PTERIDOPHYTES

MS. ABHILASHA N. MSc KSET

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
PG DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
JSS CACS
 INTRODUCTION
• Pteridophytes are plants that do not have
any flowers or seeds.
• Hence another name for it is Cryptogams.
• They include ferns and horsetails. In fact, they
can be considered as the first terrestrial
vascular plants, showing the presence of the
vascular tissue, xylem, and phloem.
• Mostly, we find these plants in damp and
shady places. Also, most ferns are grown as
ornamental plants.
• The plant body can be divided into true root, stem,
and leaves.
• A saprophyte is the main plant body here. Some of
the species belonging to this division have small
leaves called the microphylls.
• For example, Selaginella. Megaphylls are the large
leaves that some pteridophytes have. For example,
fern plants.
• The main plant bears the sporangia. These bear
some leaf-like appendages called the sporophylls.
• In a few species such as Selaginella and Equisetum,
the sporophylls form compact structures called
cones or strobili.
• Tracheophyta :-
• Group I. Psilopsida ( Psilophytales and Psilotales)
• Group II. Lycopsida (Lycopodiales, Selaginellales,
Lepidodendrales, Pleuromeiales and Isoetales)
• Group III. Sphenopsida (Hyeniales, Sphenophyllales
and Equisetales)
• Group IV. Pteropsida (Filicineae, Gymnospermae and
Angiospermae)
• I. Psilophyta (Psilotum)
I. Psilophyta (Psilopsida)
1. The plant body is a rootless sporophyte that
differentiates into a subterranean rhizome and an aerial
erect shoot.
2. Branching is dichotomous in both subterranean
rhizome and aerial shoot.
3. Rhizoids borne on the rhizome absorb water and
nutrients from the soil.
4. Leaves often absent or if present, they are spirally
arranged scale like ( e.g. Psilotum) or leaf-like
appendages (e.g. Tmesipteris) are bone
5. The vascular tissue is of primitive type i.e., simple,
cylindrical protostele with annular or spiral tracheids.
6. Secondary growth is absent.
7. Sporangia are borne at the apex of the aerial shoots.
They are either solitary (e.g., Rhynia) or in groups and
terminal in position. There was nothing like that of
sporophyll.
8. Sporangia always bearing the same type of spores i.e.,
they are homosporous
9. The gametophyte is known only in Psilotum and
Tmesipteris (living genera) while unknown in
Psilophytales.
10.The gametophyte is cylindrical or branched,
subterranean and colourless.
11. Sex organs are partially embedded in the prothallus.
12. Antherozoids are spirally coiled and multi-
flagellated.
II. Lycophyta
 II. Lycophyta ( Lycopsida, Lepidophyta,
Lycopodophyta,)
• 1.The plant body is sporophytic and can be
differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
• 2. The leaves are small (microphyllous), simple with a
single mid vein. They are usually spirally arranged,
sometimes in opposite fashion and or even in whorls.
• 3. In some cases the leaves are ligulate (e.g., Selaginella,
Isoetes). The ligule is present at the base of each leaf.
• 4. The vascular tissue may be either in the form of
plectostele, siphonostele or sometimes even polystele.
Leaf gaps are absent.
• 5. Sporophylls are loosely arranged or aggregated to
form strobilus or cones.
• 6. Some members are homosporous ( e.g.
Lycopodium) while others are heterosporous (e.g.
Selaginella).
• 7. Heterosporous forms have endoscopic
gametophytes while in homosporous forms the
gametophyte is exosporic.
• 8. Antherozoids are biflagellate or multi-
flagellate.
• 9. Secondary growth does not take place except
in Isoetes
III. Sphenophyta
III. Sphenophyta (Sphenopsida, Calamophyta, Arthrophyta)
1. The plant body is sporophytic and can be differentiated
into root, stem and leaves.
2. The stem in majority of the forms is long, jointed or
articulated and is ribbed i.e., having ridges and grooves.
Stem is divisible into nodes and internodes and is
developed as upright aerial branches from the
underground creeping rhizome.
