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Results in Engineering 19 (2023) 101347
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering
Review article
Advances and significances of nanoparticles in semiconductor applications

– A review
Nayem Hossain a, *, Md Hosne Mobarak a, Mariam Akter Mimona b, Md Aminul Islam a,
Amran Hossain a, Fatema Tuz Zohura b, Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
b
Department of Computer Science Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Gazipur, 1707, Bangladesh
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This review paper gives an overview of recent developments in nanoparticle research and semiconductor in
Semiconductor dustry applications. Nanoparticles have become useful building blocks for a variety of semiconductor devices and
Nanoparticles processes. Quantum dot technology, thin-film deposition, chemical mechanical planarization, and semiconductor
Microchip
nanocrystals are some of the main fields where nanoparticles have made significant strides. It highlights the
Hardware
Conductivity
special traits and skills of nanoparticles that allow for novel functionalities and enhanced efficiency in semi
conductors. Nanoparticles are extremely important in the production of semiconductors because of their special
characteristics and uses such as copper, gold, silver, etc. These nanoparticles are crucial for developing semi
conductor technology because they provide improved thermal stability, increased conductivity, and compati
bility with current fabrication methods. Their incorporation into semiconductor manufacturing procedures aids
in the creation of high-performance hardware, and the execution of novel applications. This review paper also
recognizes the difficulties in synthesizing, integrating, and taking safety precautions with nanoparticles. This
paper emphasizes the need for more research and development to get around current obstacles and guarantee
their successful implementation while recognizing the promising role that nanoparticles will play in determining
the future of semiconductor applications.
1. Introduction structures can be based on the number of dimensions in which their size
is restricted [2]. It could revolutionize a number of fields, including
At the nanoscale, which pertains to the atomic or molecular level, environmental science, electronics, medicine, and energy, providing
materials are purposefully designed and engineered in the realm of answers to urgent problems and creating new opportunities for scientific
nanotechnology. This field allows for the development of innovative research and technological development [3].
materials, tools, and systems that exhibit enhanced capabilities due to Semiconductors are substances with characteristics halfway between
their manipulation of structures and particles at an extremely minute conductivity and insulativity [4–6]. As the basis for semiconductor de
scale [1]. A nanoparticle is defined as a structure that experiences vices like transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits, they are essential to
confinement in all three dimensions: x, y, and z. Conversely, when a modern electronics [7]. Semiconductors are crucial for the manipulation
structure is confined to only two dimensions, it takes the form of a and processing of information in electronic devices because they have
nanowire or nanorod. Although a thin film has the ability to stretch over the capacity to control the flow of electrical current [8]. The electrical
long distances in the x and y directions, its confinement remains limited conductivity of semiconductors can be changed by doping them with
to the z-direction. When it comes to analysis and characterization, impurities, which enables the development of sophisticated electronic
particles are commonly treated as spheres or rods, despite their crys components that power the modern digital world we live in Ref. [9].
talline structure often leading to multifaceted shapes. Classification of Table 1 presents a summary of the characteristics exhibited by
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nayem.hossain@iubat.edu (N. Hossain), 18207023@iubat.edu (M.H. Mobarak), 21303059@iubat.edu (M.A. Mimona), mechengraminul@
gmail.com (M.A. Islam), amranhossainiubat@gmail.com (A. Hossain), amfatematuzzohura@gmail.com (F.T. Zohura), asadzmn2014@yahoo.com
(M.A. Chowdhury).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101347
Received 10 June 2023; Received in revised form 31 July 2023; Accepted 3 August 2023
Available online 4 August 2023
2590-1230/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Hossain et al. Results in Engineering 19 (2023) 101347
Table 1 Table 2
Material properties of semiconductors [10]. Semiconducting nanoparticles advanced applications.
Characteristics Semiconductor Semiconductors Size Application Year Refs.
Nanoparticles (nm)
Conductivity Moderate
Resistivity Moderate Fe2O3 2 to 10 Hyperthermia for cancer 2017 [20]
Forbidden gap Small forbidden gap treatment and the delivery of
Temperature Coefficient Negative drugs
Conduction Very small number of electrons for conduction Zinc Oxide, Titanium More Treatment of Dickeya dadantii 2019 [21]
Conductivity value The conductivity of materials can range from 10^(-7) dioxide than in sweet potato
mho/m to 10^(-13) mho/m, distinguishing 20
conductors from insulators Zinc Oxide 53.7 Nanoelectronics 2011 [22]
Resistivity value Materials can have electrical conductivity ranging 57 to Treats Aspergillus flavus 2012 [23]
from 10^5 Ω-m to 10^5 Ω-m, classifying them as 72 disease in maize
conductors or insulators 28 to Treatment of Fusarium 2013 [24]
Current flow Due to holes and unbound electrons 84 culmorum in Barley
Number of carriers at normal Low 8 Catalysis, drug delivery, 2014 [25]
temperature biosensing, molecular
Zero Kelvin behavior Acts like an insulator diagnostics, cell labeling, solar
Formation Formed by covalent bonding cell technology,
Valence electrons The outermost shell contains a total of four valence optoelectronics, and imaging
electrons More Treatment the disease caused 2019 [26]
Examples Ge, Si, GaAs, GaP, CdS, InAs, InP, etc. than by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
41 Oryzae
More Treatment the disease caused 2019 [26]
semiconductors. than by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
Nanomaterials play a crucial role in enhancing energy conversion 66 Oryzae
2.72 Antibacterial properties 2020 [27]
and storage applications due to their unique properties, such as Titanium dioxide 12 to Fertilizer for plant nutrients 2015 [28]
increased surface area and efficient mass [11], heat [12], and charge 15
transfer [13]. In terms of energy applications, semiconductor nano Cupric Oxide 78 to Treats Alternaria alternata, 2019 [29]
particles have demonstrated promise in solar cells and harvesting in 80 Fusarium oxysporum,
Pythium ultimum, and
dustries [14]. To provide efficient and environmentally friendly
Aspergillus niger in multiple
alternatives to silicon-based solar cells, these materials can also be used crops
to generate hydrogen [15]. Additionally, metal nanoparticles have the Manganese dioxide 9 to Treatment of Acidovorax 2019 [30]
ability to substantially alter the optical characteristics of semiconductor and Magnesium 100 oryzae
nanoparticles [16]. Moreover, The Metal-Assisted Chemical Etching oxide
Magnesium oxide Less Treatment the disease caused 2019 [31]
(MACE) technique involves utilizing metal nanoparticles to induce pore than by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
formation in silicon [17]. The Seebeck effect, which turns heat into 20 Oryzae
electricity, is also demonstrated by semiconductor-based thermoelectric
materials [18], and there are opportunities to improve performance by
adding nanostructures and dopants [19]. Plethora of semiconducting acknowledges the challenges in synthesizing, integrating, and ensuring
nanoparticles showcasing advanced applications in Table 2. safety with nanoparticles. In conclusion, we need further research and
Nanoparticles’ distinctive characteristics and uses add novelty to the development to overcome these obstacles and ensure successful imple
semiconductor industry [32]. Nanoparticles provide improved func mentation, recognizing the promising role of nanoparticles to shape the
tionalities and capabilities in semiconductor production due to their future of semiconductors applications.
nanoscale dimensions. They are used as dopants for controlled electrical
properties and in processes like chemical mechanical planarization for 2. Importance of semiconductor
precise polishing [33]. Nanoparticles called quantum dots enable
size-dependent emission and tunable bandgaps, revolutionizing opto Gadgets such as mobile phones, radios, televisions, computers, video
electronic devices and display technologies [34]. Nanoparticles are also games, and medical diagnostic apparatus, which are a vital aspect of our
used in printed electronics, which makes it possible to create flexible lives, rely on semiconductors for their functioning. Without semi
circuits [35]. Overall, nanoparticles open up new avenues for conductors, these electronic devices would not be possible [37]. Semi
advancement and novel possibilities in semiconductor technology, conductor lasers with delayed feedback have proven to be well-suited
improving performance and opening the door for further developments. for solving challenging and time-consuming tasks in photonic reservoir
Despite of so many advances, nanoparticles’ potential impacts on the computing. In this technique, the reservoir is frequently optically
environment and the well-being of human beings must be carefully injected with the input data [38]. Semiconductor helps electronics work
considered, and strong safety measures must be taken. To fully utilize by controlling the flow of electricity. In telecommunications equipment
nanoparticles in semiconductor applications and ensure their secure and and systems, network and communication chips are semiconductor in
long-term integration into future technologies, it will be essential to tegrated circuits (IC) [39]. A variety of technologies are utilized in
overcome these obstacles [36]. networking and communications chips, with a semiconductor material
The goal of this review paper is to provide an overview of recent serving as the vital link between the conductor and the insulator. This
advancements in nanoparticle research and their applications in the material plays a crucial role in controlling and directing the flow of
semiconductor industry. The first part highlights the significance of electricity within electronic devices and equipment. Consequently, it
nanoparticles as building blocks in various semiconductor devices and finds extensive application in electronic chips used for solid-state stor
processes. The second part emphasizes the unique properties of nano age, computing components, and various other electronic devices [40].
particles that enable the introduction of novel functionalities and As AI and machine learning enter and develop inside the banking in
improved efficiency in semiconductors applications. The third part dustry, semiconductor chips assist banks even more. This wasn’t a pri
discussed the manufacturing processes of semiconductors in industrial mary concern in the past because most attacks used software that was
level. The fourth and fifth parts analyzed NPs uses in semiconductors vulnerable to remote hacking [41,42].
and semiconductors productions respectively. In final part, this paper Insulin pumps are now both wireless and tubeless thanks to
2
semiconductors. Additionally, they include detection technology that

