Tool Engineering

What is Tool Engineering?

* Tool Engineering is a division of Industrial Engineering.
Its function is to plan the process of manufacture,
develop various tools and machines and integrate
facilities required for producing particular products with
minimal expenditure of time, labour and material.
 Subject: Tool Engineering

Course Objectives:
* To enlighten the students about the basics in mechanics of cutting & non
cutting operations.
* To explain the students about the basics in economics of cutting & non
cutting operations.
* To explain the concepts, principles & practices in designing various
tooling.

Course Outcomes:
* Calculate cutting forces & economics of operations.
* Design & draw the tools & tooling for the given situation & operation.
* Develop solutions, devices, contrivances to overcome present problems of
the real world.
 Conents:
Unit 1– Basics of Tool Engineering
Unit 2– Machinability & Tool Life
Unit 3– Press Tools
Unit 4–Locating & Clamping Devices for jig and fixture
Unit 5–Design of Jigs & Fixtures
Unit 6– Economics of Tooling
 Syllabus:
* Unit 1– Basics of Tool Engineering
* Single point cutting tools- Geometry & Tool signature as per ASA system & ORS system, effect of geometry on tool life,
cutting force, surface finish.
* Types of metal cutting process –orthogonal and oblique cutting, Force analysis for orthogonal cutting, types of chips, chip
thickness ratio, shear angle, Tool dynamometers and Merchant circle.
* Geometry and nomenclature of multi point cutting tool like a drill, milling cutter, broaches, and reamers.
* Cutting tool materials - types, composition, properties and applications
* Unit 2– Machinability & Tool Life
* Machinability Index, factors affecting Machinability.
* Tool life- Flank & crater wear, effect of variables on tool life, Taylor’s equation of tool life
* Coolants- Heat generation, types of coolants.
* Unit 3– Press Tools
* Elements of press tools, types of dies, types of operations.
* Design of die for cutting operation, mechanics of shearing, cutting force estimation, punch & die clearance, stock strip lay out,
design of punches & die block functioning & place of other elements.
* Centre of pressure, selection of die set & press
* Design of drawing dies determination of blank size, no. of draws, stage wise component drawing, drawing radVI, clearance,
and estimation of drawing force.
* Types of Bending die, related estimates.
• Unit 4–Locating & Clamping Devices for jig and fixture.

• Definition concept of locating and clamping.

• Types of locating and clamping devices.

• Types of redundant locations.

• Fool proofing and indexing techniques.

• Unit 5–Design of Jigs & Fixtures

• Design of Jigs- Principles of Jig design, types &applications, types of bushes &selection, use of standard parts, design procedure
& drawing.

• Design of Fixtures- Principles of Fixture design, standard elements & types of fixtures, design of milling fixtures.

• Unit 6– Economics of Tooling

• Elements of cost: methods of depreciation

• Estimation of total cost & sales price

• Break- even analysis for equipment selection

• Economics of small tool selection, equipment replacement

• Economic Order Quantity for Batch production

 Scope of Tool Engineer
Tool Engineers are tasked with the design of jigs, fixtures, press tools, die casting, plastic moulds,
plastic technologies, cutting tools, metrology and measurements, gauges, engineering graphics etc.
Tool engineer is a professional whose job is to assist the production engineer in design and
refinement of production, in design and purchasing of machinery, tools, fixtures, dies and gauges
to be used in producing the parts and in their assembly to the final production.
 Unit No. - 1
Basics of Tool Engineering
 Syllabus

∙ Single point cutting tools- Geometry & Tool signature as per ASA system &
ORS system, effect of geometry on tool life, cutting force, surface finish.
∙ Types of metal cutting process –orthogonal and oblique cutting, Force analysis
for orthogonal cutting, types of chips, chip thickness ratio, shear angle, Tool
dynamometers and Merchant circle.
∙ Geometry and nomenclature of multi point cutting tool like a drill, milling
cutter, broaches, and reamers.
∙ Cutting tool materials - types, composition, properties and applications
 Basics of Tool Engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cxazvaS6SA
 Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
* One cutting edge
* Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
* Turning, Threading uses single point tools