3. Leaves are thin, small, scaly brown and are arranged in
transverse whorls at the nodes of the aerial branches.
4. Branches also develop in whorls from the axil of the
scaly leaves.
5. As the foliage leaves are reduced to scales, the process
of photosynthesis is taken up by the stem and hence it
becomes green.
6. The stem has a solid protostele (e.g., Sphenophyllum)
or medullated protostele (e.g., Equisetum).
7. The sporangia are borne on specialized appendages
called sporangiophores (the whole structure
resembling but not homologous with a strobilus)
8. Sporangia are developed at the apex of the fertile
branches in whorls forming compact cone.
9. Most of the members are homosporous but some
fossil forms are heterosporous (e.g., Catamites).
10. Gametophytes ( prothalli) may be monoecious or
dioecious. Gametophytes are exosporic and green.
11. Antherozoids are large and multi-flagellate.
12. The embryo is without suspensor and is exoscopic
in nature.
IV. Pterophyta
 IV. Pterophyta (Pteropsida, Filicophyta,)
• It includes the plants which are commonly known as
‘ferns’. It is represented by about 300 genera and more
than 10000 species.
1. They occur in all types of habitats. Majority of the ferns
are terrestrial and prefer to grow in moist and shady
places. Some are aquatic (e.g., Azolla, Salvinia,
Marsilea), xerophytic (e.g., Adiantum emarginatum),
epiphytic (e.g., Asplenium nidus), halophytic (e.g.,
Acrostichu
2. Majority of the members (except some tree ferns (e.g.,
Angiopteris) have short and stout rhizome. The rhizome
may be creeping, upright or growing above the soil.m
aureum) or climbing (e.g., Stenochlaena).
3. Leaves are large, may be simple (e.g., Ophioglossum)
or pinnately compound (majority of the ferns for
example, Pteridium, Marsilea, Adiantum etc.) and
described as fro
4. Leaves are ex-stipulate (e.g., Filicales) while stipulate
in some other groups.
5. The vascular cylinder varies from a protostele to a
complicated type of siphonostele. Solenostele,
dictyostele and polystele are also found.nds. Young
fronds are circinately coiled.
6. Vegetative reproduction takes place by
fragmentation (e.g., Adiantum, Pteridium), stem tubers
e.g., Marsilea), adventitious buds (e.g., Asplenium
bulbiferum) or by apogamy (e.g., Marsilea).
7. Sporangia arise from placenta (a swollen cushion of cells)
in groups (sori).
8. Sori develop on the margins or abaxial surface of the
leaves (sporophylls) or leaflets.
9. Sori are protected by true (e.g.Marsilea) or false
indusium (e.g. Adiantum, Pteris)
10.The sporangial development may be leptosporangiate
(e.g., Osmunda) or eusporangiate type (e.g.,
Ophioglossum).
11. The sporangia in most cases have a distinct annulus and
stomium.
12. Members may be homosporous (e.g., Pteris, Adiantum
etc.) or heterosporous (e.g., Marsilea, Azolla, Salvinia etc.).
13. The gametophyte may be exosporic or endosporic.
14. Antheridia and archegonia are partially or
completely embedded in the gametophyte.
Antherozoids are multi-flagellated.
15. Embryogeny largely endoscopic. Embryo may or
may not have suspensor.
Stelar evolution
 PROTOSTELE
• The primitive type of stele is
protostele.
• In protostele, the vascular
tissue is a solid mass and the
central core of the xylem is
completely surrounded by the
strand of phloem.
• This is the most primitive and
simplest type of stele.
 (a) Haplostele
• This is the most primitive
type of protostele.
• Here the central solid
smooth core of xylem
remains surrounded by
phloem.
• (e.g., Selaginella spp.).
 (b) Actinostele
• This is the modification of
the haplostele and
somewhat more advanced
in having the central xylem
core with radiating ribs
• e.g., Psilotum sp.
 (c) Plectostele
• This is the most advanced type of
protostele. Here the central core
of xylem is divided into number of
plates arranged parallel to each
other.
• The phloem alternates the xylem
• e.g., Lycopodium.
