FTC 1 – The Child and Adolescent and • Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)

• Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

Learning Principles
This list reflects unique aspects of the
various stages of childhood and
adolescence that will be explored in this
BASIC CONCEPTS
book. So while both an 8-month- old and
WHO defines 'Adolescents' as individuals an 8-year-old are considered children,
in the 10-19 years age group and 'Youth' they have very different motor abilities,
as the 15-24 year age group. While social relationships, and cognitive skills.
'Young People' covers the age range 10- Their nutritional needs are different and
24 years. their primary psychological concerns are
also distinctive.
Nature vs. Nurture in Psychology
Prenatal Development
The nature versus nurture debate Conception occurs and development
involves the extent to which particular begins. Understanding nutrition,
aspects of behavior are a product of teratogens (or environmental factors that
either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired can lead to birth defects), and labor and
(i.e., learned) influences. delivery are primary concerns.

 Nature is what we think of as pre- Infancy and Toddlerhood

wiring and is influenced by The two years of life are ones of dramatic
genetic inheritance and other growth and change. A newborn, with a
biological factors. keen sense of hearing but very poor
 Nurture is generally taken as the vision, is transformed into a walking,
influence of external factors after talking toddler within a relatively short
conception, e.g, the product of period of time.
exposure, life experiences and
Early Childhood
learning on an individual.
Early childhood is also referred to as the
NATURE NURTURE preschool years and consists of the years
Genes and Environmental which follow toddlerhood and precede
Hereditary Factors Variables formal schooling. As a three to five-year-
- Physical - Childhood old, the child is busy learning language,
appearance experiences is gaining a sense of self and greater
- Personality - How we independence, and is beginning to learn
characteris were raised the workings of the physical world.
tic
- Social Middle Childhood
relationship The ages of six through eleven comprise
- Surrounding middle childhood and much of what
culture children experience at this age is
connected to their involvement in the
early grades of school. Now the world
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT becomes one of learning and testing new
academic skills and by assessing one's
abilities and accomplishments by making
Developmentalists (those that study comparisons between self and others.
development) break this part of the life Schools compare students and make
span into these five stages as follows: these comparisons public through team
sports, test scores, and other forms of
• Prenatal Development (conception recognition. Growth rates slow down and
through birth) children are able to refine their motor
• Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through skills at this point in life. And children
two years) begin to learn about social relationships
• Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
beyond the family through interaction
with friends and fellow students.
Havighurst Developmental Task
Adolescence
Mastery of these tasks is satisfying and
Adolescence is a period of dramatic
encourages us to go on to new
physical change marked by an overall
challenges. Difficulty with them slows
physical growth spurt and sexual
progress toward future accomplishments
maturation, known as puberty. It is also a
and goals. As a mechanism for
time of cognitive change as the
understanding the changes that occur
adolescent begins to think of new
during the life span.
possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and freedom.
Robert Havighurst (1952, 1972, 1982) has
identified critical developmental tasks
that occur throughout the life span.