enables insulin pump to pinpoint to precise moment at which our body
requires additional insulin. Insulin pumps are now using polymer
semiconductor [43].
An LED, an acronym for light-emitting diode, operates as a semi
conductor that facilitates the flow of electric current in a single direc
tion. It is designed as a p-n junction diode, as depicted in Fig. 1, with an
abundance of electrons residing in the n-type atoms and electron holes
present in the p-type atoms. When an electric current is applied, it
pushes the atoms towards the junction, causing the n-type and p-type
atoms to come close together. Consequently, the excess electrons from
the n-type atoms are transferred or “donated” to the p-type atoms,
resulting in the accumulation of negative charge on the n-side. This
accumulation initiates a current that moves from the negatively charged
region to the positively charged region, known as “forward bias.” At the
same time, as the extra electrons from the n-type material pass through
the holes in the p-type material, they release energy in the form of light,
known as photons [44]. LEDs demonstrate significant distinctions when Fig. 2. Photocatalytic reaction mechanism [47].
compared to conventional light sources such a lamps, neon lamps, and
gas discharge lamps. They possess the ability to illuminate swiftly, coupled with a high degree of dispersity, making them subjects of
making them advantageous for battery-operated or energy-efficient extensive research and application in diverse fields. Electron and hole
devices. Moreover, LEDs generate a greater amount of light per Watt movement within these materials is influenced by quantum confine
in comparison to incandescent bulbs [45] (see Fig. 2). ment, while the size and shape of the materials impact the transport
With the introduction of semiconductors, automotive manufacturers properties of phonons (vibrational modes) and photons (light particles)
now have the capability to utilize electronically controlled systems in [52].
place of manual ones [48]. Thanks to advancements in electrical sys In the 1960s, the initial semiconductor heterostructures were suc
tems, engineers have successfully developed automobiles that demon cessfully synthesized, and they swiftly found applications in optoelec
strate improved efficiency, decreased reliance on oil, and reduced tronic devices and fast-response electronics [53]. Subsequently, the
emissions of greenhouse gases. Semiconductor device fabrication, also development of nanostructures emerged, enabling the confinement of
referred to as the manufacturing process of semiconductor devices, in charge carriers in different dimensions. This confinement occurred in
volves the creation of integrated circuits (ICs) such as computer pro one dimension (quantum wells), two dimensions (quantum wires), and
cessors, microcontrollers, and memory chips like NAND flash and three dimensions (quantum dots), resulting in the quantization of energy
DRAM. These ICs are commonly found in various electrical and elec states. The presence of a collection of nanostructures exhibits distinct
tronic devices [49]. It is also crucial to note that NPs exhibit distinct and properties related to transportation, electrical behavior, optical char
frequently better physico-chemical properties than the corresponding acteristics, absorption abilities, and other factors, which are intricately
bulk substance [50]. influenced by their size and shape. The need to precisely control the
growth of nanostructures, with desired sizes, densities, and shapes, has
3. Advances of semiconductor applications become increasingly urgent due to the complex relationship between the
physical properties of particles and their geometry [53].
Semiconductor nanomaterials exhibit distinct properties and func In 1972, Fujishima and Honda made a significant discovery indi
tionalities that set them apart from bulk and molecular materials, cating that the presence of sunlight can trigger the decomposition of
highlighting their unique characteristics. These include narrow emission hydrogen in water when a TiO2 electrode is exposed to it [54]. Due to its
spectra, continuous absorption bands, high stability, processability, and direct conversion of solar energy to readily storable hydrogen and lack
surface functionalities. The synthesis of semiconductor nanoparticles of environmental contamination, photocatalysis has since garnered a lot
has seen significant advancements in the field of “nanochemistry” [51]. of attention.
The spatial quantum confinement effect is responsible for notable al A vast market for the internet and wireless communication was
terations in the optical characteristics of semiconductor nanomaterials. created at the start of the twenty-first century as semiconductor process
These materials possess remarkable physical and chemical properties, technology advanced from the sub-micron generation to the nano-era
and product design underwent revolutionary advancement. The semi
conductor industry’s technical innovation had an impact on both the
demand for the product as well as the supply side (production and cost).
The performance of semiconductor companies is now significantly
influenced by technical innovation, which is also of interest to investors,
particularly institutional investors. However, very few valuation studies
have been conducted on the investment value of technical innovation,
primarily due to the difficulty of measuring the performance (or capa
bility) of technical innovation [55].
The composition and crystal structure of semiconductor materials
allow for the engineering of optical properties [56]. Electrocatalysis is
highly correlated with the type of semiconductor catalyst; specially,
n-type catalysts favor cathodic reactions like the hydrogen evolution
reaction, and bipolar catalyst typically carry out both anodic and
cathodic reactions [57]. In solar energy conversion applications, and
in-depth understanding of the photocatalytic mechanism for hollow
semiconductor photocatalysts formation may offer fresh perspectives on
Fig. 1. A circuit diagram of semiconductor chip [46].
3
how to create high-performance hollow photocatalysts [58]. increase the efficiency of the conversion of heat into electricity, re
The exceptional properties of semiconductor nanomaterials have searchers frequently use materials with intricate nanostructures or add
garnered significant attention and enthusiasm in a multitude of dopants [69]. On the other hand, high thermoelectric efficiency semi
advanced technologies. These include nanophotonics, nanoelectronics, conductor materials are preferred for thermoelectric cooling applica
miniaturized sensors, energy conversion, non-linear optics, detectors, tions [70]. Electrical, thermal, and figure of merit of the semiconductor
imaging devices, quantum applications, solar cells, catalysis, photog material are just a few examples of the variables that affect how well
raphy, water treatment, and biomedicine. TECs cool [71]. Better thermoelectric performance is indicated by a
higher ZT value [72].
3.1. Semiconductor application in energy
3.1.4. Energy storage
Nanomaterials offer significant advantages that play a critical role in Semiconductors, unlike batteries and capacitors, are not directly
improving energy conversion and storage applications. One key used for energy storage [73]. Instead, they are utilized in energy con
advantage is their ability to facilitate physical interactions or chemical version procedures that are sometimes connected to energy storage
reactions at the surface or interface, which greatly impacts their effec [74]. Their contribution to grid integration and energy conversion
tiveness. The specific surface area, surface energy, and surface chemistry technologies is essential for efficiently utilizing and managing energy
are particularly important factors that strongly influence energy-related storage systems [75]. Semiconductors help maximize the effectiveness
processes. These factors affect the kinetics and thermodynamics of re of energy storage solutions and contribute to a more dependable and
actions taking place at the interface, as well as the initiation and growth sustainable energy infrastructure by enabling efficient energy conver
of phase transitions. Moreover, the smaller size of nanomaterials allows sion [76].
for more efficient transfer of mass, heat, and charge, while also ac
commodating dimensional changes that occur during certain chemical 3.2. Quantum applications
reactions and phase transitions. However, despite their numerous ben
efits, the integration of nanomaterials into energy conversion and stor When it comes to quantum applications, semiconductor qubits are
age systems presents unique challenges. For example, the large specific incredibly adaptable and cover a complete ecosystem. This is especially
surface area can lead to increased charge recombination in photovol true when considering quantum simulation, sensing, computation, and
taics [59], while the presence of smaller pores, especially micropores communication [77]. For practical applications in sustainable reuse, a
(<2 nm in diameter)may contributes the penetration of electrolyte ions photocatalyst’s stability is crucial. The stability and repeatability of
in supercapacitors [60,61]. semiconductor-based catalysts are typically explored by the use of
recycle experiments, in which the photocatalysts are gathered and
3.1.1. Hydrogen evolution reactions (HER) repeatedly employed for specific photocatalytic reactions [78]. In
Hydrogen, obtained through the photocatalytic splitting of water, dustries involved in the production of semiconductor integrated circuits
offers a safe and environmentally friendly alternative energy source employ intricate procedures such as wire bonding, wafer back grinding,
capable of mitigating the detrimental impacts of fossil fuels. This sawing, die attachment, trimming, encapsulation, electroplating, form
emerging technique utilizes photocatalysts to facilitate hydrogen pro ing, and marking [79]. Samsung Electronics overtakes Intel as the
duction, harnessing the omnipresent resource of water while being leading manufacturer of semiconductor chips with sales of 75.85 billion
activated by solar energy. The resultant catalysts yield eco-friendly by- US dollars whereas, Intel remained in 69.8 billion US dollar sales in
products and are required to possess chemical stability, corrosion come. As of right now, semiconductor technology has integrated 100.8
resistance, and the ability to absorb radiation within the visible spec million transistors at a node size of under 10 nm [80].
trum for efficient energy generation [62]. The performance of transition
metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) as electrocatalysts for the hydrogen 3.3. Water treatment
evolution reaction (HER) is hindered by limited active reaction sites and
relatively low electrical conductivity. This applies to TMDCs such as Photocatalytic water splitting presents an alternative strategy for
MoS2 and WS2 [63]. tackling resource and environmental challenges, offering a hopeful
avenue for producing clean and sustainable energy. The emergence of
3.1.2. Applications in solar cells novel catalysts utilizing semiconductor nanoparticles has garnered
Semiconductor nanoparticles possess favorable qualities that present growing interest due to their ability to facilitate all the necessary re
a promising substitute for silicon-based solar cells. These characteristics actions for achieving “artificial photosynthesis” [81]. The subsequent
encompass affordability, an adjustable band gap, the capacity to successful oxidation of CN to OCN by Frank and Bard using TiO2 as a
generate multiple electron-hole pairs, a heightened optical absorption photocatalyst encouraged and accelerated the use of photocatalysts in
coefficient, and the quantum size effect. Among the diverse array of wastewater treatment [82]. Researchers have written numerous great
binary metal chalcogenides, such as PbS, PbSe, CdS, CdSe, and Ag2S, assessments as photocatalytic technology continues to advance. For
solar cells incorporating these materials have garnered considerable instance, Wang et al. discussed how nitrogen doping can be used to
interest. This is primarily due to their ability to efficiently absorb light change oxide photocatalysts in order to enhance their photocatalytic
within the desirable band gap range of 1.1–1.4 eV [64]. performance [83]. When a photocatalyst and light collaborate, they give
rise to a chemical process referred to as a photocatalytic reaction. This
3.1.3. Thermoelectric energy conversion particular approach boasts numerous advantages, such as the absence of
Semiconductors are essential in thermoelectric energy conversion, secondary pollution, complete degradation of pollutants, and the pro
which uses the Seebeck effect to directly convert heat into electricity motion of environmental preservation [84–88].
[65]. The Seebeck effect occurs in certain materials, including semi
conductors, and causes a voltage to be generated across the material 3.4. Semiconductor application in biomedical
when a temperature gradient is applied to it [66]. This phenomenon
enables the use of semiconductor-based thermoelectric materials in In recent years, 2D nanomaterials beyond graphene (2D NBG) have
thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and thermoelectric coolers (TECs) emerged as a fascinating class of materials with exceptional antibacte
[67]. TEGs work best with semiconductors that have good thermoelec rial properties, surpassing even the renowned graphene. These nano
tric properties, such as high electrical conductivity and low thermal materials comprise a diverse range of compounds, including Two-
conductivity [68]. In order to boost the thermoelectric performance and dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), g-C3N4,
4
transition metallic oxides (CaO, MgO, etc.), black phosphorus (BP), WO3 [100], CuO [101,102], Fe2O3 [103], In2O3 [104,105], CdO [106],
layered double hydroxides (LDHs), and transition metal carbides and TeO2 [107], and MoO3 [108], have been widely employed among the
nitrides. Their effectiveness in various biomedical applications, such as various gas sensor options. Zinc oxide nanostructures with various
anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral treatments, has garnered sig shapes and structures have been extensively researched and utilized in
nificant attention. The key factors influencing their performance in these the field of gas sensing applications, such as nanorods [109–118],
applications include size, morphology, crystal orientation, concentra nanowires [119,120], nanofibers [121], nanolines [122], nanobelts
tion in the growth medium, stability, and surface functionalization [89, [123], nanoneedles [124], nanoprism [125], nanotubes [126], nano/
90]. Given these unique attributes, 2D NBG nanomaterials hold microflowers [127,128], quantum dots [129–131], nanoparticles
tremendous promise as cutting-edge tools for advancing biomedical [132–134], nanofilms, sheets, and plates [135–137], nano/micro
research and healthcare technologies. spheres [138], nanopyramids [139], and nanotetrapods [140]. These
substances exhibit notable characteristics such as elevated electron
3.4.1. Antibacterial agents mobility, a lack of toxicity, a large surface area per unit mass, and
By employing a non-invasive and targeted approach, the photoin exceptional stability in both chemical and thermal environments [141,
duced antibacterial mechanism demonstrates a treatment method with 142] under operating conditions.
minimal to no adverse effects. This method involves the activation of
photoresponsive semiconductors upon exposure to light energy, leading 3.6. Semiconductor application in electronics
to the stimulation of fluorophores. Consequently, these fluorophores are
transformed into either heat or reactive oxygen species (ROS), which Semiconductors possess easily regulated properties, rendering them
effectively combat bacterial organisms. Within this context, MoS2 highly valuable in the realm of electronics. Their ubiquitous presence
nanosheets exhibit remarkable photothermal efficiency in the near infra- extends to a wide array of commercial products, spanning from family
red range, making them highly promising agents for photothermal cars to pocket calculators. The extensive utilization of semiconductor
antibacterial purposes [89]. By subjecting ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles devices encompasses diverse industries, including computers produc
to ultraviolet radiation, pathogenic bacteria can be destroyed [91]. tion, communications, aerospace, manufacturing, agriculture, and
Their safety and multifunctionality have led to their recognition as healthcare. By enabling more compact, cost-effective, rapid, and more
antimicrobial agents suitable for various applications. Due to their reliable electronic devices such as music players, LED TV, DVD players,
biocompatible properties, nanoparticles have demonstrated utility not laptops, and mobile phones, semiconductors have revolutionized the
only in the realm of drugs and pharmaceuticals but also in various other field. Additionally, semiconductors play a pivotal role in scientific
fields such as cosmetics, food packaging, and wound healing [92]. research and industrial operations [143].
3.4.2. Anticancer behavior 4. Semiconductor manufacturing process