2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

• More than one cutting edge
• Use multiple cutting edge tools.
• Milling, Drilling, Broaching, Reaming
Tool
 SINGLE POINT CUTTING
TOOL

A. Nomenclature (General terms)-

Shank Flank Face
Heel Nose Cutting edge
 Tool Terminology
Angles used for
designations
- Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA)
(Cs)

- End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA )

(Ce)

- Side Relief Angle (SRA) (ϴs)

- End Relief Angle (ERA) (ϴe)

-Back Rake Angle (BRA) ( αb)

-Side Rake Angle (SRA) (αs)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jskReAnzjaQ
A. Nomenclature (General terms)-
1. Shank- It is the main body of the tool which is gripped in tool holder.
2. Flank- The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
3. Face- The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
4. Heel- The intersection of the flank and the base of the tool is called heel of
the tool.
5. Nose- The point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersects is
called nose of the tool.
6. Cutting edge- The edge which removes the material from the work piece is
called cutting edge.
(B) Angles used for designations-
1. Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA) (Cs) -
The angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank is called as side
cutting edge angle. This angle is also called as Lead angle. Approach angle is the
complimentary angle of SCEA. (Cs =15-30°)
2. End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA) (Ce)- The angle between end cutting edge
and a line normal to the tool shank is called as end cutting edge angle. (Ce=8-15°)
3. Side Relief Angle (SRA)(ϴs) - The angle between portions of side flank
immediately below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of
tool measured at right angle to the side flank is called as side relief angle.
(ϴs=5-15°)
* 4. End Relief Angle (ERA) (ϴe) - The angle between the portion of end
flank immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to
the base of the tool and measured at right angle to the end flank is called as
end relief angle. (ϴs = 5-15°)

* 5. Back Rake Angle (BRA) ( αb)– The angle between the face of the tool
and a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a perpendicular
plane passing through the side cutting edge is called back rake angle.

* 6. Side Rake Angle (SRA) ( αs) – The angle between tool face and a line
parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a perpendicular plane to the
base and the side cutting edge.
* 7. Nose Radius (R)- The radius provided at the tip for increase in tool life
and chattering effect is called as nose radius.
 (C) Types of cutting tool as per cutting side-
1. Right hand tool 2. Left hand tool

1. Right hand tool-

After keeping right hand on the tool, palm facing downward and
fingers pointing nose, if thumb denotes side cutting edge the tool
is known as right hand tool.
Tool takes cut when feed from right to left

2. Left hand tool-

After keeping left hand on the tool, palm facing downward and
fingers pointing nose, if thumb denotes side cutting edge the tool
is known as left hand tool.
Tool takes cut when feed from left to right
 (D) Tool Signature or Tool
Designation
* In simple words The numerical code that describes all the key angles of a given cutting
tool is called tool signature
* By designation or nomenclature of a cutting tool is meant the designation of the shape of
the cutting part of the tool.
* The two systems to designate the tool shape, which are widely used, are:

1. American Standards Association System (ASA) or American National Standards

Institute (ANSI).
2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS).
 1. American Standards Association System (ASA) or
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

Tool Designation or Tool Signature-

Back Rake, Side Rake, End Relief, Side Relief, End cutting edge angle,
Side cutting edge angle, and the nose radius

αb – αs – θe - θs – Ce – Cs - R
 2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

The tool designation under ORS is:

i – α – γ- γ – Ce – λ – R
1

i.e. Inclination angle-orthogonal angle-side relief angle- end relief angle-end cutting
edge angle- approach angle-nose radius
Orthogonal rake system(ORS)
 Effect of Tool Geometry on Tool Life

* The larger the cutting angle the greater the deformation, heat generation and forces acting
on the tool, the more intensive tool wear and shorter the tool life.
* When cutting angle is reduced (positive rake angle is increased), the cutting forces,
deformation and heat generation are reduced and tool life is increased.
* The more the relief angle of the tool, the less the friction of the tool on the work, the less
the tool wear and longer tool life larger values of end cutting edge angle give more life to
tool.
* Similarly a higher value of side cutting edge angle gives longer life to tool.
* Increase in nose radius improves tool life as the smaller nose radius results in excess
stress concentration and greater heat generation.
Metal Cutting
or
Machining
 Metal Cutting or Machining
Metal cutting or machining is a process of producing workpiece by
removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of
chips.
Methods of Metal cutting
or Machining
 Metal Cutting or Machining

Basic Elements of Metal cutting / Machining :

The basic elements of all machining operations are as follows:
(i) Workpiece
(ii) Cutting tool
(iii) Chip.