 (d) Mixed-proto stele
• Here the xylem elements (i.e.,
tracheids) are mixed with the
parenchymatous cells of the
pith.
• This type is found in primitive
fossils and living ferns.
• They are treated to be the
transitional types in between
true protosteles on the one
hand and siphonosteles on
the other
• e.g., Lycopodium cernum sp.
 2. Siphonostele

• This is the modification of protostele. A

stele in which the protostele is medullated
is known as siphonostele.
 Ectophloic Siphonostele
This type of stele has
centre pith which is
surrounded by
concentric rings of
xylem followed by
phloem. Eg: Osmunda
 b) Amphiphloic Siphonostele
• In this type of siphonostele the pith is surrounded by
the vascular tissue.
• The concentric inner phloem cylinaer surrounds the
central pith.
• Next to the inner phloem is the concentric xylem
cylinder which is immediately surrounded by outer
phloem cylinder
• e.g., Marsilea rhizome
 3. Solenostele
• The vascular plants have been divided into
two groups on the basis of the presence or
absence of the leaf gaps.
 Dictyostele
• Solenostele that is broken
into a network of separate
vascular strands.
• Breaking up of stelar core is
due presence of large number
of leaf gaps.
• Each such separate vascular
strands is called meristele.
Each meristele is of protostelic
type.
Eg: Pteris, Polypodium
 5. Polycylic Stele:
• Most complex amongst all
vascular cryptogams
• Such type of steles are always
siphonostelic in structure
• Possesses two or more
concentric rings of vascular
tissue
• This may be a solenostele or a
dictyostele
• 2 concentric ring – e.g.
Pteridium
 6. Eustele
• Modification of the
siphonostele
• Vascular system
consists of a ring of
collateral or
bicollateral vascular
bundles situated on
the periphery of the
pith.
• E.g. Equisetum
 Psilotum
• Division : Psilophyta
• Class : Psilotopsida
• Order : Psilotales
• Family : Psilotaceae
• Genus : Psilotum
 Occurrence
• It is commonly called as
whisk fern ( because it is a
fern without leaves and
so the stem performs all
function).
• Found in humus rich soil ,
in tropical and sub
tropical regions.
• Some species grows as
epiphytes ( tree trunk)
 Vegetative morphology
• Plant Body: It is sporophyte and contains
following parts
1. Rhizome
2. Aerial branch
3. Sporangia
 Rhizome
• The horizontal portion is
rhizome, buried in soil or
humus.
• Dichotomously branched
• 2 celled rhizoids are
present near the apices of
the younger branches
• These rhizoids absorb
water and nutrients from
soil for aerial branches.
 Aerial branch
• The branches are
green, cylindrical and
dichotomously
branched
• The leaves are small,
scale like and are
scattered over these
branches.
 Sporangia
• The sporangia are borne in
triads.
• They have very short
stalks.
• They are borne in the axils
of small bifid leaves on the
aerial branches.
• This triad of sporangia is
called a synangium.
• The two lobes of the leaf
are closely united with the
synangium.
Stem Anatomy

It has following parts.

1.Epidermis
2.Cortex
3.Steler system
• Epidermis: There is a single layer of epidermis present
outside. It is heavily cutinized, Stomata are also present
on epidermis , situated at the grooves.
• Cortex: Cortex of Psilotum is divided into following parts.
a) Chlorenchymatous cortex: It is the outermost part of
cortex and has 2 to 5 layers of cells. The cells are thin
walled and are parenchymatous . They are
photosynthetic as they contained chloroplast.
• Seclerenchymatous cortex: Below the parenchymatous
cells there are 2- 4 layers of sclerenchymatous cells . The
cells are thick walled and provide support.
• Parenchymatous They form the major portion of the
stem. The cells are thin walled and no inter cellular
spaces in them
 Steler system
1: Endodermis There is well
developed endodermis
between the stele and the
cortex. These cells has
casparian bands on their
radial walls
2: Xylem : The xylem is
actinostelic and radial in
outside in 6 rays, the
protoxylem is located at the
tip of the rays. In the center
the metaxylem xore is
present The cells of xylem
are thick walled and their
main function is transport of
nutrients
Phloem Between the
endodermis and the
xylem there is phloem. It
is of thin walled cells It
consist of sieve cells and
sieve areas in their
oblique end walls. Nuclei
disintegrate at maturity
Anatomy of rhizome
• In rhizome the epidermis is
inconspicuous and all the
cells of outermost layer of
cortex extend into rhizoids.
