

• The following are the essential advantages of Data Modelling:

Data Modeling Terminology:

Levels of Data Abstraction:

Data modeling typically involves several levels of abstraction, including:

Important perspectives of a data model:

The Network Model represents data as interconnected records with predefined

For example, in a company's database, employees can work on multiple projects,

Check the below image:

2. Entity-Relationship (ER) Model:

Check the below image:

Data is arranged in a tree-like structure with parent-child relationships using the

by the hierarchical model, allowing top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top navigation.

Check the below image:

Check the below image:

A database is like a digital warehouse where data is stored, organized, and

Key Components of a Database:

• Data: Data is the raw information stored in a database, such as customer

• Relational Databases (RDBMS): Relational databases separate data into

structures. IMS (Information Management System) is an example of a

Let’s Understand DBMS and RDBMS:

Why required DBMS?

A DBMS is required to efficiently manage the flow of data within an organization. It

Why required RDMS?

Similarly, an RDBMS is required when we want to manage data in a relational

Differences between DBMS and RDBMS:

The process of normalization data in a database ensures data integrity by

1NF (First Normal Form):

2NF (Second Normal Form):

3NF (Third Normal Form):

BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form):

BCNF is an advanced form of normalization that addresses certain anomalies

A binary relationship exists when two different relationship are involved.

Cardinality refers to the number of instances of an entity that can be associated

A one-to-many relationship means that each instance of one entity can be

An entity in A is associated to no more than one entity in B in this particular

Example: A single surgeon performs many operations in a specific institution. A

A many-to-many relationship means that each instance of one entity can be

The computer programming language SQL (Structured Query Language) was

Definition and Purpose of SQL:

According to its definition and intended application, SQL is a declarative language

Due to its adaptability and efficiency in maintaining relational databases, SQL is

• The core activities of inserting, updating, and deleting data in relational

In SQL, the following restrictions are frequently applied:

NOT NULL constraint

• A column may by default contain NULL values.

Example: Create check constraint:

SQL DEFAULT CONSTRAINT:

• A column's default value is set using the DEFAULT constraint.

Various key types

What is the Key?

• To keep a table's individuality.

• Possibly speed up data retrieval by enabling indexes on column (s).

Each row in a table is uniquely identified by a composite key, sometimes referred

The basic syntax of a SQL statement is: