Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid

Transit
http://pif.sagepub.com/

Out-of-round railway wheels-a literature survey

J. C. O. Nielsen and A Johansson
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 2000 214: 79
DOI: 10.1243/0954409001531351

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://pif.sagepub.com/content/214/2/79

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

Additional services and information for Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit
can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://pif.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://pif.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

Citations: http://pif.sagepub.com/content/214/2/79.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Mar 1, 2000

What is This?

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 79

Out-of-round railway wheelsÐa literature survey

J C O Nielsen1  and A Johansson2

1
CHARMEC, Department of Solid Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, GoÈteborg, Sweden
2
Frontec Research and Technology AB, GoÈteborg, Sweden

Abstract: This literature survey discusses the state-of-the-art in research on why out-of-round railway
wheels are developed and on the damage they cause to track and vehicle components. Although the term
out-of-round wheels can be attributed to a large spectrum of different wheel defects, the focus here is on
out-of-round wheels with long wavelengths, such as the so-called polygonalization with 1±5 harmonics
(wavelengths) around the wheel circumference. Topics dealt with in the survey include experimental
detection of wheel/rail impact loads, mathematical models to predict the development and consequences of
out-of-round wheels, criteria for removal of out-of-round wheels and suggestions on how to reduce the
development of out-of-round wheels.

Keywords: railway wheel out-of-roundness, polygonalization, wheel/rail impact load detectors, removal
criteria

1 INTRODUCTION criteria need to be developed as well as new methods for

detection of wheel defects.
Imperfections on the wheel tread can have a detrimental The objective of this literature survey is to describe the
influence on both track and vehicle components such as state-of-the-art in research on why out-of-round railway
sleepers, rails, wheelsets and bearings. Examples of wheels are developed and on the damage they cause to
imperfections are isolated wheelflats, causing severe re- track and vehicle components. The present survey, with 56
peated high-frequency impact loads, and polygonal wheels references, stems from an original technical report [1]
with irregularity wavelengths of approximately 1 m, lead- where 119 references are cited. Focus is on wheel defects
ing to an increased low-frequency component of the with irregularity wavelengths in a range from about 0.5 m
dynamic wheel/rail contact force. These are both regarded up to the full wheel circumference.
here as types of wheel out-of-roundness (OOR). The
disastrous Eschede accident in Germany in June 1998 may
have started with a fatigue crack in the wheel rim caused 2 CLASSIFICATION OF WHEEL TREAD
by the fluctuating contact force on a non-round wheel IRREGULARITIES AND THE PROPOSED
tread. ORIGIN OF THE DIFFERENT PHENOMENA
The OOR also leads to impact noise and/or increased
rolling noise. Thus, in order to minimize costs for repair The sections below classify different types of defects on
and maintenance and to meet noise legislation, there is a railway wheel treads. Emphasis is put on defects with
large economic incentive for detecting and replacing non- longer wavelengths, but local defects and defects with
round wheels in time. Also, the cause of OOR should be shorter wavelengths are also dealt with. For the classifica-
investigated in order to find suitable countermeasures. tion, reports [2] to [4] have been used.
Current Swedish criteria for determining if a railway
wheel should be replaced or not are based on the length of
2.1 Eccentricity
a wheelflat. However, recent studies have shown that there
may be other wheel defects causing large impact forces that Eccentricity is caused by misalignment in the fixation of
are not covered by the present criteria for wheel removal. the wheel during profiling or reprofiling, and it is present
For example, the depth of a flat may be more important to some extent on all railway wheels.
than its length. Since it is desirable to remove all wheels
that cause additional damage to trains and tracks, new
2.2 Discrete defect
The MS was received on 14 June 1999 and was accepted after revision for This is a deviation of the wheel radius that is present over a
publication on 4 January 2000.
 Corresponding author: CHARMEC, Department of Solid Mechanics, small part of the tread. The deviation may be caused by a
Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 GoÈteborg, Sweden. wheelflat or by inhomogeneous material properties. Plastic
F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

80 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

deformation is common in conjunction with this wheel frequencies of natural vibration of the railway wheelset is
tread defect. used to explain the OOR.