Factors affecting Metal cutting / Machining:

The more important factors being as follows:
(i) The properties of work material.
(ii) The properties and geometry of the cutting tool.
(iii) The interaction between the tool and the work during metal cutting.

Properties of the workpiece material :

(i) Hardness (ii) Toughness (iii) Inherent hard spots and surface inclusions
(iv) Abrasive qualities (v) Tendency to weld.

On the other hand the tool material should be hard, strong, tough and wear resistant.
Methods of Metal cutting or Machining:

The metal cutting processes are of two types:

(i) Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting)

(ii) Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting)
1. Orthogonal Cutting
2. Oblique Cutting
Comparison of Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting:
Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
1

2 The cutting edge of the tool remains The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an
normal to the direction of tool feed. acute angle to the direction of tool feed.
3 The direction of chip flow velocity is normal The direction of chip flow velocity is at an
to the cutting edge of the tool. angle with the normal to the cutting edge of
the tool.
4 The cutting edge clears the width of the The cutting edge mayor may not clear the
work-piece on either ends. width of the workpiece.
5 Only two components of cutting forces act Three mutually perpendicular components of
on the tool. These two components are cutting forces act at the cutting edge of the
perpendicular to each other. tool.

6 Simple arrangement in orthogonal cutting. Analysis of oblique cutting being complex.

7 Lessor life of tool. Higher life of tool.

8 Example- Example-
Parting off, turning of thin pipe Drilling, boring, reaming
Chip Formation
Chip Formation
 Chip Formation
• Variables for types of chips-
• Angles:
• Shear Angle • Properties Of Material To Cut - Especially Ductility
• Rake Angle • Depth Of Cut
• Clearance angle
• Feed Rate
• Velocity: • Effective Rake Angle Of Tool
• Cutting Velocity (Vc)
• Shear velocity (Vs)
• Cutting Speed
• Flow/chip velocity (Vf) • Type and quantity of cutting fluid.
• Types
• Continuous Chips
• Forces
• Discontinuous Chips
• Friction force (Ff)
• Built up Edge Chips
• Cutting force (Fc)
• Shear force (Fs)
Types of Chips
 Types of Chips
1. Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built up edge-
 1. Continuous chip

• Long string, or curls

• Ductile materials such as low carbon steel, aluminium and copper.

• This type of chips provide good surface finish.

• Chip breaker
 2. Discontinuous Chip

• Small Fragments or small segments

• Brittle materials
• Lower cutting speeds and insufficient rake angles cause the formation
of such chips.
 3. Continuous chip with Built up edge

• Brittle, ductile but not hard material

• High Temperature and pressure causes the chip to weld
• This accumulated build up of chip material will then break away, part adhering to the
underside of the chip and part to the work piece.
Chip Thickness Ratio
and
Chip reduction factor
 Chip Thickness Ratio
* Chip Thickness ratio is defined as the thickness of metal before cutting (Depth of cut) to the
thickness of metal after cutting.

to or t1= Un Cut chip thickness or chip thickness before cutting

tc or t2 = Cut chip thickness or chip thickness after cutting
ⱷ or β = Shear angle
α= Rake angle
ϒ=Clearance angle

let
r = Chip thickness ratio

Chip thickness ratio

r= to / tc or t1 / t2
 Chip Thickness Ratio Equation
let
l1 = length of chip before cutting l2= length of chip after cutting
b1= width of chip before cutting b2= width of chip after cutting
α = rake angle of tool ⱷ or β = shear angle
Since the volume before cutting is equal to volume after cutting.
Volume of metal cut off from workpiece is equal to volume of the chip.
l1 b1 t 1 = l 2 b2 t 2
t1 = chip thickness BEFORE cut
Generally b1=b2 t2 = chip thickness AFTER cut
Therefore, t 1 l1 = t 2 l2
or t 1 / t 2 = l2 / l1
Then chip thickness ratio (r)
r = t1 / t2 or to / tc
= l2 / l 1
 Chip reduction factor or Coefficient of chip contraction or Chip reduction
Coefficient

* Chip reduction Coefficient is inverse of Chip Thickness ratio.