ROBERT HAVIGHURST’S
• Tasks that arise from physical
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK THEORY maturation. For example, learning to
walk, talk, and behave acceptably with
Stages of Development the opposite sex during adolescence;
adjusting to menopause during middle
 Infancy - Early Childhood (birth to
age
5 years)
• Tasks that from personal sources. For
 Middle Childhood (6 to 12 years)
example, those that emerge from the
 Adolescence (13 to 18 years)
maturing personality and take the form of
Early adulthood (19 to 29 years)
personal values and aspirations, such as
 Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
learning the necessary skills for job
Later Maturity (60>)
success.
• Tasks that have their source in the
The idea of "developmental task" is
pressures of society. For example,
generally credited to the work of Robert
learning to read or learning the role of a
Havighurst who indicates that the
responsible citizen.
concept was developed through the work
in the 1930s and 40s of Frank, Zachary,
According to our biopsychosocial model,
Prescott, and Tyron. Others elaborated
the first source corresponds to the "bio"
and were influenced by the work of Erik
part of the model, the second to the
Erikson in the theory of psychosocial
"psycho," and the third to the "social"
development.
aspect. Havighurst has identified six
major age periods:
Havighurst states:
• infancy and early childhood (0-5 years),
"The developmental-task concept
• middle childhood (6-12 years)
occupies middle ground between two
• adolescence (13-18 years),
opposed theories of education: the theory
• early adulthood (19-29 years),
of freedom-that the child will develop
• middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
best if left as free as possible, and the
• later maturity (61+).
theory of constraint-that the child must
learn to become a worthy, responsible
adult through restraints imposed by his DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF
society. A developmental task is midway INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD
between an individual need and societal
demand. It assumes an active learner 1. Learning to walk.
interacting with an active social 2. Learning to take solid foods
environment" (1971, p. vi). 3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of
The Developmental Task Concept body wastes
From examining the changes in your own 5. Learning sex differences and sexual
life span you can see that critical arise at modesty
certain times in our lives.
6. Forming concepts and learning 9. Finding a congenial social group
language to describe social and physical
reality.
7. Getting ready to read
BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF
INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD Biological Beginnings
AGES BIRTH to 6-12
Child development, the growth of
1. Learning physical skills necessary for
ordinary games. perceptual, emotional, intellectual, and
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward behavioral capabilities and functioning
oneself as a growing organism during childhood. The term childhood
3. Learning to get along with age-mates denotes that period in the human lifespan
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or from the acquisition of language at one
feminine social role or two years to the onset of adolescence
5. Developing fundamental skills in at 12 or 13 years.
reading, writing, elongating
6. Developing concepts necessary for Adolescence is one of the most
everyday living. fascinating and complex transitions in
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a the life span. Its breathtaking pace of
scale of values growth and change is second only to that
8. Achieving personal independence of infancy. Biological processes drive
9. Developing attitudes toward social many aspects of this growth and
groups and institutions
development, with the onset of puberty
marking the passage from childhood to
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF
adolescence. Puberty is a transitional
ADOLESCENCE
period between childhood and adulthood,
AGES 12-18: during which a growth spurt occurs,
1. Achieving new and more mature
secondary sexual characteristics appear,
relations with age-mates of both sexes
fertility is achieved, and profound
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine
psychological changes take place.
social role
3. Accepting one's physique and using
the body effectively
4. Achieving emotional independence of PERCEPTUAL, MOTOR, AND
parents and other adults
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
5. Preparing for marriage and family life,
(foundations for children’s learning in all
preparing for an economic career
domains)
6. Acquiring a set of values and an
ethical system as a guide to behavior; Perception – refers to how children use
developing an ideology
their senses to gather and understand
7. Desiring and achieving socially
information and respond to the world
responsible behavior
around them.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF EARLY Gross Motor – skills refer to moving the
ADULTHOOD whole body and using larger muscles,
1. Selecting a mate such as those in the arms and legs.
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine
social role Fine Motor – skills refer to use of the
3. Learning to live with a marriage small muscles found in individual body
partner parts, especially those in the hands and
4. Starting a family feet.
5. Rearing children
6. Managing a home PERCEPTION
7. Getting started in an occupation
8. Taking on civic responsibility Infants and toddlers use perception
during interactions, for exploration, and
to make sense of their experiences. range of onset is ages 8 to 14 in females
Preschoolers rely on perceptual and ages 9 to 15 in males, with girls
information to develop greater awareness generally experiencing physiological
of their bodies in space and to move growth characteristic of the onset of
effectively to perform tasks, such as puberty two years before boys. Pubertal
kicking a ball to a friend. maturation is controlled largely by
complex interactions among the brain,
GROSS MOTOR the pituitary gland, and the gonads,
which in turn interact with environment
In infancy, gross motor skills include
(i.e., the social, cultural, and ambient
gaining control of the head, neck, and
environment). A relatively new area of
torso to achieve a sitting or standing
research related to puberty is that of
position. They also include locomotor
brain development. Evidence now
skills that emerge in the toddler years,
suggests that brain growth continues into
such as walking, throwing, and
adolescence, including the proliferation
stretching. Preschoolers gain even
of the support cells, which nourish the
greater control over their bodies. This
neurons, and myelination, which permits
contributes to their increasing
faster neural processing. These changes
confidence and ability to engage in social
in the brain are likely to stimulate
play.
cognitive growth and development,
FINE MOTOR SKILLS including the capacity for abstract
reasoning.
Children use their fine motor skills to
grasp, hold, and manipulate small Physical Development
objects, such as cups, or to use tools,
Improved Motor Skills
including scissors and paint brushes. As
they gain hand-eye coordination, As adolescents continue to mature they
preschoolers learn to direct the become better able to move their bodies
movements of their fingers, hands, and with greater skill and precision. These
wrists to perform more complex tasks, movement skills are divided into two
including drawing fine details or stringing types: gross motor skills and fine motor
small beads. skills. Gross motor skills refer to the
large muscle movements of the body (e.g.
HEALTH, SAFETY, AND NUTRITION
muscles used while running), while fine
It is the fourth element of perceptual, motor skills refer to the tiny and precise
motor, and physical development. muscle movements (e.g. muscles used
Children’s physical well-being depends on while keyboarding or texting). Relative to
several factors, including their knowledge boys, adolescent girls make only modest
and use of safe, healthy behaviors and gains in their gross and fine motor skills
routines. Children’s ability to keep until approximately 14 years of age. After
themselves safe and healthy, such as this point, they generally do not
communicating to adults when they are experience any additional improvement in
hungry or sick, is extremely important their motor skills unless they are
and contributes to learning and specifically training for a sport or hobby
development in all areas. which requires these skills. In contrast to
girls, the motor skills of adolescent boys
continue to improve, particularly gross
motor skills. Adolescent boys rapidly gain
BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS (the
physical speed, jumping strength,
adolescent)
throwing strength, and endurance
Although the sequence of pubertal throughout the entire period of
changes is relatively predictable, their adolescence, even into their early 20's.
timing is extremely variable. The normal
Sensory and Motor Development neural connections are formed every
second. After this period of rapid
Overview proliferation, connections are reduced
through a process called pruning, so that
Before the adolescent growth spurt, the
brain circuits become more efficient.
strength of boys and girls is about the
Sensory pathways like those for basic
same. But afterward, males most often
vision and hearing are the first to
have the advantage.
develop, followed by early language skills
During these years of rapid physical and higher cognitive functions.
growth, adolescents may be somewhat Connections proliferate and prune in a
awkward or clumsy as they get used to prescribed order, with later, more
longer limbs and bigger bodies. Their complex brain circuits built upon earlier,
brains need time to adjust to the growing simpler circuits.
body.