2.3 Periodic non-roundness 2.4 Non-periodic (stochastic) non-roundness

This type of OOR has a periodic irregularity around the This type of OOR may be caused by unbalances in the
wheel circumference superimposed on the constant wheel wheelset or by inhomogeneous material properties of the
radius. The wavelength of the irregularity ranges from wheel. As for periodic non-roundness, this defect has been
14 cm to approximately one wheel circumference, while observed only on disc-braked wheelsets.
the amplitude is of the order of 1 mm. This defect has been So-called stochastic OOR has been detected on ICE
detected only on disc-braked wheelsets. wheels in Germany [7]. An example of a non-periodic
According to Zacher [5], examples of periodic OOR with (stochastic) OOR is shown in Fig. 3, where the wavelength
one, three and four periods around the wheel circumference content of the OOR is also illustrated. From the figure it
have been found on wheels from ICE trains in Germany. can be concluded that the stochastic shape contains several
Investigations carried out at DB AG by Rode et al. [6] state different harmonics.
that the fixation (claw clamping) of the wheel during
reprofiling may be a cause of a triple-shaped polygon. This
2.5 Corrugation
initially small OOR is amplified during rolling.
Figures 1 and 2 are two examples taken from Pallgen [7], This defect appears on wheel treads that are block braked.
showing periodic OOR on ICE wheelsets. The wavelength The dominating circumferential wavelength of this type of
contents of the different wheel tread defects are also given OOR is 3±6 cm, while the amplitude is smaller than
in the figures. A conclusion from the investigation is that 10 ìm. Experimental and theoretical studies (numerical
the third harmonic dominates for solid steel wheels, while simulations) of the development of this type of defect have
the second harmonic dominates for rubber sprung wheels. been performed by Vernersson [10, 11]. The proposed and
Based on experiments performed by an international verified hypothesis is that, during block braking, some
workgroup (UNRA) on the Gotthard line, MuÈller et al. [8] regions on the wheel tread become warmer (formation of
state that OOR may be caused by inhomogeneous material hot spots owing to a thermoelastic instability, TEI) than
properties around the wheel circumference. Another ex- neighbouring regions. The heated regions protrude from
perimental and theoretical investigation of periodic OOR the wheel surface owing to thermal expansion and they are
has been carried out by Werner [9]. Here, a coupling to the therefore subjected to more wear than the other parts of the

Fig. 1 Detected OOR of a solid steel wheel with dominantly three harmonics around wheel circumference. The
bars indicate the distribution of different harmonics of the OOR. (From reference [7])
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 81

Fig. 2 Detected OOR of a rubber sprung wheel with dominantly two harmonics around wheel circumference. The
bars indicate the distribution of different harmonics of the OOR shape. (From reference [7])

Fig. 3 Detected non-periodic OOR. The bars indicate the distribution of different harmonics of the OOR shape.
(From reference [7])

2.6 Roughness
wheel tread surface. When the wheel cools down, the
volume of material at these hot spots decreases (valleys are The circumferential wavelength of this defect is in the order
formed), which results in a corrugation pattern. It is noted of magnitude of 1 mm, while the amplitude is of the order
that corrugation is a main source of rolling noise. of 10 ìm.
F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