The nonspecificity of drug action in cancer chemotherapy is
increasingly posing challenges due to the occurrence of transformational One of the biggest industries in the world now is the electronics
or decompositional behaviors during the transportation of metal-based sector. The production of integrated circuits is a crucial component of
drugs into the cell membrane [93]. Developed are non-classical metal this sector. On silicon wafers, integrated circuits are manufactured in the
lodrug-functionalized nanostructures, which demonstrate diverse semiconductor industry. Historically, cost-cutting measures have
mechanisms for damaging cell DNA and inducing tumor cell death. included shrinking chip size, expanding wafer size, and raising yield
Among the essential semiconductor nanoparticles for cancer diagnosis while also attempting to enhance operating procedures inside semi
and therapy, iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) hold significant impor conductor manufacturing systems [144]. Integrated circuit (IC) usage
tance. They possess multifunctional properties, primarily attributed to has been rising quickly and will probably keep doing so in the near
their magnetic and harmless characteristics, biocompatibility, stability, future. As a result, the production of semiconductors remains a hot topic
and affordability [94]. Selective drug delivery, magnetic resonance in the world of manufacturing [145].
imaging (MRI), magnetic separation techniques, magnetic fluid hyper Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is a crucial planarization step
thermia and thermoablation, as well as biosensing methods are among in the production of semiconductors. CMP is being used more frequently
the various biomedical applications of IONPs [95]. in the manufacture of semiconductors for devices with a high level of
integration. Recently, the environmental impact of the CMP process was
3.5. Semiconductor application in sensing evaluated due to interest in the environment worldwide [146]. Chemical
mechanical polishing (CMP) removes material by combining mechani
Effective monitoring and control are indispensable for a wide range cal and chemical forces [147,148]. When compared to other planari
of natural and human endeavors. These encompass diverse activities zation techniques, CMP has the greatest planarization length, which
such as forest fires, explosives handling, petroleum and metal refining, makes it crucial for device production even if it contains particles that
mining waste management, vehicle emissions control, natural gas uti can kill by deflecting or scratching. The surface of the chemically soft
lization, plastic waste management, coal utilization, the combustion of ened material is mechanically removed is the primary working principle
fossil fuels, and the production processes involved in both food and in of the CMP process [149,150]. Three words best describe the future of
dustrial manufacturing [96]. These activities, which play a vital role in CMP technology: growth, digitization, and sustainability. Starting with
our daily lives, unfortunately also generate substantial quantities of highly integrated circuits, 3D microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
pollutants. Additionally, it is important to note that volcanoes also fan-out panel level packaging (FOPLP), and substrates that are free from
contribute to this environmental pollution [96]. Environmental con defects, its use is becoming more and more diverse. In the near future,
cerns have made sensing an essential component of environmental CMP will be able to remove more than 40 different types of materials
studies, enabling the detection of hazards in our surroundings. Essen and develop solutions for every type of substance. Additionally, the
tially, a sensor is an electronically fabricated device that exhibits surface electrochemical processes within the CMP (Chemical Mechanical Pol
changes upon stimulation by chemical agents [97]. Detection and ishing) technology are anticipated to be used not only in the traditional
monitoring of hazardous chemicals, noxious gases, gas detection sys domains of semiconductors and displays, but also in others like maskless
tems, temperature variations, water and soil contaminants, and the electrochemical texturing [151,152].
well-being of individuals, can be achieved through the use of chemical The move from 200 mm to 300 mm wafers has begun in the semi
sensors. conductor industry in an effort to increase manufacturing productivity
Semiconducting metal oxide sensors, including ZnO [98], SnO2 [99], and lower manufacturing costs [153]. As wafers move through a wafer
5
fabrication facility (fab), a considerable amount of data is automatically grinding, slicing the ingots into wafers, beveling, lapping and etching,
generated. This data encompasses a wide range of valuable information, heat treatment, polishing, thorough cleaning with ultra-pure water, in
including details about the manufacturing processes, historical data for spection, packaging, and finally, shipping. As a result, the entire process
each lot, tool profiles, and the outcomes of wafer acceptance tests. has become progressively more intricate and sophisticated [156]. The
Semiconductor manufacturing is very complex and consists of hundreds general semiconductor wafer fabrication process flow is depicted in
of process steps [154]. Fig. 3 shows us those important steps. Fig. 4 [157]. Once the wafer fabrication process is complete, the wafers
undergo a probe test to examine their electrical distributions and yield
before being forwarded for assembly and final testing [158–164] (see
4.1. Wafer lithography Fig. 5).
A lithographymethod for processing a semiconductor wafer is pro

