Wave Properties: Speed, Amplitude, Frequency, and Period

Wave Variables

In the chapter on motion in two dimensions, we defined the following variables

to describe harmonic motion:

• Amplitude—maximum displacement from the equilibrium position of an

object oscillating around such equilibrium position
• Frequency—number of events per unit of time
• Period—time it takes to complete one oscillation

For waves, these variables have the same basic meaning. However, it is helpful
to word the definitions in a more specific way that applies directly to waves:

• Amplitude—distance between the resting position and the maximum

displacement of the wave
• Frequency—number of waves passing by a specific point per second
• Period—time it takes for one wave cycle to complete

In addition to amplitude, frequency, and period, their wavelength and wave

velocity also characterize waves.

The wavelength (λ) is the distance between adjacent identical parts of a wave,
parallel to the direction of propagation.

The wave velocity (vw) is the speed at which the disturbance moves.

Wave velocity is sometimes also called the propagation

velocity or propagation speed because the disturbance propagates from one
location to another.
Consider the periodic water wave in the Figure .

Its wavelength is the distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough.

The wavelength can also be thought of as the distance a wave has travelled after
one complete cycle—or one period.

The time for one complete up-and-down motion is the simple water wave’s
period T.

In the figure, the wave itself moves to the right with a wave velocity vw.

Its amplitude X is the distance between the resting position and the maximum
displacement—either the crest or the trough—of the wave.
It is important to note that this movement of the wave is actually
the disturbance moving to the right, not the water itself; otherwise, the bird
would move to the right. Instead, the seagull bobs up and down in place as
waves pass underneath, traveling a total distance of 2X in one cycle. However,
as mentioned in the text feature on surfing, actual ocean waves are more
complex than this simplified example.

Figure 13.7 The wave has a wavelength λ, which is the distance between
adjacent identical parts of the wave. The up-and-down disturbance of the
surface propagates parallel to the surface at a speed vw.
The Relationship between Wave Frequency, Period, Wavelength, and
Velocity

Since wave frequency (f) is the number of waves per second, and

the Wave period (T) is essentially the number of seconds per wave,

the relationship between frequency(f) and wave period (T) is

f=1/T or T = 1/f
just as in the case of harmonic motion of an object.

We can see from this relationship that a higher frequency means a shorter
period.

Recall that the unit for frequency is hertz (Hz), and that 1 Hz is one cycle—or
one wave—per second.

The speed of propagation (vw) is the distance the wave travels in a given
time, which is one wavelength in a time of one period.

In equation form, it is written as vw = λ/ T or vw = fλ

From this relationship, we see that in a medium where vw is constant, the
higher the frequency, the smaller the wavelength. See Figure 13.8.

Figure 13.8 Because they travel at the same speed in a given medium, low-
frequency sounds must have a greater wavelength than high-frequency
sounds. Here, the lower-frequency sounds are emitted by the large speaker,
called a woofer, while the higher-frequency sounds are emitted by the small
speaker, called a tweeter.

These fundamental relationships hold true for all types of waves.

As an example,

for water waves, vw is the speed of a surface wave;

for sound, vw is the speed of sound; and

for visible light, vw is the speed of light.

The amplitude X is completely independent of the speed of

propagation vw and depends only on the amount of energy in the wave.

GEOLOGY: PHYSICS OF SEISMIC WAVES

Geologists rely heavily on physics to study earthquakes since earthquakes

involve several types of wave disturbances, including disturbance of Earth’s
surface and pressure disturbances under the surface.

Surface earthquake waves are similar to surface waves on water.

The waves under Earth’s surface have both longitudinal and transverse
components.

The longitudinal waves in an earthquake are called pressure waves (P-

waves) and the transverse waves are called shear waves (S-waves).

These two types of waves propagate at different speeds, and the speed at which
they travel depends on the rigidity of the medium through which they are
traveling.

During earthquakes, the speed of P-waves in granite is significantly higher than

the speed of S-waves.

Both components of earthquakes travel more slowly in less rigid materials, such
as sediments.

P-waves have speeds of 4 to 7 km/s, and S-waves have speeds of 2 to 5 km/s,

but both are faster in more rigid materials.

The P-wave gets progressively farther ahead of the S-wave as they travel
through Earth’s crust.

For that reason, the time difference between the P- and S-waves is used to
determine the distance to their source, the epicenter of the earthquake.

We know from seismic waves produced by earthquakes that parts of the interior
of Earth are liquid. Shear or transverse waves cannot travel through a liquid and
are not transmitted through Earth’s core.

In contrast, compression or longitudinal waves can pass through a liquid and

they do go through the core.

All waves carry energy, and the energy of earthquake waves is easy to observe
based on the amount of damage left behind after the ground has stopped
moving.

Earthquakes can shake whole cities to the ground, performing the work of
thousands of wrecking balls.

The amount of energy in a wave is related to its amplitude. Large-amplitude

earthquakes produce large ground displacements and greater damage.

As earthquake waves spread out, their amplitude decreases, so there is less

damage the farther they get from the source.
When Do Ocean Waves Become 'Significant'? A Closer Look at Wave Forecasts

Wave Formation: Waves are formed by wind blowing along the water's
surface. Wave height is dependent on a) wind speed; b) fetch length; and c)
duration of time the wind blows consistently over the fetch. (Figure 2.)

Figure 2. Wave height is dependent on a) wind speed; b) fetch length; and c)

duration of time the wind blows consistently over the fetch.
Graphic courtesy of Tammy Pelletier, WA State Dept of Ecology

Wind 'fetch' is the distance the wind blows over water with similar speed and
direction.