Strength can be increased further in both

boys and girls by participation in sports
and exercise programs. A large and
growing number of kids do not
participate in the recommended amount
of physical activity. Many children
become less active as they enter middle
and high school and as organized sport
activities become more competitive.

THE SCIENCE OF EARLY BRAIN

DEVELOPMENT

What does it mean and why do we In the proliferation and pruning process,
have to understand it? simpler neural connections form first,
followed by more complex circuits. The
The science of early brain development timing is genetic, but early experiences
can inform investments in early determine whether the circuits are
childhood. These basic concepts, strong or weak. Source: C.A. Nelson
established over decades of (2000). Credit: Center on the Developing
neuroscience and behavioral research, Child
help illustrate why child development—
particularly from birth to five years—is a The interactive influences of genes
foundation for a prosperous and and experience shape the developing
sustainable society. brain.

Brains are built over time, from the Scientists now know a major ingredient
bottom up. in this developmental process is the
“serve and return” relationship between
The basic architecture of the brain is children and their parents and other
constructed through an ongoing process caregivers in the family or community.
that begins before birth and continues Young children naturally reach out for
into adulthood. Early experiences affect interaction through babbling, facial
the quality of that architecture by expressions, and gestures, and adults
establishing either a sturdy or a fragile respond with the same kind of vocalizing
foundation for all of the learning, health and gesturing back at them. In the
and behavior that follow. In the first few absence of such responses—or if the
years of life, more than 1 million new responses are unreliable or inappropriate
—the brain’s architecture does not form behavior, and physical and mental
as expected, which can lead to health.
disparities in learning and behavior.
Scientists now know that chronic,
The brain’s capacity for change unrelenting stress in early childhood,
decreases with age. caused by extreme poverty, repeated
abuse, or severe maternal depression, for
The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,”
example, can be toxic to the developing
early in life to accommodate a wide
brain. While positive stress (moderate,
range of environments and interactions,
short-lived physiological responses to
but as the maturing brain becomes more
uncomfortable experiences) is an
specialized to assume more complex
important and necessary aspect of
functions, it is less capable of
healthy development, toxic stress is the
reorganizing and adapting to new or
strong, unrelieved activation of the
unexpected challenges. For example, by
body’s stress management system. In the
the first year, the parts of the brain that
absence of the buffering protection of
differentiate sound are becoming
adult support, toxic stress becomes built
specialized to the language the baby has
into the body by processes that shape
been exposed to; at the same time, the
the architecture of the developing brain.
brain is already starting to lose the
ability to recognize different sounds
found in other languages. Although the
“windows” for language learning and
other skills remain open, these brain
circuits become increasingly difficult to
alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s
easier and more effective to influence a
baby’s developing brain architecture than
to rewire parts of its circuitry in the adult
years.