Hence
k = 1/r = t2/t1 = l1/l2
 Shear Angle

* As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear
deformation along a plane called shear plane which is oriented at
an angle with the surface of work known as Shear angle. It is
denoted by ⱷ or β.
 Relationship between chip thickness ratio (r) and the shear angle (ⱷ or β)
From Fig.
AB = (t0/sinФ) ------------(1)
Also,
AB = tc /cos (Ф– α) -----------(2)

from above equations (1) and (2)

(t0/sinⱷ) = tc /cos (Ф– α) ---------(3)

to / tc = sinⱷ / cos (Ф − α ) ---------(4)

But Chip thickness ratio
r = t1 / t2 or to / tc
From equation (3) and (4)
Cos(A-B) = cosA cosB + sinA SinB

By solving r cos (Ф − α ) = sin Ф

r (cos Ф cosα + sin Ф sinα) = sin Ф
-----------(5)
r cos Ф cosα = (1 – r sinα ) sin Ф
cos Ф / sin Ф = (1 – r sinα) / r cosα
tan Ф = r cosα / 1 – r sinα
or
-----------(5)
Value of shear angle depends upon:
1) Workpiece material
2) Type of cutting fluid
3) Geometry and material of cutting tool
4) Cutting condition or variables such as feed rate,
speed depth
 Velocity Relationship

Various Velocity

Cutting velocity V or Vc,

Chip velocity or flow velocity is Vf
and shear velocity Vs.

Also we know that

r = sin Ф / cos (Ф − α )
Hence
Vf = V r or Vc r
Force Analysis of Orthogonal Cutting:

Fh or Fc - Horizontal force or Cutting Force

Fv or Ft - Vertical force or Tangential Force or Thrust force
F or Ff - Friction Force
N - Normal Force
Fs - Shear Force
Fn or Ns - Normal Shear Force
 Tool
FH or Fc = Horizontal force or Cutting Force
Fv or Ft - Vertical force or Tangential Force
or Thrust force
Fs
Fc= FH F or F = Friction Force
f
N - Normal Force
Fn Fs - Shear Force
Fn or Ns - Normal Shear Force
Fv= F y- Friction angle
t R

F t

N
 Cut chip thickness (tc or t2)

Tool

Fs
Uncut chip
thickness (t or t1) Fc = F H Workpiece
or Depth of Cut

Fn

Fc = FH Cutting / Horizontal Force Fv = F

t F or F = Friction Force at tool chip
f
R interface
Fv = Ft Vertical / Thrust Force
F N = Normal Force
R = Resultant Force

Fs = Shear Force
N
Fn or N = Normal Shear Force

Merchant Force Circle

 Merchant’s Circle Forces
Friction Force
Normal Force

Shear Force
Normal Shear Force
 Merchant’s Circle Forces
Friction Force
Normal Force

