Issues in Sociolinguistics

Handout 2
Presented by: Mission Possible Group
ZAHIRA DAFIR
Roqaya Elhaouzi
Wissal Mhirig
Houda Amarir
Kechade Romaysae

Supervised by: Pr. Mohamed Hammani

 TABLE OF CONTENT

1 Code-Switching and Borrowing.

2 Language and Society.

Speech as Social Interaction.

3
.
4 Language and Social Inequality
Code Switching and Borrowing

.
 01
Borrowing
.
 Borrowing is when one language incorporates words or expressions from another language.

Borrowed words are adapted in the following ways :

- Phonetically: by making - Phonologically/

the borrowed word sound morphologically: by changing
more similar to the or adjusting the borrowed
pronunciation of the word’s sounds and structure
borrowing language (e.g to match up with the
the way “Computer” morphology and phonology of
pronounced in German the borrowing language
Factors Influencing The Adaptation of Borrowed Words

Frequency of use Ease of integration Phonological and Grammatical Integration

The more a how quickly it Borrowed words that

borrowed word is enters the lexicon fit well and easily into
used, the more and replaces a the language's sounds
likely it is to native word. and grammar are
integrate into the more easily
language. integrated.

Integration takes time as speakers gradually adopt and naturalize borrowed words.
 Language Borrowing vs Speech Borrowing
Grosjean (1982)
Language Borrowing : Speech Borrowing:
• Words that have been moved from one • Terms used spontaneously by the bilingual
language and integrated as permanent items when needed
within another. • They are not integrated within the host
• They are used by both bilinguals and language; rather they are employed only due to
monolinguals as they become a part of the laziness, fatigue, or emotional stress or because
lexicon of the host language. they are more appropriate or have an added
• They are classified within ‘Langue’ value to the speech
• They are part of ‘Parole’.
 02
Code Switching
.
 Code Switching Definitions:
A linguistic phenomenon that involves the alternation of languages or linguistic
varieties within the same conversation or utterance.

❑ While bilingual code-switching involves a change of language, the monolingual

one involves a change of style of speech

McLaughlin (1984)

Code-switches: Code mixes :

are language
changes that occur take place within
across phrase or sentences and involve
sentence single lexical items
boundaries
 Types of Code Switching :
Intra-sentential code-switching: Inter-sentential code-switching:
Switching between languages Switching between languages
within a single sentence. across different sentences.

Va chercher Mark and bribe him avec un Tenià zapatos blancos, un poco;
chocolat chaud with cream on top. they were off white, you know.

Constraints on code-switching:

▪ Studying code-switching involves determining if there are universal rules or if it is

language-specific.
▪ It is a complex task because patterns may depend on the languages involved.
▪ Researchers analyze recordings and gather opinions from bilingual speakers, but
conflicting results make understanding code-switching challenging.
 Who code switches?
❖ Code-switching occurs in both children and adults after awareness of speaking different
languages develops.

❖ Children's code-switching progresses with age, starting with English nouns in Spanish and
advancing to phrases, sentences, and word-level mixes.

❖ Proficiency influences the ability to code-switch within utterances.

❖ Bilinguals control code-switching based on contextual, situational, and personal factors.

❖ Informal conversations encourage code-switching among familiar individuals, while formal

settings may discourage it.

❖ Attitudes toward code-switching vary among bilinguals, with some viewing it positively as a
natural phenomenon and others considering it linguistically impure or lazy.
Why do individuals code switch
❖ Lack of proficiency in the relevant register

❖ Triggered by certain items with specific connotations

❖ Quoting someone else

❖ Emphasizing a point

❖ Personal involvement and desire to be understood

❖ Expressing group identity and solidarity

Language and Society

Presented by: Roqaya Elhaouzi

THE SCOPE OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS
● Sociolinguistics is divided into two categories :
✓ Macrosociolinguistics : covers secular linguistics, the sociology of language and
other areas involving the study of relatively large groups of speakers
✓ Microsociolinguistics : covers the study of face to face interaction, discourse analysis
and other areas of sociolinguistics involving the study of relatively small groups of
speakers.
Dialectology and Dialect Geography
● Dialectology: is the systematic study of various rural traditional dialects by examining
their phonology, morphology, lexicon, syntax and so on .
● It is always concerned with the geographical distribution of these dialects.
FORMS OF THE INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SOCIETY AND LANGUAGE.

1. Social structure may either influence or determine linguistic structure or behaviour:

➢ One can easily tell a person’s age and educational background their speech.
➢ A society taboos can have an influence on language.