82 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

2.7 Flats 2. In the second approach, seven accelerometers are placed

on each rail. This system offers a coverage of nearly 100
This type of defect is due to unintentional sliding (without
per cent for all wheel diameters. However, the registered
rolling) of the wheel on the rail. The primary cause is that
acceleration does not give a quantitative measure of the
the braking force is too high in relation to the available
size of the impact load. Therefore, approach 1 is more
wheel/rail friction. The reason for this may be that the
widely used in North America.
brakes are poorly adjusted, frozen or defective. Another
reason may be that there are regions where wheel/rail
friction incidentally and locally becomes low.
In 1991, a series of wheel impact tests was performed at
the Transportation Test Centre in Pueblo, Colorado, United
2.8 Spalling States. These tests are discussed by Kalay et al. [14] and by
Stone et al. [15]. The two types of detectors described
Spalling is the term used for the rolling contact fatigue above were tested. Both accidental and machined wheel
phenomenon occurring when surface cracks of thermal defects were considered. The investigation showed that
origin meet, resulting in part of the wheel coming away both types of detectors clearly identified wheels with tread
from the wheel tread. The thermal cracks may arise in the defects, but, because of long-wavelength OOR, the repeat-
hard and brittle martensite that is developed owing to ability of measurements was not quite satisfactory. In Figs
heating and rapid cooling of the wheel tread during and 4 and 5, the detection uncertainties of the different
after block braking. detectors, for a wheel with a long (0.5 m) wavelength
defect, are illustrated.
2.9 Shelling Impact loads and rail accelerations were found to
increase with increasing depth of the wheel defects and as
Shelling is a term normally used for all types of subsurface functions of train speed. The scatter in the measurements
induced cracks. It is manifested by loss of flakes of material increased with increasing speed and increasing size of the
from the wheel tread. Excessive vertical wheel/rail contact wheel defects. The optimum impact load threshold level,
forces with respect to the diameter of the wheel is the where out-of-round wheels with long-wavelength defects
primary cause for this particular form of rolling contact were most easily identified by the WILD system, was
fatigue. found to be in the range 60±80 kips (267±356 kN). The
train speed at which most defective wheels were most
easily identified was found to be 40 mile=h (64.4 km=h).
3 DETECTION AND SIMULATION OF OUT-OF- The corresponding values for the accelerometer-based
ROUND WHEELS detection system were 200±300 g and 50 mile=h
(80.5 km=h). Increased acceleration levels could also be
Impact loads due to wheel defects may cause rail fracture measured on the rail opposite that hit by the defective
as discussed in reference [12]. The risk of fracture increases wheel. Further, since loaded and non-loaded cars with the
at low temperatures. The most severe type of wheel defect same wheel defects produced approximately the same
is a newly developed wheelflat with sharp edges. Older acceleration levels, the same threshold limit can be adopted
wheelflats with rounded edges may also damage sleepers in both cases.
and ballast. Different types of wheel defects may also cause Kalay et al. have investigated impact loads as a function
high-cycle fatigue of wheels and other vehicle components, of train speed [16]. Data are given for different lengths of
such as bearing failures [12]. wheelflat and depths of the longer-wavelength defects in
Figs 6 and 7 respectively. Loads increase with the length of
the wheelflat and with the depth of the long-wavelength
3.1 Experimental detection of impact loads defect.
The two most common approaches to detect impact loads Other examples of available techniques to measure
are based on the use of either strain gauges or acceler- wheel/rail contact forces include strain gauges mounted on
ometers. The Association of American Railroads (AAR) wheelset axles or strain gauges applied to the wheel web
uses both methods. Details on the function of the two (see reference [17]). Ohtani [18] reports that the East Japan
detector systems are given in report [13]: Railway Company has developed a system for detecting
wheelflats. The principle of the computer-based method is
1. The first approach is known as WILD (Wheel Impact to detect shock waves in the rail caused by a rolling wheel
Load Detector). This system is composed of a series of with a wheelflat.
strain gauges in a shear gauge load circuit configuration Another method for detection of wheelflats and corruga-
on the web of the rail. Ten vertical load circuits are tion defects is to analyse the frequency spectrum of the
installed on each rail. The coverage of this system is not measured rail acceleration. A description of this method
complete, since wheels with different diameters cause based on the so-called cepstrum function in conjunction
maximum impact loads at different positions on the rail. with Fourier analysis is given by Braccialli et al. [19, 20].
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 83

Fig. 4 Impact loads due to a long-wavelength (0.5 m) wheel defect measured with a WILD detector.
1 kip ˆ 4:45 kN and 1 mile=h ˆ 1:609 km=h. (From reference [15])

Fig. 5 Measured accelerations due to a long-wavelength (0.5 m) wheel defect. 1 g ˆ 9:8 m=s2 and
1 mile=h ˆ 1:609 km=h. (From reference [14])

thermally affected zones, may lead to large impact forces

3.2 Numerical simulation of the influence of out-of-
owing to dynamic interaction of the wheel and track. The
round wheels
studies by Jenkins et al. [23] and Newton and Clark [24]
Several mathematical models for simulation of dynamic are contributions in this field that had a significant
wheel/rail interaction in the presence of imperfections on influence on the early understanding of the effects of out-
the railhead and wheel tread have been developed. These of-round wheels. Jenkins et al. [23] carried out a theoretical
are, for example, described in the literature surveys by and experimental study, where different types of impact
Knothe and Grassie [21] and Nielsen [22]. forces were treated and suggestions of an improved
Imperfections on the wheel tread, such as pits, flats and wheel design were given. Experimental and theoretical
F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