Shear Force
Normal Shear Force

Coeff of friction

Shear angle
MULTIPOINT CUTTING TOOL

* MILLING CUTTER
* DRILLING
* BROACH
* REAMER
1. MILLING
CUTTER
Fillet
* Body of cutter: The part of the cutter left after the exclusion of the teeth and the portion to which the teeth are
attached.
* Cutting Edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular land or the surface left by the
provision of primary clearance.
* Face: The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
* Fillet: The cured surface at the bottom of gash which joining the face of one tooth to the back of the tooth
immediately ahead.
* Land: The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is relived to avoid interference between
the surface being machined and the cutter.
* Lead: The axial advance of the helix of the cutting edge in one complete revolution of the cutter.
* Outside diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral cutting edge.
* Root diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.
* Relief angle: The angle in a plane perpendicular to the axis which is the angle between the land of a tooth and the
tangent to the outside diameter of cutter at the cutting edge of that tooth.
* Rake angle: The angle measured in the diametric plane between the face of the tooth and a radial line passing
through the tooth and a radial line passing through the tooth cutting edge.
* Lip angle: The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth, or alternatively the angle between the
tangent to the back of the cutting edge and the face of the tooth.
* Helix angle: The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a plane containing the axis of a
cylindrical cutter.
Nomenclature of Drill Bit
 Fig. B
Fig. A
* Body Clearance: The portion of the body which is reduced in diameter to
give diametric clearance . Face: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to
the lip on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
* Flank: The surface on the drill point which extends behind the lip to the
following flute.
* Flutes: The grooves in the drill body which provides lip and is useful for
allowing the chip to escape, to cause the chip to curl and to permit the
cutting fluid to reach the cutting edge.
* Heel: The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and body
clearance.
* Lands: The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill
flutes.
* Lip (Cutting edge): The edge formed by the intersection of the flank and
face . Shank: The part of the drill by which it is held and driven.
* Body: The portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to the
commencement of neck.
* Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
3. BROACH
TOOTH OF BROACH
 Types of broaches:

(a) Horizontal pull type (b) Vertical push type

* Roughing teeth are the designed to do the rough cutting, it removes the bulk of material.
* The semi-finishing teeth remove small amount of material when compared to rough cutting
teeth.
* It is followed by finishing teeth for finishing operation, and removes very little material.
* Pull end: Engaging broach in machines.
Neck: this short part has diameter lower than the other parts. Which is where the tool allowed
to fail in case of overloading.
Front pilot and Rear pilot: parts helps in locating and resting of tool.
* The pitch of broach determines the length of cut and chip thickness which broach can handle.
4. REAMER
Fig. Reamer
* Axis - The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal centerline of a reamer, usually established by
rotating the reamer between centers.
* Shank - The portion of the reamer by which it is held and driven.
* Body -The fluted full diameter portion of a reamer, inclusive of the chamfer, starting taper and bevel.
* Tang - The flattened end of a taper shank which fits a slot in the socket
* Chamfer Angle - The angle between the axis and the cutting edge of the chamfer measured in an axial plane
at the cutting edge.
* Cutter Sweep - The section removed by the milling cutter or grinding wheel in entering or leaving a flute
* Cutting Edge - The leading edge of the land in the direction of rotation for cutting
* Helix Angle - The angle which a helical cutting edge at a given point makes with an axial plane through the
same point.
* Land - The section of the reamer between adjacent flutes.

* https://youtu.be/nATBaSgv33M?list=TLPQMzAwOTIwMjHy7WZ7LmnbJA
 Tool Dynamometers
Dynamometers are devices used to measure cutting forces in machining operation.

The cutting forces are measured in order to achieve the following:

(i) To determine the power required during cutting process.
(ii) To observe the characteristics of workpiece and tool material.
(iii) Cutting forces when determined help in proper design of machine tool
components.
 Types of Dynamometers:

(i) Mechanical dial - gauge type

(ii) Hydraulic pressure measuring type
(iii) Pneumatic type
(iv) Capacitive type
(V) Inductive type
(vi) Piezoelectric type
(vii) Resistance strain gauges dynamometer
(i) Mechanical Dial-Gauge type
Dynamometers:

Fig. Tool Dynamometer

 Requirement of a cutting force dynamometer:
• It should be sensitive for precise measurement.
• It should work desirably over a long period.
• It should have quick time response.
• It should have stability against humidity and temperature.
• It should be rigid enough to sustain the vibrations and forces.
• The adjustment of zero points and measuring ranges should be
non-critical.
• The dynamometer should have sufficient mechanical rigidity to avoid
excessive deformation of the cutting edge under the action of cutting
forces.