vided. The method involves the following steps: extracting liquid from 4.2. Thermal oxidation
the wafer’s surface, eliminating a part of the oxide film from the wafer’s
surface, and introducing an oxidizing gas. Notably, the oxidizing gas Thermal oxidation can be utilized to produce various metal oxide
flow and/or the surrounding gas affected by the oxidizing gas possess an nanostructures, such as nanowires, nanoneedles, and nanoflakes, on the
unsaturated vapor pressure of the liquid, resulting in the vaporization of surface of bulk metals, which is a straightforward approach. Compared
the liquid present on the surface [155]. The creation of wafers, which to chemical-based techniques, it offers several advantages, such as the
are mostly constructed from silicon substrates, is the first step in the ability to conveniently and rapidly produce metal oxide nanostructures
fabrication of semiconductors. The successful creation of VLSI products, on a large scale, all without the need for hazardous chemicals [166]. In
particularly processor chips, relies heavily on the impeccable chemical the presence of air, a range of metal substrates, including foils, foam,
purity and nearly flawless crystalline characteristics of wafers. The wires, plates, and grids, are subjected to direct heating at temper
production of silicon wafers involves a multitude of intricate stages, aturesranging from 300 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C [167]. The mechanism of CuO
such as refining raw materials, growing silicon ingots, peripheral nanowire growth during thermal oxidation has been a subject of
Fig. 3. Steps ofsemiconductor manufacturing.
6
Fig. 4. Process flow for semiconductor wafer fabrication [157].
Fig. 5. Cupric Oxide nanowires form on a Cu substrate via thermal oxidation and this growth can be depicted schematically [165].
extensive research, aiming to unravel its intricacies. One proposed the cupric oxide nanograins through surface diffusion and react with
explanation for the formation of CuO nanowires involves the rapid oxygen molecules in the environment, acting as a precursor for the
diffusion of Cu ions across grain boundaries or defects present in the growth of cupric oxide nanowires. Importantly, surface diffusion takes
underlying Cu2O layer [168]. place as a result of the difference in concentration of Cu ions between
Zhang et al. provided an explanation and summary of the schematic grain boundaries and the root-tip of the nanowire. As nanowire forma
representation in Fig. 3. According to their findings, the process can be tion initiates, copper ions diffuse along the sidewalls, react with oxygen
divided into three main steps. Firstly, at a lower temperature of 250 ◦ C, a molecules at the tip, and become part of the existing nanowire structure,
porous and defective layer of Cu2O is formed due to compressive stress leading to the increased length and density of the nanowires with longer
at the interface. Secondly, as the temperature is further raised to 300 ◦ C, growth durations [169–171].
a thin layer of cupric oxide grains is generated. Lastly, nanowires grow
on the cupric oxide nanograins through the migration of Cu atoms along
grain boundaries driven by stress. These copper atoms incorporate into
7
4.3. Photolithography
A silicon wafer can be written with a circuit pattern using the