84 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

Fig. 6 Experimental measurements of impact loads from wheelflats versus train speed. The different lines show
that the impact load increases with the size of the flat. 1 kip ˆ 4:45 kN, 1 mile=h ˆ 1:609 km=h and
1 inch ˆ 25:4 mm. (From reference [16])

Fig. 7 Experimental measurements of impact loads from wheels with longer-wavelength defects (18±22 in long
defects around the wheel circumference) versus train speed. The different lines show that the impact load
increases with the depth of the wheel defect. 1 kip ˆ 4:45 kN, 1 mile=h ˆ 1:609 km=h and
1 mil ˆ 0:0254 mm. (From reference [16])

approaches to investigate impact loading due to wheelflats frequency intervals of the impact loads, i.e. for different
were described by Newton and Clark [24]. Results from train speeds.
calculations with three different mathematical models were Impact loads present on the Northeast Corridor high-
given and compared with results from experiments. It was speed track in North America are dealt with in papers by
concluded that the models are applicable in different Ahlbeck and Hadden [25, 26]. The studies report both
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 85

experimental work and numerical investigations. The influ- gauges on the rail. Dong and Sankar conclude that the
ence of sleeper bending modes on impact loads is examined factors that influence the impact loads the most are the
in a mathematical model and the loading on bearings is shape and size of the wheel defects, axle load, train speed
discussed. The wheel defects that were investigated were and railpad stiffness [33].
25±40 cm long and 2±4 mm deep. These caused peak
impact loads whose amplitude was greater than 400 kN
[25]. It was concluded that wheel defects with long
wavelengths often lead to large impact loads, and that these 4 CRITERIA FOR REMOVAL OF OUT-OF-
wheel defects are not always easily detected by visual ROUND WHEELS
inspection of the wheel. Therefore, other methods need to
be used [26]. The use of an impact load detecting system has offered the
Ahlbeck and Harrison [27] measured wheel profiles and opportunity to define criteria for removal of railway wheels
adopted a mathematical model to predict impact loads from that are not only based on visual inspection of wheel tread
these defects. It was concluded that high-frequency impact defects but also on the impact loads that are measured by
loads at the wheel/rail interface are substantially attenuated the detectors. In reference [13], a review of changes to
by the wheelset mass. However, longer-wavelength tread North American criteria for removal of out-of-round
irregularities leading to lower-frequency excitation may wheels is given. From January 1996, a wheel shall be
result in significant loads on the bearings. It was found that replaced if it causes a peak impact load larger than 90 kips
these loads increase with the ratio of depth to wavelength (400 kN). The allowable length of the wheel flat was
of the OOR. increased from 2 in (50.8 mm) to 2.5 in (63.5 mm). Inves-
An early experimental and theoretical investigation of tigations have shown that only half of the wheels that
the effects of out-of-round railway wheels on railway caused impact loads of 100 kips (445 kN) had visual
bridges was carried out by FryÂba [28]. Results from an defects that were unacceptable, and also that the depth of a
investigation with the purpose of specifying geometry flat is a better criterion for condemning wheels than its
limits on allowable wheel irregularities are presented by length. Although different North American railway admin-
Grassie [29]. Predictions made by an adopted mathematical istrations use different criteria, the limit for replacing
track model were found to correspond rather well to railway wheels is approximately 100 kips (445 kN) for
experimental data. It was found that the amplitude of most administrations.
measured and calculated responses for a wide variety of A conceptual framework for investigating the economic
defects found in operational service varied essentially in consequences of high-impact wheels is proposed in
proportion to speed. reference [13]. The objective is to determine at which
Cai and Raymond [30] have developed a theoretical impact load level it is economically beneficial to remove a
model for simulating dynamic wheel/rail interaction. defective wheel. It is concluded that, for North American
Various types of wheel defects (wheelflat, randomly worn conditions, wheels should be removed from service when
wheel) are studied. The authors conclude that the wheel/ they cause impact loads greater than 85 kips (378 kN).
rail impact behaviour is highly dependent on train speed Kalay and Hargrove discuss wheel tread defects in
and that one defective wheelset can also lead to large reference [34]. An economic analysis is also given, the
impact loading on the adjacent wheelset. The effect of loss authors concluding that a large sum of money can be saved
of contact between wheel and rail is also covered in the each year by developing proper removal criteria based on
numerical simulation. In reference [31], the influence of an impact load detection. The tests that led to the new impact
impact load caused by, for example, a wheelflat on load-based AAR wheel removal criteria are described by
deflections, accelerations, stresses and strains in rail and Kalay et al. [16] and by Tajaddini and Kalay [35], along
sleepers and on ballast pressures is computed. with an economic motivation for wheel removal criteria.
Theoretical investigations on wheel/rail impact loads and In Sweden, the criteria for wheel repair are as follows
comparisons of different mathematical train/track models [36]:
have been carried out by Dong et al. [32]. Non-linear
effects such as loss of wheel/rail contact and sleeper lift-off 1. If the length of the defect is 40±60 mm, or if there
from the ballast are taken into account. It is concluded that exists a material build-up but with a height smaller than
axle load and train speed determine the magnitude of the 1 mm, the train has to go to the nearest workshop for
impact loads caused by wheelflats. Large impact forces are repair. On such an occasion and at temperatures below
obtained when the length of the flat in conjunction with 10 8C, the train speed must not be higher than
train speed excites the fundamental eigenfrequency of the 10 km=h. At higher temperatures, there are no restric-
coupled wheelset/track system. Impact forces transferred tions other than that the speed interval 15±45 km=h
from rail to sleeper are strongly influenced by pad stiffness should be avoided since the risk of damaging the rails is
and sleeper mass. The authors claim that, in order to detect largest at these speeds.
wheelflats, it is preferable to position accelerometers on the 2. If the length of the damage is larger than 60 mm, or if
rail, since smaller flats are not always detected by strain the height of a material build-up is larger than 1 mm,
F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