Higher wind speeds blowing for long periods of time over longer stretches of
water result in the highest waves.

Waves that are the direct result of the local wind are called wind waves.

Wind waves are short, choppy, and tend to break (white cap) when winds reach
about 12 knots.

These are the most common waves on lakes, ponds and in the confined, narrow
stretches of southeast Alaska's inner channels.

Wave pattern considerations become more complex in the Open Ocean and
Gulf of Alaska.

Waves are still formed by the local wind, but, once formed, ocean waves can
continue to travel along great circle routes for thousands of miles.

Waves that travel outside of their generation area and are no longer the result of
the local wind are called "swell."

Compared to wind waves, swell have smoother crests.

Over time, swell "packets" or "groups" travel great distances, converge with
other waves caused by distant storms traveling in different directions, and
refract off coastlines.

Therefore, the ocean surface is comprised of thousands of interacting waves that

originated in different places and travelled in different directions at different
speeds. This is known as a "wave spectrum"-a combination of waves with
different heights, frequencies and direction of movement.

In southeast Alaska, the wave spectrum, or range of wave heights, is different in

the inner channels than it is in the open Gulf.

The inner channels are dominated by wind waves, and, except for near
entrances to the open ocean, experience fewer swell. The open Gulf contains a
broader range of wave heights.

Figure 3. Wave height is the distance measured from the trough to the crest of
the wave. Wave length is the distance between successive crests (or troughs).
Graphic courtesy of Tammy Pelletier, WA State Dept of Ecology

Wave Dimensions:

The magnitude of a wave is determined by three components:

• height,
• length, and
• period (or frequency).

A fourth wave component is

steepness. Wave height is the
distance measured from the trough
to the crest of the wave.

Wave length is the distance

between successive crests (or
troughs) (Figure 3).
 Wave period is the time that elapses between the passing of successive
crests (or troughs).

Wind waves tend to have smaller heights and have shorter periods than
swell.

Wave steepness is the slope determined by the ratio between wave height
and wave length.

When wind wave heights and periods are close to the same value (e.g., six
foot seas every six seconds), wave steepness is severe and pitch poling
becomes a real possibility for smaller vessels, as does capsizing in beam
seas.

The farther waves move away from their source region, the more their wave
length and period gradually increase. Therefore, waves with long periods,
greater than 10 or 12 seconds, are arriving from a distant source and
are considered swell.

Significant Wave Height:

By now you know a wave spectrum is an extremely complex fluid phenomenon.

The spectrum is literally made up of waves on top of waves (on top of waves!).

It is extremely important for mariners to understand how this spectrum of wave

heights is conveyed in marine weather information.

The wave height value in a forecast, and reported by ships and buoys, is called
the significant wave height.

Significant wave height (Hs) is defined as the average height of the highest
one-third waves in a wave spectrum. This happens to correlate very well with
the wave height a skilled observer perceives in a wave spectrum.
Figure 4. The statistical distribution of wave heights showing various
parameters
(from Bretschneider, 1964)

What do we mean by "highest one-third waves"?

Remember, a wavy water surface is comprised of thousands of interacting

waves that originated in different places and traveled in different directions at
different speeds.

If a person could filter out and plot on a graph all of the waves that make up a
spectrum, the distribution of waves with different heights would result in a "bell
curve" graph similar to the one in the figure above.

Each dot represents the number of waves (N) in the spectrum with a height of
H.

The graph shows there are a relatively low number of small waves (left side of
graph) and a low number of very large waves (right side of graph).

The greatest number of waves (N) in this spectrum falls in the mid range of
heights (centered under Hm).

The highest one-third (33.3%) number of waves in this spectrum is shaded on

the graph. The average height of waves in this shaded group is the
significant wave height, Hs.
Also shown are the mean wave height (H), most probable wave height (Hm),
and the height of the highest 10% of waves (H1/10).

The mean wave height H is approximately equal to 2/3rds (0.64) the value
of Hs and

H1/10 is approximately equal to 1.27 times the value of Hs.

In addition, the height of the highest 1% of waves (H1/100) is approximately

equal to 1.67 times Hs, and a theoretical maximum wave height (Hmax) is
approximately equal to two times Hs.

Quiz Time! Let's take a minute and put all these wave heights that we have
learned about into perspective by practicing how to derive pertinent wave
characteristics. If you read a marine weather forecast predicting "SEAS 10 FT,"
what is really being conveyed in that forecast?

Hs = 10 ft

H (mean) = (0.64)Hs = 6.4 ft

H (most probable) = 6 ft

H1/10 (10% highest waves) = (1.27)Hs = 12.7 ft

H1/100 (1% highest waves) = (1.67)Hs = 16.7 ft

Hmax (highest wave you should be on the alert for) = 20 ft!

Mariners should know the physical limits of their vessels-both wind speed
limits and wave height limits. The marine weather forecasts provide both wind
velocity (speed and direction) information and wave height information. Wave
height values, both predicted and observed, are defined as the significant wave
height, denoted as Hs. Hs is not a single value by any means but rather a value
which represents a range of heights occurring in a wave spectrum from
approximately 60% of Hs to 200% of Hs! This range is somewhat less in
narrower inland channels, where the contribution of ocean swell is less.
Mariners can reduce their risk of encountering bigger than expected waves by
understanding the range of wave heights in a spectrum defined by a particular
significant wave height. The wave that crashed into the 4th deck of the
Matanuska ferry some years ago, while crossing Queen Charlotte Sound, was
within the range of Hmax for a spectrum of waves whose mean height is 15 feet.
Mariners must not focus on a single significant wave height value in a forecast
or observation but recognize the concept of the wave spectrum.