photolithography technique. One of the trickiest procedures in semi
conductor fabrication is photolithography. The procedure is made up of
several associated steps, including photoresist coating, light exposure,
and development [172].
Photolithography is utilized to print circuit patterns onto the wafer,
with the initial step involving the application of photo-resist onto the
wafer’s surface. Prior to being exposed, the wafer undergoes a process
wherein it is transferred to an aligner or stepper machine. Following
this, the wafer is subjected to baking, which serves the purpose of so
lidifying the photo-resist and enhancing its adherence to the wafer
[173]. The photolithography process consists of several distinct stages,
which include applying a layer of photoresist, coating with an adhesion
promoter, performing pre and post baking, exposing to light, and finally,
developing the exposed material. A “photoresist,” a photosensitive
substance, is applied to the wafer.
After that, the wafer coated with photoresist undergoes a pre-baking
process between 90 and 120◦ Celsius to solidify the link between the
photoresist and remove any extra photoresist solvent. The photoresist is
subjected to a pattern of strong light after prebaking. UV light is often
used in optical lithography. To set the pattern before development, a
post-exposure bake is carried out at 60 to 120 ◦ C. The developer, a
substance that can dissolve either irradiated or non-irradiated photo
resist, is next applied to the photoresist layer [174].
Fig. 7. Illustration depicting the process of photolithography using a negative
There are two options available for Photolithography: one can
resist [175].
choose to use either positive resist or negative resist. In the positive
resist method in Fig. 6, a metal film is deposited, followed by spin
coating the sample with photoresist, exposure to light through a mask, procedure is called atomic layer etching [177]. The semiconductor in
development, etching of metal areas, and removal of the photoresist. dustry has been fabricating electronic circuits since the 1970s using a
The negative resist process in Fig. 7 involves direct deposition of pattern-transfer methodology that is very similar to the early art form.
photoresist, exposure, development, metal filling void areas, andre The patterns are only now 100,000 times smaller thanks to a wafer fab
moval of residual resist [175]. equipment market worth well over $40 billion annually. With today’s
technology, we may deposit different thin films in place of beeswax, use
ultraviolet light to print patterns rather than needles that can be held in
4.4. Etching the hand, and use plasma to etch into the target material as opposed to
an acid bath. With modern plasma sources and control systems, plasma
Etching, a critically important step, is involved in the removal of etch has improved greatly during the last 40 years.
material and plays a vital role in the overall manufacturing process (see In technology nodes where dimensions are smaller than 10 nm, the
Fig. 8) [176]. A highly regulated layer-by-layer material removal
Fig. 6. Illustration depicting the process of photolithography using a positive resist [175].
8
Fig. 8. The etching process for wafer fabrication [175].
industry is increasingly dependent on etching processes to precisely component is slow but anisotropic nature, while the chemical etch
define the shape, sharpness, and accuracy of features [178]. The kinetics component is quick but isotropic. Finding the ideal etching method that
of the surface reaction(s) or the mass transport of reactants or products balances the physical and chemical components is therefore necessary
in solution are two key factors that can affect how quickly the semi [183].
conductor is etched. The etch rate won’t be affected by the character
istics of the surface, such as its shape or crystallographic orientation, if
the surface reaction is quick. Instead, the etching process will be gov 4.5. Deposition and ion implementation
erned by the hydrodynamic characteristics of the system [179].
A crucial stage in a wide range of contemporary technologies is the
4.4.1. Thermal etching control of how a material’s surface layers behave. One can readily refer
Thermal etching is a procedure that activates neutral gases with to the outer few microns of a material as the “surface layer,” thus one
thermal energy. It is also known as vapor etching or gas phase etching. might briefly list the applications where surface qualities are important
Therefore, thermal isotropic atomic layer engineering is a thermal pro to understand the issues. The electrically interesting zones are nearly
cedure that necessitates a prior modification step in order to permit always found close to the surface, making semiconductor devices the
thermal etching [180]. most advantageous of these [184]. To enhance comprehension of the
4.4.2. Plasma etching