86 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

the train must go to the nearest manned station at a

speed not higher than 10 km=h.
For freight wagons, the measured wheel impact loads
indicating that the length of a wheelflat is within one of the
intervals specified in the above criteria are 290 and 320 kN
respectively [12].

Fig. 8 Scheme for numerical simulation of the growth of wheel

OOR. Connection between short-term train/track dy-
5 METHODS TO PREDICT OUT-OF- namics and long-term wear process is illustrated. (From
ROUNDNESS BY NUMERICAL SIMULATION reference [39])

According to Meinke and Meinke [37], two important

features introduced by modern high-speed trains, as com-
pared with conventional trains, are as follows: ties can be varied from one iteration to another in order to
1. The rotational speed of the wheels is higher since the simulate more realistic operating conditions.
wheel diameter is still of the same size. The dynamics of a high-speed wheelset is to a large
2. Higher speeds lead to larger kinetic energies and require extent a matter of rotor dynamics. The effects of rotatory
more brake power to stop the train. The wheelsets are inertia and gyroscopic moments are therefore important
thus equipped with more disc brakes, typically four [37]. In numerical simulations used to predict longer-
discs instead of two. wavelength defects, rigid body dynamics in combination
with a wear model is often adopted.
Most mathematical models adopted to predict railway Morys et al. have investigated a rigid body model of an
wheel OOR include: ICE carriage on an elastic track model [39±43]. The wheel/
rail contact is modelled by use of a simplified theory
(a) a model of the dynamic interaction between wheelset
according to Kalker [44]. The adopted wear model is based
and track to determine forces and creepages at the
on the assumption that the rate of mass excavation is
wheel/rail contact point,
proportional to wear power in the contact patch. The
(b) a wear model to account for the long-term wear
significant variations in vertical wheel/rail contact forces
process of the wheel tread.
caused by the out-of-round profile lead to an excitation of
A review of the development of numerical methods for the lower wheelset bending modes [40]. At frequencies
prediction of wear on the wheel and rail is given by Zobory below 200 Hz, the wheels can be treated as stiff and rigidly
[38]. coupled to the axle. Thus, the bending oscillation of the
One basic approach in most models addressing the axle leads to lateral slip and material excavation at the
development of OOR is the assumption of so-called multi- contact patches. Longitudinal slip and spin play a minor
ple time-scales. In the dynamic interaction model, the time- role. Vertical resonances of the coupled train/track system
scale of the vibrations can be expressed in seconds, while lead to peaks in the vertical contact force at certain train
an order of 108 wheel revolutions is considered in the wear speeds. For a stiffer track, the resonance train speed is
model. For the dynamic interaction model, this means that higher.
the geometries of the wheel tread and rail can be treated as The amplitude of the dominating lateral wear energy
constant and that a controlled motion of the wheelset can within the contact patch is mainly determined by lateral
be simulated with given conditions on speed, load and slip, lateral contact force and vertical contact force. In Fig.
track. The contact forces and the slip lead to wear, but the 9, an example of calculated wear energy, vertical contact
geometry of the running surfaces changes in a very slow force and wheel radius deviation versus time is illustrated.
process. The phase shift between wear energy maxima and radius
The coupling of the two models is often illustrated by a deviation maxima is important for whether a certain OOR
feedback loop, such as the one in Fig. 8. An initial out-of- will be enlarged or not. Depending on this phase shift, three