2. Linguistic structure or behaviour may either influence or determine social structure:

According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

3. The influence is bi-directional. Language and society may influence each other:
➢ Both language and society have the capacity to influence each other mutually.
➢ The interaction between language and society can be manifested at the level of a dialect.

4. There is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and social structure:

➢ Speech is never affected by any social factor.
.
Dialects : Regional and
Social
.
Regional Dialect
❖ Definition: “a regional variation in the way a language is spoken is likely to
be one of the most noticeable ways in which we observe variety in
language.” Wardhaugh (1986: 40)
❖ Dialect Continuum: occurs when diverse dialects are being spoken across a
large geographical area
❖ Wardhaugh also talks about « dialect continuum » saying that at one time,
one could travel from the south of Italy to the north of France...by making
slight changes in his speech from one place to another but continued to
communicate with the inhabitants.
Social Dialects
❖ Definition: - social dialects originate from social groups, especially social
class, religion and ethnicity.
❖ A social dialect is not bounded by any geographical area.
❖ Example based on ethnicity: African American Vernacular English.
Accent
❖ Accents are regional phonological and phonetic distinctions.
❖ They give us information about the origin of the speaker.
❖ Accents are only restricted to pronunciation.
❖ Moroccan people have different accents based on their origins.
These accents encompass the Fassi, Chamali, Marrakchi, Rbati accents etc..
Speech as Social Interaction

Presented by: Wissal Mhirig

 Is Speech a social product or an individual one?

▪ Ferdinand De Saussure (1916) claims that

▪ Speech is a social product, as it
"speech is totally individual in that it
depends on the addresse to
depends on the "will" of the speaker".
guarantee its success
▪ Speech is independent from society and
▪ Speech must adhere to a
others, as it relies solely on one’s will to
number of social norms, as it
speak or not to.
has so many constraints
▪ Speech is the product of the individual’s will
The Functions of Speech :

● What is Speech Act Theory?

“Speech act theory is a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are used not only to
present information but also to carry out action” (Nordquist,2020)
● What is a speech act?
● J.L. Austin defined a speech act as an utterance that not only has a locutionary
meaning (literal meaning of the words used), but also performs a social function or
action
Speech Acts
● Locutionary Act: This refers to the actual act of saying something, the production of
an utterance with a certain linguistic meaning. It focuses on the literal meaning of the
words uttered.
● Illocutionary Act: This refers to the intended or communicative force behind the
utterance. It's about what the speaker aims to do with their utterance
● Perlocutionary Act: This refers to the effect that the utterance has on the listener or
recipient. It concerns the impact, response, or result of the utterance on the hearer
Speech as Skilled Work :
➢ Speech is work since it requires effort in terms of interactions and appropriate choice
of language and ideas
➢ Speech is skilled as it requires the ‘know-how’ = include to know how to listen, to
interrupt politely, to disagree etc.. This process requires a lot of practice
➢ Know-how depends on Grice’s Maxims (Quantity, Quality, Relation, Manner)
Thus, based on these characteristics, speech may or may not be successful and some
speakers may be considered better than others.
The Norms Governing Speech
There are two types of rules which govern speech :
➢ Norms Governing the Quantity of Speech :
- In some cultures, there is a certain amount of speech that need to be respected.
- While in some countries, there might be no restrictions concerning the quantity of speech, in
others, it is important to be as brief as possible (example of Indonesia)
➢ Norms Governing the Quality of Speech :
-In some cultures, it is tolerable for people to talk all at the same time (example of Antigua) .
- In other countries, this might be perceived as rude and uncivilized, which can affect the quality of
speech.
Linguistic and social inequality
 According to Hudson ( 1980 ) : " all normal
people are equal with regard to their
grammars. "
-> no language or dialect is considered better
than another .
Types of linguistic inequality :

- subjective inequality
- strictly linguistic inequality
- communicative inequality
Linguistic prejudice :

"People ought not jump to conclusions

about other people’s non-linguistic
characteristics on the basis of their
speech" Hudson ( 1980 , p.196)

leads to " cognitive uncertainty

" : a form of dissimulation.
Linguistic prejudice and values:
Relating what is linguistic to the non
linguistic : values and characteristics
- values are relative .
For instance :people who show the trait of toughness in their
speech may be viewed differently depending on how the society
they are in views the characteristic of toughness.
One solution :
Teachers should tell their students to adopt
the high variety however :
-The students 'behavior may not be in
accordance with their speech .
-This might effect their communication skills.
-They may be the subject of ridicule by their
social community .
Prejudice of teachers:
" there is some evidence that
teachers base their first impressions
of pupils on speech forms in
preference to other sources of
information which might appear to be
more relevant " . (Hudson p.208)
Prejudice of students:
" the teacher's accent may affect the
children's willingness to be influenced
by what s/ he says , and even their
ability to remember it " ( Hudson , p.212)
Linguistic (in)competence