• The cortex is thin walled
and cells contain fungus The
endodermis is conspicuous
The stele in rhizome is
protostele (xylem is
surrounded by phloem)
• The pith is absent And
xylem occupies center of
the axis and surrounded by
the phloem
 Reproduction
• It is characterized by alternation of
generation
• Both spore producing and gamete producing
regeneration are independent
• Sporophyte reproduces by asexual
reproduction
• Gametophyte reproduces by sexual
reproduction
 Structure of synangium
• Each synangium is
trilobed , stalked
structure borne at the
apex of short lateral
branch .
• A bilobed appendage is
present at the base of
each synangium that
curve and surround the
stalk of synangium
 Nature of synangium
1. The trilobed synangium is
formed by fusion of two or
more sporangia
2. One sporangium with 3
chambers (trilocular
sporangium )
3. Synanium is cauline
(developed at the apex of
stem) in nature and it is
actually modified trilocular
sporangium present on
lateral branches
 Internal Structure of synangium
It consist if three chambers or locules
1. Wall of synangium is 3 – 4 layers
2. Thick outer wall forms the epidermis
3. Inner wall separates the three locules
4. Each locule is filled up with large number of
spore. And these are homosporous in nature
5. Synangium splits up from 3 lines along the
epidermis and dehiscence occurs.
 Sexual reproduction
• The gametophyte lives underground as a saprophyte,
sometimes in a mycorrhizal association.
• When the gametophyte is mature, it produces both
egg and sperm cells. ... The gametophyte of Psilotum
is unusual in that it branches dichotomously, lives
underground and possesses vascular tissue.
• The gametophyte of Psilotum is called as Prothallus .
It contains parenchyma cells and there is strand of
tracheid extending back from the apex.
EQUISETUM
 Habit and habitat of Equisetum
• The plant body of Equisetum has an aerial part and an
underground rhizome part. The rhizome is perennial,
horizontal, branched and creeping in nature. The aerial
part is herbaceous and usually annual. Majority of the
species are small with a size range in between 15 and 60
cm in height and 2.0 cm in diameter.
• Equisetum generally grow in wet or damp habitats and
are particularly common along the banks of streams or
irrigation canals (E. debile, E. palustre). However, some
species are adapted to xeric condition (e.g., Equisetum
arvense).
 THE SPOROPHYTE MORPHOLOGY
• The sporophytic plant body of Equisetum is differentiated into stem, roots
and leaves.
• Stem: The stem of Equisetum has two parts: perennial, underground, much-
branched rhizome and an erect, usually annual aerial shoot.
• The branching is monopodial, shoots are differentiated into nodes and
internodes. Sometimes shoot shows dimorphism (two types of shoots i.e.,
vegetative and fertile) e.g., E. arvense.
• Some shoots are profusely branched, green (chlorophyllous) and purely
vegetative. The others are fertile, unbranched, brownish in colour
(achlorophyllous) and have terminal strobili.
• The underground rhizome and the aerial axis appear to be articulated or
jointed due to the presence of distinct nodes and internodes. Externally, the
internodes have longitudinal ridges and furrows and, internally, they are
hollow, tube-like structures. The ridges of the successive internodes
alternate with each other and the leaves are normally of the same number
as the ridges on the stem.
 Internal Features of Stem
• The stem of Equisetum appears wavy in outline with ridges and
furrows. The epidermal cell walls are thick, cuticularised and
have a deposition of siliceous material.
• Stomata are distributed only in the furrows between the ridges.
A hypodermal sclerenchymatous zone is present below each
ridge which may extend up to stele in E. giganteum.
• The cortex is differentiated into outer and inner regions. The
outer cortex is chlorenchymatous, while the inner cortex is
made up of thin-walled parenchymatous cells.