Applications cutting force dynamometer

For measuring cutting forces in machining operations like turning,
grinding, milling, drilling etc.
 Cutting Tool Materials

* There are many types of cutting process done in different conditions. In such conditions along with the
general requirements of the cutting tool, they need some unique properties. To achieve this properties
the cutting tools are made up of different material. The material chosen for a particular application
depends on the material to be machined, type of machining, quantity and quality of production.
According to the material used the tools are classified into
Carbon tool steel
* High speed steel tool (HSS)
* Cemented carbide
* Ceramics tool
* Cubic boron nitride Tool (CBN)
* Diamond tool
* Carbon tool steel
* Carbon tool steel is one of the inexpensive metal cutting tools used for the low-speed machining
operation. These plain carbon steel cutting tool have the composition of 0.6-1.5% carbon and very
small amount of (less than 0.5 %) Mn, Si. Other metal like Cr, V are added to change the hardness and
grain size. High carbon steels are abrasion resistant and have the ability to maintain sharp cutting edge.
Carbon tool steels possess good machinability. This material loses their hardness rapidly at a
temperature about 250°C. Therefore, it can’t use high-temperature application. It does not prefer in a
modern machining operation.
Carbon steel tool is used in twist drills, milling tools, turning and forming tools, used for soft material
such as brass, aluminum magnesium, etc.
Temperature - 450°C
Hardness – up to HRC 65
 High-speed steel (HSS)
* This is a high carbon steel with a significant amount of alloying element, such as tungsten,
molybdenum, chromium, etc. to improve hardenability, toughness and wear resistance. It gives a
higher metal removal rate. It loses its hardness at a moderate temperature about 650°C. Therefore, a
coolant should be used to increase tool life. It can use many times by re-sharpening. Some surface
treatment is done on the HSS to improve its property.
* Surface treatment used in the HSS
Super finishing - Reduce friction
Nitriding - Increase wear resistance
Chromium electroplating - Reduce friction
Oxidation - Reduce friction

High-speed steel tools are used in drills, milling cutters, single point lathe tools, broaches.

Cutting speed range - 30-50 m/min

Temperature - 650°C
Hardness – up to HRC 67

T-Type - Tungsten predominant type

M-Type - Molybdenum dominant type
 Cemented carbide tool and cermet
* The cemented carbide cutting tool is produced by powder metallurgy technique. It
consists of tungsten, tantalum and titanium carbide with cobalt as a binder (when the
binder is nickel or molybdenum, then it is called cermet). Cemented carbide tools are
extremely hard; they can withstand very high-speed cutting operation. Carbide tool
does not lose their hardness up to 1000° C. A high cobalt tool is used for a rough cut
while low cobalt tool used for finishing operations.
Cutting speed range - 60-200m/min
Temperature - 1000°C
Hardness – up to HRC 90
Ceramics
* Most common ceramic materials are aluminum oxide and silicon nitride. Powder of
ceramic material Compacted in insert shape, then sintered at high temperature.
Ceramic tools are chemically inert and possess resistance to corrosion. They have
high compressive strength. They are stable up to temperature 1800°C. They are ten
times faster than HSS. The friction between the tool face and chip are very low and
possess low heat conductivity, usually no coolant is required. They provide the very
excellent surface finish.

Cutting speed 300-600m/min

Temperature - 1200°C
Hardness – up to HRC 93
Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
* It is the second hardest material after diamond. They are
generally used in hand machines. They offer high resistance
to abrasion and use as an abrasive in grinding wheels. Sharp
edges are not recommended.

Speed 600-800m/min
Hardness - higher than HRC 95
 Diamond
* It is the hardest material known and it is also expensive. It
possesses very high thermal conductivity and melting point.
Diamond offers excellent abrasion resistance, low friction
coefficient and low thermal expansion. It is used in
machining very hard material such as carbides, nitrides,
glass, etc. Diamond tools give a good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy. They are not recommended for
machining steel.
 Formulae
Chip thickness ratio
r = to / tc or r= t1 / t2

Chip reduction ratio (k) = 1/r

Shear angle r = sinⱷ / cos ( ⱷ − α )

 Formulae
Friction Force
Normal Force

Shear Force

Normal Shear Force

Or

Coeff. of friction
 Formulae

Shear Stress Al = b1. t1

Shear strain (ε) = Cot Ф + tan(Ф-α)

Shear Stress & Strain in chip
Shear Stress :