Presented by: Romayssae

Kachade
 01

The Deficit Theory

.
 ● the children of school age from lower class homes are incompetent in their
first language..
● They fail in school because such students and their families have internal
defects (deficits) that thwart the learning process (for example, limited
educability, unmotivated; inadequate family support)…

.
 02

Restricted and
elaborated codes .
 Bernstein’s description

Restricted code :
Elaborated code :
• Brief and simple • characterized by extensive verbal elaboration
• Condensation of meaning • employing complex sentence structures and a
• Involves using basic vocabulary and rich vocabulary to convey nuanced meanings
sentences • prefers complex constructions and active voice
Communicative (in)competence
 Definition

Communicative (in)competence refers to understanding how to

communicate effectively, including knowing about the world and
using language appropriately.
 01

Schemata or scripts
.
 02

Why is communicative
competance important? .
Conclusion
 Issues in Sociolinguistics
Handout 3
Presented by: Mission Possible Group
ZAHIRA DAFIR
Roqaya Elhaouzi
Wissal Mhirig
Houda Amarir
Kechade Romaysae

Supervised by: Pr. Mohamed Hammani

 TABLE OF CONTENT
1 Language & Gender

Language Planning
2

Social Factors in
3 Language Change

4 Pidgins & Creoles

.

5 Ethnography & Ethnomethodology

Language & Gender

.
 01

ANTHROPOLOGISTS’
APPROACH .
 ANTHROPOLOGISTS’ APPROACH

Differences in language between genders have been

observed in anthropological literature since the 17th
century.

❖ Men's language ❖ Women's language.

These differences were often

described in terms of "phonology" and
"lexicon"
 ❑ Anthropologists suggested two main reasons for the origins of these differences.

TABOO
CONTACT with speakers of other
An example languages
❖ Caroline Humphrey's study on ❖ Linguistic differences between men and
women and taboo in Mongolia. 1993 women were attributed to historical events such
as invasions and intermarriages
❖ It showed that Mongols avoid using the
names of dead people, predatory animals
and certain mountains and rivers. ❖ According to Rochfort,
An example of this is found in the Carib
Indians.
❖ women, in particular, are absolutely
forbidden from using the names of the
husband’s older brothers, father, father’s
brothers or grandfathers.
The defects in the anthropological approach

❖ They limited their observations of gendered language to

"primitive" societies, overlooking similar patterns in in the
European languages they are familiar with.

❖ They prioritized sex-exclusive differences,

neglecting sex-preferential variations in European
languages
 02

DIALECTOLOGISTS’
APPROACH
.
 DIALECTOLOGISTS’ APPROACH
❖ Traditional dialectologists have always been sensitive to sex
differences in their own languages.

❖ They often failed to collect scientific data on them.

❖ They rely on folk linguistics and a biased selection

of informants on unscientific bases.

❖ They have often neglected to include women in their studies, because their
speech was more standard than that of men and therefore less interesting for
their research.
 SOCIOLINGUISTS’ APPRAOCH

❖ Sociolinguistics has provided more reliable data on differences

in language between men and women.

Peter Trudgill (1974)

❖ He found that in many speech communities, women tend to use a higher proportion
of prestige forms compared to men and they are prone to hypercorrection.

An example:

❖ The investigation he made on the use of the variable /ng/ in Norwich.

❑ Trudgill’s findings
 ❖ women use ❖ women tend to employ more
fewer stigmatised standard forms in formal
forms than men. contexts, than men.

❖ Trudgill states that it is possibly a mean of

signaling their social status in a society where
their position may be less secure than that of
men
 Macaulay (1978): studied Aspects of Glasgow English

Findings

women's speech
Women in each social class
are revealed as using more mirrored that of
of the prestige form than men in the class
men of the same class. above theirs

.
 « CAN WE SAY THAT
LANGUAGE IS SEXIST? »

❖ Language itself is not inherently sexist

❖ The linguistic distinction between the
but rather reflects the attitudes and
sexes is much more cultural than
behaviors of its speakers who are
linguistic.
sexist
 Cross-Sex Characteristics

❖ Men's language often associated ❖ Women's language often associated

with traits like toughness and with traits like prestige and emotional
competitiveness. expressivity.
However

❖ Cross-sex characteristics may vary across

cultures; for example, in Malagasy culture, women
express anger more directly than men.
 HOW ABOUT THE SITUATION IN
MOROCCO?