Cognitive, emotional, and social

capacities are inextricably
intertwined throughout the life
course.

The brain is a highly interrelated organ,

Brains subjected to toxic stress have
and its multiple functions operate in a
underdeveloped neural connections in
richly coordinated fashion. Emotional
areas of the brain most important for
well-being and social competence
successful learning and behavior in
provide a strong foundation for emerging
school and the workplace. Source: Radley
cognitive abilities, and together they are
et al (2004); Bock et al (2005). Credit:
the bricks and mortar that comprise the
Center on the Developing Child.
foundation of human development. The
emotional and physical health, social
skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities
that emerge in the early years are all BIOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT
important prerequisites for success in CHILD DEVELOPMENT
school and later in the workplace and
Early child development is influenced by
community.
a wide variety of both biological and
Toxic stress damages developing environmental factors. Biological factors
brain architecture, which can lead to can play a particularly important role in
lifelong problems in learning, early development. These factors
influence a child in both positive and The 23rd pair of chromosomes is what
negative ways. They can affect children determines the gender of an individual.
throughout their development, Boys typically have one X chromosome
particularly during critical times such as and one Y chromosome while girls have
the prenatal period and early childhood. two X chromosomes. Hence, gender
differences at the biological level are
Research conducted at Rutgers
found on the Y chromosome. Gender can
University demonstrated that prenatal
influence development in a variety of
factors affect linguistic development and
ways. For example, boys tend to develop
postnatal factors contribute to a child’s
and learn differently than girls and have
cognitive development.1
lower levels of school readiness.
And gross motor development is widely
A child’s physical body has distinctive
considered to be the result of innate,
reproductive organs and becomes further
biological factors, with postnatal factors
differentiated as special sex hormones
contributing to a lesser extent.
are produced that play a role in gender
Biological factors include genetic differences. Boys typically produce more
influences, brain chemistry, hormone androgens (male sex hormones), while
levels, nutrition, and gender. Here is a females produce estrogens (female sex
closer look at nutrition and gender and hormones).
how they affect development.
Scientists have studied the effect of
Nutrition excessive amounts of sex hormones on a
child’s behavior. They have found that
Proper nutrition is a vital factor in a boys with higher than normal androgen
child’s overall development. Prior to birth, levels play and behave similarly to their
a mother’s diet and health play a key role. male peers with normal androgen levels.
For example, folic acid intake of 400 However, girls with high androgen levels
micrograms (mcg) daily for three months typically exhibit more gender-stereotypic
prior to conception and during early male traits than do girls who have normal
pregnancy significantly decreases the androgen levels.
risk of certain birth defects of a baby’s
brain (anencephaly) and spine (spina Interactions among Biological and
bifida).2 Environmental Factors

These birth defects occur in the first few It is important to remember that
weeks of pregnancy, which is why it is biological factors do not act in isolation.
important for women in their childbearing Genes, for example, can interact both
years to ensure they are getting at least with other genes and the environment.
400 micrograms of folic acid daily. Some genes may dominate and prevent
Waiting until a woman finds out she is others from being expressed. In other
pregnant can be too late. cases, certain biological influences might
impact genetic expression.
Gender
An example of biological influence over
Most people possess 23 pairs of gene expression is a child not getting
chromosomes in their cells (with the proper nutrition. The child might not grow
exception of special reproductive cells tall, even though they have inherited
called gametes). The first 22 pairs are genes for height.
called autosomes, which are the same in
boys and girls. Therefore, males and In order to understand child development,
females share most of the same set of it is essential to consider all the many
genes. factors that may play a role. Healthy
development is not the result of a single
influence.
 Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems
Theory
Gesell's Developmental Theory
Key Takeaways from the Theory
Maturational-Developmental Theory
(Arnold Gesell)  Brofenbrenner's ecological
systems theory views child
Gesell emphasized that growth always
development as a complex system
progresses in a pattern through
of relationships affected by
predictable stages or sequences.
multiple levels of the surrounding
Sequential development begins within
environment, from immediate
the embryo and continues after birth.
settings of family and school to
While an individual progresses through
broad cultural values, laws, and
these stages at his or her own pace, the
customs.
sequence remains the same. According
 To study a child's development
to Gesell, growth can be thought of as a
then, we must look not only at the
cyclical spiral. Each cycle of the spiral
child and her immediate
encompassing the time it takes to move
environment, but also at the
through six stages, or half-year
interaction of the larger
increments. Notice that the time to
environment as well.
complete a cycle of the six stages is
 Bronfenbrenner divided the
quite rapid in early life and slows down
person's environment into five
with age. Gesell’s cycles of development
different systems: the
are divided into six well-defined stages
microsystem, the mesosystem,
which are repeated throughout life. One
the exosystem, the macrosystem,
cycle includes the following stages:
and the chronosystemm.
Smooth, Break-Up, Sorting Out,
 The microsystem is the most
Inwardizing, Expansion, and Neurotic
influential level of the ecological
“Fitting Together”. See figure below of
systems theory. This is the most
the cycles of development.
immediate environmental settings
containing the developing child,
such as family and school.
The Cyclical Spiral  Bronfenbrenner's ecological
systems theory has implications
for educational practice.