Where, Al = b1. t1

b1 = width of chip
tl = indicate thickness of chip
Shear Strain

OR
Work Done and Power in Machining
 Work Done and Power in
Total work done is,
Machining
W=WFriction+ WShearing
Fc X Vc= F X Vf+ Fs X Vs
Or
Total work done
W = work done in cutting + work done in thrust
= (W)Fc + (W)FT
= Fc Vc + FT VT
Where. VT = Vfeed

Hence, W. D. (W) = Fc Vc

W. D. in cutting = Fc Vc
W. D. in shearing = Fs Vs
For minimum work done, it is required to determine optimum shear angle.
 Power
Power = FC X Vc in Watt
Where, Fc = cutting force in Newton
And Vc = cutting velocity in m/s

Power = FC X Vc/ 1000 in KiloWatt

Where, Fc = cutting force in Newton
And Vc = cutting velocity in m/s

Power = FC X Vc/ 746 in Horse power(HP)

Where, Fc = cutting force in Newton
And Vc = cutting velocity in m/s

Power = FC X Vc/ 4500 in Horse power(HP)

Where, Fc = cutting force in Kilogram
And Vc = cutting velocity in m/min
Problems
 Problem No. 1
In an orthogonal cutting operation following data have been observed:
Uncut chip thickness, t = 0.127 mm width of cut, b = 6.35 mm Cutting speed V = 2m/s

Rake angle, α = 10° Cutting force Fc = 567 N Thrust force FT = 227 N

Chip thickness tc = 0.228 mm
Determine : Shear angle, friction angle, shear stress, power. Also find chip velocity and shear strain
(ii) Friction Angle

Shear stress
(iv) Cutting power

(v) Chip velocity

(vi) Strain
Problem No. 2
During orthogonal machining operation of C40 steel, the following data was observed

(ii) Coeff of friction

 Problem No. 3
The following data related to orthogonal process.
Chip thickness= 0.62 mm, feed =0.2mm/rev, rake angle 15°,
Calculate cutting ratio and chip reduction coeff, shear angle, shear strain

1. Cutting ratio

2. Chip reduction co efficient

3. Shear angle

4. Shear strain

Cot =1/tan
Problem No. 4

Al = b1. t1
 Problem No. 5
During machining of C-25 steel with 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 mm (ORS) shaped triple carbide
tool ,following observations were made :
Depth of cut = 2 mm Feed = 0.2 mm/rev. Speed = 200 m/min.
Tangential Cutting force = 1600 N Feed Thrust force = 850 N
Chip thickness = 0.39 mm. Calculate :Shear force , Normal force at shear plane,
Frictional force , Coefficient of friction

Solution:

1. Shear force
2. Normal force at shear plane

3.Frictional force

4.Coefficient of friction
PROBLEMS FOR HOME WORK/ASSIGMENT NO.01:
1. The following data related to the orthogonal cutting of a component.
Cutting Speed= 80m/min, Cutting force=20Kg, Feed force=8kg, Back rake angle= 1.5°, Feed=0.2
mm/rev, Chip thickness= 0.4mm
Determine 1) Chip thickness ratio, 2) Shear angle, 3) Shear strain, 4) W.D. in shear
2. During orthogonal turning with 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 tool, following data was recorded.
Feed = 0.2 mm/rev. Chip thickness = 0.45 m Cutting force = 400 N Trust force = 240 N
Determine : Frictional force & Shear force
3. In an orthogonal turning operation:
Cutting speed: 2.1m/s , Cutting force : 600N, Feed force : 300N, Rake angle : 10°,
width of cut 6mm, Chip thickness : 0.3 mm, uncut chip thickness= 2.1 m/s
Determine a) Shear angle b)Shear strain c)shear force
4. The following data related to the orthogonal cutting of a component
Feed force 900 N Cutting force 1800 N Chip thickness ratio 0.26
0
Rake angle 12 . Determine- shear angle, shear force, coefficient of friction
5. In an orthogonal turning operation:
Cutting speed: 100 m/min , Cutting force : 30 kg, Feed force : 8 kg, Back rake angle : 12°,
Feed: 0.2 mm/rev, Chip thickness : 0.5 mm
Determine the following, a) Shear angle b) Work done in shear c) Shear strain.
Thank you!!!