• There is a large air cavity in the inner cortex corresponding to
each furrow and alternating with the ridges, known as vallecular
canal.
• New leaves and branches of Equisetum are produced by the
apical meristem, however, most of the length of the stem are
due to the activity of intercalary meristem located just above
each node.
• The stele is ectophloic siphonestele which is surrounded
by an outer endodermal layer.
• An inner endodermis is also present in some species of
Equisetum (e.g., E. sylvaticum).
• The endodermis is followed by a single-layered pericycle.
The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring which lies
opposite to the ridges in position and alternate with the
vallecular canals of the cortex. Vascular bundles are
conjoint, collateral and closed.
• In the mature vascular bundle, protoxylem is disorganised
to form a carinal cavity which lies opposite to the ridges.
• The metaxylem tracheids (scalariform or reticulate) are
present on both sides of the phloem. In some species
vessels with reticulate perforations are reported. The
central part of the internode of aerial shoot is occupied
by a large pith cavity which is formed due to rapid
elongation of the internodal region.
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE NODE REGION
• In the nodal region, the xylem is extensively developed as a
conspicuous circular ring.
• There are no vallecular or carinal canals at this level. In
addition, a plate of pith tissue occurs at the node which
separates one internode from another.
• The xerophytic features are:
• (i) Ridges and furrows in the stem,
• (ii) Deposition of silica in the epidermal cells,
• (iii) Sunken stomata,
• (iv) sclerenchymatous hypodermis,
• (v) Reduced and scaly leaves, and
• (vi) photosynthetic tissue in the stem.
• The hydrophytic characteristics on the other hand are (i) we
11-developed aerating system like carinal canal, vallecular
canal and central pith cavity, and (ii) reduced vascular
elements. I
 ROOT
• Primary root is ephemeral. The slender
adventitious roots arise endogenously at the
nodes of the stems. In T.S., the root shows
epidermis, cortex and stele from periphery to the
centre.
• The epidermis consists of elongated cells, with or
without root hairs. The cortex is extensive; cells
of the outer cortex often have thick walls
(sclerenchymatous) and those of the inner cortex
are thinner parenchymatous.
• A large metaxylem element is present in the
centre of the stele and the protoxylem strands lie
around it. The space between the protoxylem
groups is filled with phloem. There is no pith.
 LEAVES
• The leaves of Equisetum are small, simple, scale-like and
isophyllous; they are attached at each node, united at least
for a part of the length and thus form a sheath around the
stem.
• The sheath has free and pointed teeth-like tips. The
number of leaves per node varies according to the species.
• The species with narrow stems have few leaves (e.g., 2-3
leaves in E. scirpoides) and those with thick stem have
many leaves (e.g., up to 40 leaves in E. schaffneri).
• The number of leaves at a node corresponds to the
number of ridges on the internode below.
• The leaves do not perform any photosynthetic function and
their main function is to provide protection to young buds
at the node.
 Reproduction
• Equisetum reproduces vegetatively and by means of
spores.
i. Vegetative Reproduction: The subterranean rhizomes of
some species (e.g., E. telmateia, E. arvense) form tubers
which, on separation from the parent plant, germinate to
produce new sporophytic plants.
ii. The tubers develop due to irregular growth of some buds
at the nodes of the rhizomes.
iii. Reproduction by Spores: Spores are produced within the
sporangia. The sporangia are borne on the
sporangiophores which are aggregated into a compact
structure termed strobilus or cone or sporangiferous
spike
 Strobilus:
• The strobilus are terminal in position and generally are borne
terminally on the chlorophyllous vegetative shoot. However, they
may be borne terminally on a strictly non- chlorophyllous axis (e.g., E.
arvense). The strobilus is composed of an axis with whorls of
sporangiophores.
• Each sporangiophore is a stalked structure bearing a hexagonal
peltate disc at its distal end.
• On the under surface of the sporangiophore disc 5-10 elongate,
cylindrical hanging sporangia are borne near the periphery in a ring.
The flattened tips of the sporangiophores fit closely together which
provide protection to the developing sporangia.