round profile, together with model parameters of train and significant ranges of excitation frequency can be defined.
track and disturbance parameters such as unbalanced In the low- and high-frequency ranges, the excavation
rotating masses, is taken as input to the simulation. Contact maxima are located at the falling and rising slopes of the
forces and wear power in the contact patch are calculated radius deviation curve away from the maxima and minima.
by use of the interaction model. Material excavation versus An enlargement of the existing OOR harmonic order will
location on the wheel tread is then calculated on the basis not occur in these two frequency ranges. However, for
of a wear hypothesis. The out-of-round shape is modified medium frequencies, the maximum excavation occurs
by the wear and then included in the new input data. By approximately at the maximum and minimum of the OOR
this procedure, the long-term wear is monitored iteratively. shape. Because of the higher excavation at the minimum
Certain model parameters such as speed and track proper- radius, the OOR enlarges rapidly. Next to the dominant
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 87

Fig. 9 Example of calculated lateral wear energy W R, vertical contact force FN and wheel radius deviation rOOR
(train speed 70 m=s, third-order OOR, peak-to-peak OOR amplitude rOOR ˆ 0:3 mm, stiff track). (From
reference [40])

original OOR shape, higher harmonic orders develop. No

precise limits of frequency ranges can be given because
they strongly depend on track properties. In the case of an
ICE running on a stiff track, the medium range is
approximately 50±80 Hz.
The development of a certain OOR order is dependent
on train speed and track conditions. In Fig. 10, three typical
qualitative results of long-time wear simulations are shown.
For all simulations, various speeds, both driving directions
and stiff track properties were assumed. In Fig. 10a a slow
change from an eccentricity (first-order OOR) to a third-
order OOR is observed. In Fig. 10b a change from a
second-order to a fourth-order OOR is shown. In Fig. 10c
an enlargement of a third-order OOR without changes in
shape or phase is illustrated. It is interesting to note that,
within the investigated high-speed range and based on the
assumed track properties, only the third-order OOR
harmonic increases, whereas all other orders develop into
higher harmonic orders.
Unbalances in the wheelsets may be another cause of
out-of-round wheels. This topic has been investigated by
Meinke et al. [37, 45] and Morys [41]. The unbalances are
modelled as point masses distributed on the wheelset at
different radii on the wheels and disc brakes. Meinke
suggests that dynamic unbalances have a stronger influence
than static ones [37]. According to Morys, dynamic
unbalances cause large vibrations of the wheels and small
vibrations of the disc brakes, whereas the opposite condi- Fig. 10 Calculated long-term wear development as a conse-
quence of small initial radius deviations caused by, for
tions hold for static unbalances [41].
example, manufacturing tolerances. (From reference
A complete locomotive vehicle is simulated by Soua and [40])
Pascal [46] in order to investigate the initiation and
evolution of three different wheel wear shapes with 1, 2 and
4 harmonic OOR orders. The authors state that wheelset
axle torsional vibrations in combination with lateral motion excitation of the wheel eigenmodes may play an important
of the whole wheelset explain the generation and evolution role for the development of OOR since the number of nodal
of the wear pattern. diameters in the wheel eigenmodes coincides with some
Numerical simulations of wheel polygonalization are periodic irregularities found on worn wheels.
presented by Vohla et al. [47±49]. One hypothesis is that Also, Frischmuth and Langemann [50, 51] have carried
F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