THE FIVE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

  The interactions within
microsystems are often very
personal and are crucial for
fostering and supporting the
child’s development.
 If a child has a strong nurturing
relationship with their parents,
this is said to have a positive
effect on the child. Whereas,
distant and unaffectionate
parents will have a negative
effect on the child.

The Mesosystem

 The mesosystem encompasses

the interactions between the
child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s
parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings.
 The mesosystem is where a
person's individual microsystems
do not function independently, but
are interconnected and assert
influence upon one another.
 For instance, if a child’s parents
communicate with the child’s
teachers, this interaction may
influence the child’s development.
Essentially, a mesosystem is a
system of microsystems.
 According to the ecological
systems theory, if the child’s
The Microsystem parents and teachers get along
and have a good relationship, this
 The microsystem is the first level
should have positive effects on
of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and
the child’s development,
are the things that have direct
compared to negative effects on
contact with the child in their
development if the teachers and
immediate environment, such as
parents do not get along.
parents, siblings, teachers and
school peers. The Exosystem
 Relationships in a microsystem
are bi-directional, meaning the  The exosystem is a component of
child can be influenced by other the ecological systems theory
people in their environment and is developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner
also capable of changing the in the 1970s. It incorporates other
beliefs and actions of other formal and informal social
people too. structures, which do not
 Furthermore, the reactions of the themselves contain the child, but
child to individuals in their indirectly influence them as they
microsystem can influence how affect one of the microsystems.
they treat them in return.
  Examples of exosystems include systems theory is known as the
the neighborhood, parent’s chronosystem.
workplaces, parent’s friends and  This system consists of all of the
the mass media. These are environmental changes that occur
environments in which the child is over the lifetime which influence
not involved, and are external to development, including major life
their experience, but nonetheless transitions, and historical events.
affects them anyway.  These can include normal life
 An instance of exosystems transitions such as starting
affecting the child’s development school but can also include non-
could be if one of the parents had normative life transitions such as
a dispute with their boss at work. parents getting a divorce or
 The parent may come home and having to move to a new house.
have a short temper with the child
as a result of something which
happened in the workplace, THE BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL
resulting in a negative effect on
development.  It is important to note that
Bronfenbrenner (1994) later
revised his theory and instead
The Macrosystem named it the ‘Bioecological
model’.
 The macrosystem is a component
of Bronfenbrenner's ecological
 Bronfenbrenner became more
systems theory that focuses on concerned with the proximal
how cultural elements affect a processes of development,
child's development, such as meaning the enduring and
socioeconomic status, wealth, persistent forms of interaction
poverty, and ethnicity. in the immediate environment.
 Thus, culture that individuals are His focus shifted from
immersed within may influence
focusing on environmental
their beliefs and perceptions
influences to developmental
about events that transpire in life.
 The macrosystem differs from the processes individuals
previous ecosystems as is does experience over time.
not refer to the specific  ‘…development takes place
environments of one developing through the process of
child, but the already established progressively more complex
society and culture which the reciprocal interactions
child is developing in. between an active, evolving
 This can also include the
biopsychological human
socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
organism and the persons,
geographic location and
ideologies of the culture. objects, and symbols in its
 For example, a child living in a immediate external
third world country would environment.’ (Bronfenbrenner,
experience a different 1995).
development than a child living in  Bronfenbrenner also
a wealthier country. suggested that in order to
The Chronosystem understand the effect of these
proximal processes on
 The fifth and final level of development, we have to focus
Bronfenbrenner's ecological
on the person, context and
developmental outcome as
these processes vary and
affect people differently
(Bronfenbrenner & Evans,
2000).