• The axis bears a ring-like outgrowth, the so-called annulus
immediately below the whorls of sporangiophores which provide
additional protection during early development.
• The annulus has been interpreted as a rudimentary leaf sheath by
some botanists, whereas others consider it to be sporangiophoric in
nature as occasionally it bears small sporangia.
 Antheridium:
• In monoecious species, antheridia develop later than
archegonia.
• They are of two types — projecting type and
embedded type. Antheridia first appear on the lobes of
the gametophyte. The periclinal division of the
superficial antheridial initial gives rise to jacket initial
and an androgonial cell.
• The jacket initial divides anticlinally to form a single-
layered jacket. The repeated divisions of androgonial
cells form numerous cells which, on metamorphosis,
produce spermatids/antherozoids.
• The antherozoids escape through a pore created by the
separation of the apical jacket cell. The apical part of
the antherozoid is spirally coiled, whereas the lower
part is, to some extent, expanded
 Archegonium
• Any superficial cell in the marginal meristem acts as an
archegonial initial which undergoes periclinal division
to form a primary cover cell and an inner central cell.
• The cover cell, by two vertical divisions at right angle to
each other, forms a neck.
• The central cell divides transversely to form a primary
neck canal cell and a venter cell. Two neck canal cells
are produced from the primary neck canal cell.
• While, the venter cell, by a transverse division, forms
the ventral canal cell and an egg. At maturity, an
archegonium has a projecting neck comprising of three
to four tiers of neck cells arranged in four rows, two
neck canal cells of unequal size, a ventral canal cell,
and an egg at the base of the embedded venter
 Fertilization
• Water is essential for fertilization.
• The gametophyte must be covered with a thin layer of water
in which the motile antherozoides swim to the archegonia.
• The neck canal cells and ventral canal cell of the archegonia
disintegrate to form a passage for the entry of antherozoids.
• Many antherozoids pass through the canal of the
archegonium but only one of them fuses with the egg. Thus
diploid zygote is formed.
• Generally more than one archegonia are fertilized in a
prothallus. Embryo (The New Sporophyte): The embryo is the
mother cell of the next sporophytic generation.
• Unlike most pteridophytes, several sporophytes develop on
the same prothallus. The first division of the zygote is
transverse.
• This results in an upper epibasal cell and lower hypobasal cell.
The embryo is therefore exoscopic (where the apical cell is
duacted outward. No suspensor is formed in Equisetum
• Division : Lycophyta
• Class : Eligulopsida
• Order : Lycopodiales
• Family : Lycopodiaceae
• Genus : Lycopodium
There are about
180 species in this genus
• The modern representatives are small and
herbaceous sporophytes The leaves are small and
simple.
• Each leaf possesses an unbranched midrib. The
leaves have no ligules.
• There are no leaf gaps in the stele of the stem.
The sporophylls may or may not be restricted to
the terminal.
• The sporophylls and simple vegetative leaves may
be similar or dissimilar.
• They possess homosporous sporangia, i.e., all the
spores of one kind only. The gametophytes are
wholly or partly subterranean.
• The antheridia remain embedded in the tissue of
the prothallus. The antherozoids are biflagellate.
 Distribution and Habitat
• The species of Lycopodium are world-wide in
distribution.
• They are mainly found in tropical and sub-
tropical forests.
• In India they are found in the hills of Eastern
Himalayas.
• The plants are commonly known as ‘ground
pines’, ‘club mosses’ and ‘trailing evergreens’
many species occur in the tropics as hanging
epiphytes
• (e.g., Lycopodium. These species are: Lycopodium
clavatum,
• L. cernuum
• L. heamiltonii,
• L. setaceum
• L. phlegmaria,
• L. wightianum
• L. serratum,
• L. phyllanthum
• The most common species is L . clavatum
 Sporophyte - Habit
• All species possess small, herbaceous or
shrubby sporophytes.
• The stem in almost all the species is delicate
and weak.
• Some species are epiphytic and with erect or
pendant sporophytes while other species are
terrestrial and have a trailing habit.
• The stem and its branches are densely
covered with small leaves.