88 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

out simulations of the development of polygonalized speed, but a higher speed does not necessarily mean that
wheels. In reference [51], a phenomenological approach is the non-roundness increases faster.
proposed as an alternative to the direct solution of the
coupled model equations. A relation between the curvature
of the contact surface and the speed of abrasion is
formulated. 6 PREVENTION OF GROWTH OF OOR
Frischmuth and Langemann [51] point out that the long-
term wear behaviour is not yet fully understood. Physical Several solutions to delay the process of OOR have been
quantities such as hardness, intensity of microcracks and suggested, such as rubber sprung wheels [6] and reduced
surface roughness are certainly involved in the wear track stiffness [5], in order to decrease the dynamic
process. However, so far there is no complete explanation component of the vertical wheel/rail contact force. Another
of the mechanism that leads to reduction of the wheel approach is to minimize the initial OOR by improving the
radius. Although only a rough simplification, the hypoth- measurement accuracy of the wheel profile [54] and by
esis that is most frequently adopted for wear is that the using alternatives to the claw clamping of the wheels
mass removed is proportional to the frictional energy during reprofiling [6].
dissipated in the contact patch. It is concluded that According to Mombrei and Rode [55], altering the
polygonization is not caused by increased abrasion at the wheel/rail friction coefficient in order to decrease wheel
minima of the radius but rather by sparing out some spots slip is a way of decreasing the formation of OOR. Mombrei
where abrasion is much slower than in the surrounding area and Loop [56] claim that inhomogeneous properties around
[50]. the wheel circumference may be one reason for develop-
The dynamic interaction model developed by Meywerk ment of OOR and that a different wheel steel may be a
[52] contains a wheelset and a track on a Winkler solution. Three different wheel steels are investigated in
foundation, both of which are modelled as continua. The reference [55]. MuÈller et al. [8] also state that one of the
wear model describes how out-of-round profiles and wear reasons for development of OOR is inhomogeneous proper-
rate develop owing to wear and hardening respectively. It is ties around the wheel circumference, for example different
assumed that the two models can be coupled by means of sections with pearlite and bainite. Reduced formation of
perturbation theory and multiple time-scales. The coupling OOR by use of a wheel steel with another chemical
of the two models is illustrated by the feedback loop in Fig. composition or heat treatment to obtain a more homoge-
11. From the dynamic interaction model, frictional power neous material is proposed.
and vertical contact forces in the contact patch are
calculated. The frictional power and the wear rates enter
the equations of evolution of OOR profiles and determine
the loss of material. The vertical forces cause a change in 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
wear rates. This change is due to hardening of the wheel
surface. Results from the investigations indicate that, in The objective of this literature survey has been to describe
particular, the eigenfrequencies corresponding to the first the state-of-the-art in research on why out-of-round railway
and second wheelset bending modes play an important role wheels are developed and on the damage they cause to
in the development of OOR [52, 53]. In addition, the track and vehicle components. The OOR also leads to
greater the phase shift between the OOR on two wheels in impact noise and/or increased rolling noise. Thus, in order
the same wheelset, the faster the OOR continues to grow. A to minimize costs for repair and maintenance and to meet
large vertical track stiffness increases the growth rate of the noise legislation, there is a large economic incentive for
OOR. The rate of growth of OOR is also dependent on train detecting and replacing non-round wheels in time. In the