Scientific and industrial applications of plasma are numerous.
‘’Plasma etching’’ is frequently referred to as ’’RIE″ as well. Plasma can
be conceptualized as a gas that is partially ionized, consisting of elec
trons, ions, neutral particles, excited particles, and photons that arise
from collisions between electrons and neutral particles, resulting in their
energization. Plasma abides by gas laws and, in many ways, acts like a
gas. Plasmas were created using a variety of energy inputs, and these
plasmas are used to categorize plasmas. The most widely employed
plasmas in industry are radio-frequency (RF) plasma and inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) [181]. Plasma etching differs from traditional wet
etching because it combines chemical and physical etching in a syner
gistic way. The reactive species disseminated from plasma are adsorbed
on the surfaces of the materials/substrates during plasma etching [182].
4.4.3. Dry etching

Anisotropy is the main benefit of dry etching over other etching.
Understanding the range of directionality that can be obtained with dry
etching techniques is essential. To achieve the desired effects, dry
Fig. 9. A Si3 N4 mask is utilized to implant Si and Mg ions, as illustrated
etching uses a mixture of chemical and physical elements. The physical
schematically [185].
9
fabrication process, refer to Fig. 9, which depicts a schematic illustra 5. Use of nanoparticle in semiconductor application
tion. In this process, silicon and magnesium ions are implanted by
employing a Si3 N4 mask that has been patterned using electron beam When a material’s size approaches the nanoscale and its surface atom
lithography [185]. content increases significantly, the properties of the materials alter.
Compared to bulk materials smaller than 1 mm, there are fewer atoms at
4.6. Metal wiring the surface in bulk materials [193]. In many processes involved in
producing semiconductors, nanoparticles are essential. The following
The technique of connecting semiconductor substrates with a metal are a few applications for nanoparticles.
line is known as “metallization.” The metal line holds the ions in the
metal together. These metal ions have a stronger electrostatic attraction 5.1. Nanoparticles made of semiconducting materials
than any potential antagonistic force [186]. Fig. 10 is a depiction of the
metallization layers found in contemporary semiconductor devices Semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) are crystalline particles with di
[187]. mensions on the nanometer scale with between 100 and 10,000 atoms.
Chemical synthesis allows for their creation as almost spherical nano
particles (quantum dots, quantum rods, or nanostructures of various
4.7. EDS types) with practically atomic precision. Tetrapods are an example of
more complex forms [194]. Semiconductor nanocrystals combine the
The assessment and analysis of material microstructure hold optical and electrical properties of semiconductors with the mechanical,
immense significance, particularly when conducted using energy chemical, and physical features of molecules. As a direct result of the
dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) within a scanning electron micro confinement of electrons at the quantum level and its impact on the
scope. This method, known as electron-excited X-ray microanalysis, electronic states, their color is extremely controllable. Such nanocrystals
plays a crucial role in evaluating and understanding the intricate details are a type of “artificial atom” that could be used as parts of upcoming
of materials at a microscopic level [188]. The pioneering utilization of nanoelectronic devices or in optoelectronic systems, such as
lithium-compensated silicon (Si(Li)-EDS) marked the advent of the first light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cells [195].
functional energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS). This ground The complex physics of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) as well
breaking development took place in the 1960s, when as their enormous potential for use in photonics and quantum infor
semiconductor-based X-ray detection was introduced. The Si(Li)-EDS mation technology have captured the attention of numerous researchers
was successfully operated on an electron-column device known as all over the world. QDs are three-dimensional structures with a
EPMA (Electron Probe MicroAnalyzer) [189]. nanometer-scale that contain electrons and holes in dimensions equal to
For a clearer comprehension of the schematic representation of the their corresponding De Broglie wavelengths [196].
semiconductor production process, including the EDS rest, refer to Quantum dots (QDs), which are semiconducting nanoparticles, hold
Fig. 11 [190]. Before sending the wafer to the next stage, a variety of great promise as advanced materials in various fields due to their
machines are utilized in the EDS test to carry out numerous operations, nanoscale dimensions and customizable properties for specific applica
ensuring the reliability of the functioning chips. The flow of materials tions. These applications include nonlinear optical devices (NLO),
during the steps can adopt either a circular or linear configuration electro-optical devices, and computing applications. Overall, QDs
[191]. represent a highly encouraging class of zero-dimensional materials. The
creation of nanocomposites, which might be viewed as a 21st-century
4.8. Packaging scientific revolution, is made possible by the joining of QDs to poly
mers [197].
The main objectives of chip packaging revolve around safeguarding
individual chips from physical damage, establishing a protective layer to 5.2. Thin-film deposition
shield against moisture and chemical contaminants, ensuring robust
connections between each chip and an electrical circuit through sturdy Since the majority of the deposition procedures used to make thin
leads, and facilitating the dissipation of heat generated during chip films possess a non-equilibrium characteristic, the metallurgical phase
operation. Electric circuits are shielded from scoring or heat punctures diagram does not prevent the creation of thin films, giving thin films
by protective layers made of materials like plastic and ceramic that are unique benefits over bulk materials [198]. In order to meet the
used to encapsulate the chip [192]. increasing requirements of industries for versatile and highly responsive
Fig. 10. Illustration showing the metal layers in modern semiconductor devices [187].
10
Fig. 11. Schematic view of semiconductor production process, highlighting EDS [190].
materials, the deposition process is considered a crucial factor in 6.3. Copper nanoparticles
creating innovative thin film materials. The fabrication of these mate
rials heavily relies on the deposition procedures, as they determine The considerable research focus on copper nanoparticles stems from
nearly all of the properties exhibited by thin films [199]. As transparent their promising prospects across various industries, such as biology,
conductors find applications in various devices such as LCD watches, electronics, and optics. These nanoparticles, derived from copper, have
computer displays, car defrosters, antireflection coatings for camera garnered significant interest and have found applications in diverse
lenses, and other common items, thin film materials are everywhere. fields. They have been utilized for catalysis, conductive film production,
Fiber optic cables for communication coatings for architectural glass lubrication, nanofluid development, and as antibacterial agents, show
that are both colorful and energy-efficient. solar panels ornamental casing the wide range of potential uses for copper-based nanostructured
finishes on plastics used in toys and car parts a plethora of electronic and materials [206]. Photolithography techniques can be used to pattern
optical equipment. Durable coatings for drill bits, bearings, and cutting semiconductors using copper nanoparticles. To speed up the synthesis of
instruments even metallic finishes inside potato chip packets to maintain photoresists or resist materials, they can function as a catalyst or a
crispness! Our way of life would be significantly different without thin sensitizing agent. Due to this, high-resolution patterns can be created
films. And the application of thin film technologies will only grow in during lithography procedures, aiding in the downsizing of semi
popularity [200]. conductor devices [207].
6. Nanoparticles usage in semiconductor production 7. Advantages of nanoparticles in semiconductor
6.1. Gold nanoparticles Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs) not only have remarkable
qualities, but they also have the huge benefit of being simple to alter the
Considerable scientific investigation has been dedicated to struc properties of materials. TMDs come in a variety of varieties, and the
turing porous electrodes with large surface areas for the purpose of majority of them share crystal structures and lattice constants. By fusing
photoelectrochemical applications. A significant portion of this research two or more different types of materials with varying proportions of the
has specifically concentrated on exploring the potential of semi components, it is possible to continuously control the material’s prop