 Stem
• Species referred to the sub-genus Urostachya
possess branched or unbranched stems that
are erect or pendant but never creeping.
• This subgenus includes the species, eg.,
L. selago, L. lucidulum, L. phlegmaria and
others.
• If the stem is branched, the branching is
always dichotomous.
• Usually the successive dichotomies are found
at right angles to one another
 Leaves
• The leaves are small, simple, sessile, numerous
and cover the axis closely.
• Typically the leaves are 2 to 10 mm long. Usually
the leaves are arranged in closed spirals (e.g., in
L. clavatum and L. annotinum)
• while in other cases they are arranged in whorls
(e.g., in L. verticillatum and L. cernuum).
• In some species the leaves are found to be
arranged in opposite pairs (e.g., L. alpimum); in
others they are irregularly arranged.
• Usually the leaves are lanceolate (pointed)
 ROOTS:
• The roots that arise on the outside of the stele
do not penetrate the cortical region of the
stem at once.
• These roots turn downward and penetrate the
soft middle cortex making canals through it,
and ultimately they emerge only at the stem.
Such roots are known as ‘cortical roots’
 Development of sporangium
• The sporangia begin to develop at a time when the
sporophyll is composed of embryonic cells.
• The development is of eusporangiate type. These superficial
cells are called sporangial initials These cells divide by
periclinal divisions forming an outer and inner layer of cells.
• The outer cells divide periclinally and anticlinally forming
three celled thick wall of the sporangium The inner daughter
cells formed by this periclinal division give rise to the stalk
and the basal portion of a sporangium.
• The outer daughter cells contribute to the formation to the
bulk of the sporangium.
• The outer cells again divide periclinally forming an outer
layer, the jacket initials; and an inner layer, the archesporial
cells.
• The archesporial cells divide periclinally and
anticlinally forming a massive sporogenous
tissue.
• The cells of the last generation of the
sporogenous tissue act as spore mother cells.
• They become rounded and are being
separated from one another.
• Now these spore mother cells float about in a
viscous liquid and divide meiotically into
tetrads of spores
• The jacket initials, which are found external to the
sporogenous tissue divide repeatedly forming a jacket
layer of three or more cells, in thickness.
• Shortly before the development of the spore mother
cells a nutritive tapetal layer is formed around the This
layer is partly formed from the inner-most layer of
jacket cells and partly from sporangial cells found just
beneath the sporogenous tissue.
• As found in most other pteridophytes, in Lycopodium
there is no disintegration of the Tapetum during spore
formation.
 Selaginella
• Division : Lycophyta
• Class: Ligulopsida
• Order: Selaginellales
• Family: Selaginellaceae
• Genus: Selaginella
 Distribution and habitat
• It is commonly called as club moss and spike
moss.
• It has world wide distribution Abundant in
tropics and grows in ground and shady places
• Most common species is Selaginella
kraussiana
 Root
• The root of young
sporophyte is of primary
root while others are
adventitious The
adventitious roots are at
the tips of rhizophores
Aerial roots have
developed caps, and
cutinized epidermal cells
And enter soil.
STEM
 LEAVES
• Microphylls are present. ( leaves are small and
single veined.
• They are of 2 types
1. Isophyllous
2. Anisophyllous.
• The anisophyllous leaves are in pairs.
• They may be Small: these are inserted on the
dorsal side of stem
• Larger: these leaves are inserted on the ventral
side of stem
 Ligule:
• there is small outgrowth on adaxial side (
upper side) of the leaf near base. It is vestigial
organ and provide water .
• Pericycle : there is single
layer of pericycle formed of
thin walled cells, enclosing
vascular tissue ( xylem and
phloem)
• Phloem : there are phloem
composed of sieve cells and
phloem parenchyma,
companion cells are absent ,
phloem surrounds the xylem
completely
• Xylem : present in center ,
• it consists of 1. Protoxylem :
occupies two ends of meta
xylem 2. Metaxylem:
occupies the major portion
of stele These are composed
of tracheid and parenchyma
cells Fibers are absent
 Rhizophore
• Outermost layer is
epidermis It is of thick
walled and single layer cells
Beneath the epidermis
there is cortex
• Hypodermis ( thick walled)
• Thin walled
parenchymatous region
• Inner most layer is
endodermis Thin walled
pericycle is present around
the vascular tissue Stele is
protostele ( xylem is in
center and phloem
surrounds the xylem).