❖ Men and women in Morocco use language differently based on societal roles.
❖ Women often employ politeness strategies more frequently than men.
❖Women tend to be discrete and submissive in conversations with men.
❖They rarely interrupt or reject men's ideas and avoid taboo and swear words associated
with toughness and masculinity.
Kingship Terminology Examples

.
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Coates (1986) suggests that learning to be male or female in our society is primarily learning
to use sex-appropriate language.

❑ Socialisation is achieved in 4 ways:

❖ Explicit Comments: Learning gender-appropriate language through comments on taboo,

swearing, and verbosity.
❖ Different Models: Adults provide gender-specific linguistic models for children to emulate.
❖ Differential Interaction: Adults interact differently with children based on their gender
❖ Preconceptions: Adults hold distinct beliefs about male and female children, shaping their
linguistic development.
LANGUAGE PLANNING
Defining language planning :
* Einar Haugen 's definition : " the activity of
preparing a normative orthography, grammar, and
dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers
in a non-homogeneous speech community''(1959, p.8)
Language planning in relation to other spheres :
Language planning is not an independent field ,
it is said to be a sub field of both :
- applied linguistics
- the sociology of language
-> language planning is considered as the
applied sociology of language examining the
interaction between language usage as well as
the social organization of language behaviour .
The corpus / status dichotomy ( introduced by kloss
1961: 81 ) :
Language planning

corpus planning status planning

● Status planning :
● Status planning changes
the function of a language
or a variety of a language
and the rights of those
who use it .
The different functions of language in society :

-Official function : There are 3 types of official

languages : statutory , working , symbolic . –
-Provincial function
- International function
- Educational function
- Religious function.
Corpus planning : Refers to deliberate
efforts to cause change in the internal
condition of a language or one of its varieties,
its aim is often to standardize this language .

Therefore corpus planning may involve the

development of orthography , new sources of
vocabulary , dictionaries and so on .
Four typical ideologies :
1- Linguistic assimilation ( purism ): it is the
belief that everyone should learn the
dominant language of the society.
For example : throughout the period in
which the USA ruled the Philippines , the
instruction in the schools had to be in
English.
2-Linguistic pluralism : it is the recognition
of the existence of more than one language .
For example : in the USA , no federal law has
made English the official language .
3-Vernacularization : it is the restoration
or elaboration of an indigenous language
and its adoption as an official language.
For example : Tagalog in the Philippines.
4-Internationalization : it is the
adoption of a non - indigenous language
of wider communication either as an
official language or for other purposes
like education or trade .
For example : English in Singapore .
The Moroccan language policy :
Arabization : According to Boukous Arabization has
failed to unite morocco linguistically and culturally ,
he criticized this policy as follows :
1 - Arabization "is more symbolic and ideological than
rational and efficient "
2 - Arabization focused more on Arabic and French
and marginalized the mother tongues : Moroccan
Arabic and Amazigh .
3- Arabization sought to erase the Amazigh culture
and language.
 Social Factors In Language
Change

Presented by: Wissal Mhirig

Supervised by : Pr. Mohamed Hammani

“Speaker innovation is a more accurate description than language change. Speakers innovate,
sometimes spontaneously, but more often by imitating speakers from other communities. If their
innovations are adopted by others and diffuse through their local community and beyond into other
communities, then linguistic change is the result.”

Holmes & Wilson , 1992, p. 288

 01

Types of Influence

.
 There are two major types of influence when it comes to language change

-On the Macrolinguistic level -On the Microlinguistic level

• the case of influence on a large scale • Such influence is usually made by
(entire speech community/ society) individuals or minorities
• It is performed by language policies • It occurs via coining new
and decision makers in a society terminologies.
• Example: Standardization, • Microlinguistic change is
pidginization.. challenging to notice or even to
trace.
 02

The Role of Imitation in Language

Change
.
 Bright claims that « once a change is initiated by a single individual...its
subsequent spread throughout a language community occurs when...it is
imitated by other speakers. » (p.85)

.
 Imitation and Language Change

❖ Imitation usually occurs at the level of vocabulary

❖ Imitation mainly occurs for reasons of prestige

❖ People imitate the wealthy to sound more prestigious (change from above)

❖ Others use inverse imitation : Case of American people who imitate the AAVE
(change from below)
 04