conductor nanoparticles [201]. In one case, however, an Au nano erties. For instance, an alloy with a continuously tunable bandgap can
particle multilayer architecture was utilized in the fabrication of a produce a wide spectrum response, which hasmore use in optoelec
photoelectrochemical apparatus [202]. A complex structure consisting tronics [208–216].
of multiple layers of gold nanoparticles was constructed on an ITO B–P is another two-Dimensional semiconductor material that has
support using a gradual crosslinking process. This process involved the received much study in addition to TMDs. B–P is essentially an allotrope
interaction between citrate-capped gold nanoparticles and a of phosphorus (P) and resembles graphene and TMDs in terms of its
bis-bipyridinium ZnII-protoporphyrin IX dyad 7, which served as an layered structure. B–P has a lot of remarkable qualities, including a
electrostatic crosslinker. The presence of the light-responsive porphyrin direct bandgap, strong carrier mobility, and good in-plane anisotropy,
was confirmed through the absorption spectrum of the structure, while which gives it a lot of potential for use in electronics [217–222].
the coverage of gold nanoparticles and the crosslinker was verified using TMOs, alongside various other types of two-dimensional semi
cyclic voltammetry. When the porphyrin component was exposed to conductor materials, form a notworthy category of materials. These
light, electron transfer occurred towards the pendant bipyridinium substances have a simple synthesis process, strong chemical stability,
groups [203]. and great mobility. Most significantly, these materials typically have a
wide bandgap. This gives them a significant edge in some particular
situations, such UV PDs [223].
6.2. Silver nanoparticles Nano-semiconductor materials of the one-dimensional (1D) variety,
such as ZnO, III-V, and other semiconductor nanowires (NWs), exhibit
Silver nanoparticle suspensions are created through a chemical diameters that can span from a few to several hundred nanometers. In
reduction process involving Ag NO3 , formaldehyde reductant, stabilizer contrast, their lengths are not restricted and have the potential to extend
in the form of PVP, and organic bases as reaction promoters. Triethyl even to tens or hundreds of microns [224]. It is used for solid-state en
amine and pyridine, two distinct chemical bases with varying basicities, ergy conversion, harvesting and also for storage applications.
were utilized in the reaction. The more basic triethylamine was used to The structural, electrical, and optical characteristics are quite
create silver particles with diameters between 20 and 30 nm. Smaller distinct from those of typical materials. 1D semiconductor materials can
(10–20 nm) particles were produced from the less basic pyridine. Both now be employed in photovoltaic applications like diodes, PDs, and the
processes produce silver nanoparticle solutions that are devoid of metal like thanks to their novel and exceptional characteristics. 1D materials
ions and acceptable for usage in the semiconductor sector. By ink-jet offer excellent properties and are simple to integrate, which bodes well
printing, the suspensions will be employed to create micro- for their future in research. GaAs NWs, for instance, have a significant
interconnects for integrated circuits (IC) devices [204]. Due to their deal of potential in optoelectronic applications due to their inclusion in
distinct optical properties that depend on size and form, gold and silver III-V compounds, adequate direct bandgap, and excellent photoelectric
colloidal nanoparticles have undergone extensive research [205].
11
conversion efficiency. Another form of 1D material that is extensively reagents and solvents. Semiconductor nanomaterials possess proper
employed in the realm of optoelectronics, such as PDs, is the V-VI ties like a large surface-to-volume ratio, stability, reactivity, and con
semiconductor nanowire [224]. ductivity, which enable their applications in various emerging
B–P serves a variety of purposes as a two-dimensional semiconductor technologies such as energy conversion, nanoelectronics, solar cells, and
material with good characteristics. However, 2D B–P cannot be biomedicine. Wide band gap semiconductors, like GaN and InGaN, find
employed effectively in several unique circumstances. Later, 0D nano applications in energy generation, wireless communications, and power
dots (B–P QDs) and 1D B–P NBs were created. Ultrafine and ultra-small electronics due to their advantages in terms of performance, efficiency,
nanosheets that have been removed from bulk B–P crystals are and high-temperature control. The surface functionality of semi
commonly referred to as BPQDs. BPQDs can be prepared using a variety conductor materials has improved sensing applications in areas like
of techniques, including electrochemical exfoliation, solvothermal pollution monitoring, biosensing, and food safety. By applying nano
treatment, and others [225,226]. technology principles, there is potential for further advancements and
extensive applications of semiconductor materials, warranting further
8. Current challenges & future opportunities research in this area [236].
8.1. Challenges 9. Conclusion
Despite the numerous advantages of diode laser absorption spec The use of nanoparticles in semiconductor applications has advanced
troscopy, its implementation in industrial process control remains the field significantly and created new opportunities. With their ability
limited. The primary reasons for this are the intricate nature of existing to enable precise control and improved performance, nanoparticles have
instruments and the lack of readily accessible high-quality, high-power proven valuable in a number of crucial processes, including chemical
diode lasers specifically designed for the required spectral ranges. A mechanical planarization, thin-film deposition, and semiconductor
major drawback in utilizing laboratory prototype spectrometers for in nanocrystals. With their tunable bandgaps and size-dependent emission,
dustrial purposes is the limited suitability of currently available lasers quantum dots have completely changed optoelectronic devices and
for continuous operation [227]. display technologies. To fully realize the potential of nanoparticles in
The advancement of optical fibers featuring crystalline semi semiconductors, however, issues like synthesis control, integration,
conductor cores within glass claddings holds immense potential for dependability, and safety must be resolved. In order to overcome these
various captivating device applications. Traditionally, semiconductor difficulties and guarantee the successful incorporation of nanoparticles
crystals are fabricated using different methods such as the Czochralski, into upcoming semiconductor technologies, ongoing research and
Bridgeman, and epitaxial techniques. However, in all cases, the growth development efforts are essential. The continued development and
process is sluggish and the resulting crystal size is often limited in scope application of nanoparticles in semiconductor applications holds great
[228]. promise for the future, spurring innovation and reshaping the electronic
Application of graphene in the field of electronic devices is chal industry.
lenging due to its zero bandgap properties. However, a variety of other
2D materials have developed quickly as a result of the novelty of these
Declaration of competing interest
layered materials and a few unique properties (different from bulk
materials). TMDs, which are semiconductors, are frequently utilized in
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
the field of electronics due to their electrical qualities and extensively
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
tunable bandgap. For instance, MoS2 has a smaller subthreshold swing
the work reported in this paper.
(SS) value, a larger on/off ratio, and relatively high carrier mobility
[229–232].
Data availability
Before the advent of silicon-based chips, computers took the form of
sizable devices equipped with tubes and dials. These early machines
Data will be made available on request.
demanded significant amounts of electricity, making them not only
cumbersome but also vulnerable due to their remarkable yet delicate
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Advances and signiﬁcances of nanoparticles in semiconductor applications -A

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Nayem Hossain Md Hosne Mobarak

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Advances and significances of nanoparticles in semiconductor applications

semiconductors. Additionally, they include detection technology that

3.4.2. Anticancer behavior 4. Semiconductor manufacturing process

A lithographymethod for processing a semiconductor wafer is pro­

Fig. 3. Steps ofsemiconductor manufacturing.

Fig. 4. Process flow for semiconductor wafer fabrication [157].

A silicon wafer can be written with a circuit pattern using the

Fig. 8. The etching process for wafer fabrication [175].

4.4.2. Plasma etching

4.4.3. Dry etching

6. Nanoparticles usage in semiconductor production 7. Advantages of nanoparticles in semiconductor

8.1. Challenges 9. Conclusion

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