 Leaf anatomy
• The upper and lower epidermis are present
They are one celled thick and contain
chloroplast Stomata are present on upper and
lower epidermis ( but majority have in lower
side)
• Below the epidermis there is mesophyll tissue
having thin walled parenchyma cells, these
contain chloroplast and have small and large
air spaces Vascular tissue is present in center
Phloem has few sieve cells and many
parenchyma Vascular bundle is surrounded by
single layer forming bundle sheath
 Root anatomy
• Outermost layer is epidermis
( single layer ), covered
• by thin cuticle Root hairs are
present and arise from
epidermis Beneath the
epidermis, wide zone of
cortex is present
• Outer hypodermis ( have
sclerenchyma cells)
• Endodermis ( inconspicuous )
Single layered pericycle is
present Protostele is next
Xylem is surrounded by
phloem
 REPRODUCTION
• There are following methods for vegetative
reproduction
• Adventitious branches
• Tuber production during unfavorable conditions
By production of resting buds at the ends of
aerial branches.
• These are surrounded by leaves and can survive
in adverse conditions, upon reaching suitable
conditions they develop into new plants.
 Strobilus
• Sporangia are produced
on the axils of ligulated
leaves called sporophylls
These sporophylls are
organized to form strobili
at the ends of shoots The
sporophylls in strobilus is
arranged just like bracts
in angiosperm plants.
That’s why it is also
called as sporangioferous
spike
 Structure of sporangia
• Microsporangia : they are small, stalked, oval and
varying in shapes,
• Mega sporangia : they are stalked and 4 lobes, larger in
size and present at base of strobilus , spores are of
larger size.
• 1. Both consist of 2 layered sporangial wall surrounding
the tapetum and sporogenous tissue.
• 2. Tapetum is developed from innermost layer of
sporangial wall.
• 3. Both differ in their size, location, and number of
spores
• 4. To release spore, both sporangia form vertical cleft
in wall .
LIFE CYCLE OF SELAGINELLA
 EVOLUTION OF SORUS
• Sorus is a group of sporangia produced on the abaxial
surface of the sporophylls in ferns.
• In some plants, sori may be circular, linear, or reniform.
• The location of sori may be slightly away from the
margin on the frond lamina.
• Fern taxa can be distinguished in some cases on the
basis of the presence or absence of indusium. They
originate in different ways;
a) Marginal sorus
b) Intra-marginal
c) Superficial / abaxial sorus
• During its development stage, sorus in some plants is
covered and protected by a thin flap or a scale of tissue
called an indusium, which protects the sporangial
cluster from drying, exposure, drying, and other
dangers.
• Sometimes, in the absence of an indusium, sori are
covered by protective structures like the edge of a leaf.
• These structures partially surround the sporangia,
which are considered as ‘naked’ in such cases.
• When the sporangia are matured, the indusium shrinks
to allow for the unhindered release of the spores.
• These spores are then released when the sporangia
bursts. After release, those spores produce and grow
into the gametophytic generation.
• There are broadly three stages in the progressive
evolution of sorus:
• Simple Sporangia Clusters: They are more or less
separate (Gleicheniaceae) or are coalesced (family
Marattiaceae). They all mature at the same time.
• Graduate Sporangia Clusters: The outermost clusters
mature first and the innermost mature at the last.
• Mixed Sporangia Clusters: There is a presence of all
ages with the younger ones arising from the same
meristematic zones just like the older ones.
• This sequence or change has an adaptive significance
and is most likely related to the spore production
duration. The more advanced sorus has a mixed
character and it extends the time period beyond that
for simple simultaneously maturing sorus.
• https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/describe-the-evolution-of-sorus-in-pteridophytes-class-11-biology-cbse-615337a11d254265a64e10c2