The Influence of Literacy on Language

Change
.
 Literacy and Language Change

● Bright states that « since written language generally changes more slowly than spoken
language, it has been supposed that the presence of literacy in a community might act
as a « drag » to retard change in the spoken language. »(p.89)
● The presence of literacy within a community is thought to act as a brake on changes
occurring in spoken language.
● Literacy can retard language change through standardization, preservation of language
records etc
● Example: Moroccan Arabic constant change vs Standard Arabic conservation
 05

Men’s vs Women’s Speech

.
 Men’s and Women’s Speech

● Women are more inclined to adhere to established linguistic norms and

conventions when societal stratification remains constant.
● When faced with situations of ongoing linguistic change, women are often
observed to adopt new linguistic forms more readily than men
● Women’s role in linguistic change as mothers and care givers.
 06

Lexical Diffusion

.
 Lexical Diffusion

● « It has been pointed out by William S.Y. Wang and his associates (Wang,1977) that phonological
change sometimes seems to operate not in such a relatively rapid and sweeping manner as that
envisioned by Labov, but rather through the slow borrowing or “diffusion” of individual lexical
items between sister dialects.” (p.90)
● Language change can manifest through the gradual borrowing or "diffusion" of individual lexical
items between closely related dialects or linguistic varieties
 07

Social Class and Social Network

.
● According to the handout, Social class and social network are defined as the sum total
of relationships that an individual has formed with others
● These relationships, categorized as strong or weak ties, influence language behavior in
the following ways
● Strong ties: more resistant to change and aims at preserving and maintaining a given
dialect
● Weak ties: results in language change as there is much more tolerance to innovation
and alteration of linguistic features
PIDGINS AND CREOLES

Presented by: Roqaya Elhaouzi

Variety Synthesis:
➢ When varieties get mixed up with each other, namely by the process of creating a
new variety out of two existing ones.
➢ The process of « variety synthesis » may take a number of different forms;
however, the most important manifestation is the process of pidginization

Pidginization:
➢ The process in which pidgin languages are created.
➢ Pidgins are varieties created for very practical and immediate purposes of
communication between people who otherwise would have no common language
whatsoever.

A pidgin may be what is called a trade language, but not all pidgins are trade
languages and not all trade languages are pidgins.
The requirements of pidgins:
➢ A pidgin is constructed to suit the needs that a special situation requires.
➢ It should be as simple to learn as possible.
The vocabulary = is based on the vocabulary of the dominant (superstrate)language.
The syntax and phonology = are based on those of the subordinate(substrate) language.

Some characteristics of pidgins:

➢ A pidgin based on variety X is not an example of bad X.
➢ Pidgins have no native speakers.

▪ A pidgin is a “reduced” variety of a « normal » language with simplification of

the grammar and vocabulary of that language.

▪ A Creole is a « normal » language in just about every sense, and it has native
speakers.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION:
Pidgins and Creoles are distributed in places with direct or easy
access to the oceans:
➢ This is closely related to long-standing patterns of trade, including slave trade.
➢ Such varieties of language also tend to be associated with dark skins and
membership for their speakers in third world community of nations.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN:
1. The First Theory:
➢ they arise among people who are unable to learn the standard languages with which
pidgins are associated.
➢ It was rejected because it is racist.

2. The Monogenetic Theory:

➢ Pidgins and creoles retain characteristics of ancestral African languages.

3. The Polygenetic Theory:

➢ Pidgins and creoles are certainly European language-based and were freshly created in
different places
 05

ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
& ETHNOGRAPHY .
➢ ETHNOMETHODOLOGY

The aims of ethnomethodology is to study the

processes of sensemaking, which members of
a society use to construct the social world and
its factual properties

.
 COMMON-SENSE KNOWLEDGE & PRACTICAL REASONING

According to ethnomethodologists

Practal reasoning:
Common_sense knowledge:

• It is the understandings, the recipes • The way common sense knowledge is

and definitions that we employ in applied
daily living as we do things
• It is acquired through experience
• Varies from a person to another
➢ ETHNOGRAPHY

Varieties of talk !

.
➢ THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF
COMMUNICATION
Hymes (1974) : SPEAKING
✓ Setting: the abstract psychological setting, or the cultural
definition of the occasion
✓ Participation: (speakers / listener)
✓ Ends: the expected outcome
✓ Act sequence: ( relevance to the topic)
✓ Key: tone, manner as well as the accompagned gestures .
✓ Instrumentalities: (written / verbal )
✓ Norms : the propertty attached to the speaker and listener
.
for example arab to a french …
✓ Genre : type of speech
 Conclusion

.
 Thank You