Fig. 11 Coupling of dynamic train/track interaction model and wear model. (From reference [52])
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 89

survey, focus was put on wheel defects with wavelengths of 4 Wheels of railway trailer stock. ERRI-document DT 24,
up to about 1 m. Utrecht, 1972, 37 pp.
Considerable research on causes and consequences of 5 Zacher, M. Unrunde RaÈder und Oberbausteifigkeit. Eisen-
OOR has been performed worldwide. Nevertheless, there is bahntechnische Rundschau, 1990, 45(10), 605±610.
still a strong need for more research in the area of out-of- 6 Rode, W., MuÈller, D. and Villman, J. Results of DB AG
investigations `out-of-round wheels'. In Proceedings of
round wheels. Examples of suggested topics for future
Corrugation SymposiumÐExtended Abstracts, IFV Bahn-
research are:
technik, Technische UniversitaÈt Berlin, Germany, 13 Novem-
1. Estimates of the costs for train and track maintenance as ber 1997.
related to amplitudes and wavelengths of common types 7 Pallgen, G. Unrunde RaÈder an Eisenbahnfahrzeugen. Eisen-
bahningenieur, 1998, 49(1), 56±60.
of OOR.
8 MuÈller, R., Diener, B. and Diener, M. Verschleiâ-
2. Development of improved wheel removal criteria that
erscheinungen an RadlaufflaÈchen von Eisenbahnfahrzeugen.
are not only based upon the geometry of the OOR but ZEV‡DET Glasers Annalen (Zeitschrift fuÈr Eisenbahnwesen
also on calculated and/or measured maximum (and und Verkehrstechnik), 1995, 119, 177±192.
minimum) wheel/rail impact loads that are directly 9 Werner, K. Radriffeln und periodischer GruÈbchenverschleiss
related to damage in train and track. bei Rollstandsversuchen durch Wechselwirkungen mit tonfre-
3. Study of the long-term wear behaviour. So far there is quenten Eigenschwingungen und kohaÈrenten Ultraschallfel-
no complete model of the mechanism (including dern. AETÐArchiv fuÈr Eisenbahntechnik, 1973, 28, 1±27.
physical quantities such as hardness, intensity of micro- 10 Vernersson, T. Non-roundness of block-braked railway
cracks and surface roughness) that leads to a periodic wheelsÐa literature survey. Report F186, Department of Solid
reduction in the wheel radius around the wheel circum- Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg,
Sweden, 1996, 63 pp.
ference.
11 Vernersson, T. Thermally induced roughness of tread braked
4. Investigation of the influence of track properties on the
railway wheels. Part 1: brake rig experiments, and Part 2:
development of OOR and the importance of controlling modelling and field measurements. Wear, 1999, 236, 96±116.
wheel OOR in relation to common track irregularity 12 Detektorer (Detectors, in Swedish). Swedish National Rail
magnitudes. Administration, Banverket, 1998, 23 pp.
13 Wheel impact detection systemsÐthe North American experi-
ence. Zeta-Tech Associates, Suite Cherry Hill, New Jersey,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1997, 28 pp.
14 Kalay, S., Tajaddini, A. and Stone, D. H. Detecting wheel
tread anomalies. In American Society of Mechanical Engi-
The present article is a condensed version of an earlier
neers Rail Transportation Division (Publication) RTD (Winter
literature survey [1]. The work was performed at the
Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechanical
Centre of Excellence CHARMEC (CHAlmers Railway Engineers), New York, 1992, Vol. 5, pp. 165±174 (American
MEChanics) in the spring and summer of 1998. Initiators Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York).
and instigators have been BjoÈrn Paulsson of Banverket 15 Stone, D. H., Kalay, S. F. and Tajaddini, A. Statistical
(Swedish National Rail Administration) and Roger LundeÂn behaviour of wheel impact load detectors to various wheel
and Bengt A Ê kesson of CHARMEC. During the project, defects. In Proceedings of 10th International Wheelset
much literature has been provided by several people Congress, Sydney, Australia, 27 September±1 October 1992,
working in the field of railway mechanics. The contribu- pp. 9±13.
tions made by, for example, Bernhard Morys, Kurt 16 Kalay, S., Tajaddini, A., Reinschmidt, A. and Guins, A.
Frischmuth, Eric Johansson, Michael KuÈsel, Walter Rode, Development of performance-based wheel-removal criteria for
North American Railroads. In Proceedings of 11th Interna-
Dirk MuÈller and Manfred Beier are gratefully acknowl-
tional Wheelset Congress, Paris, France, 18±22 June 1995,
edged.
pp. 227±233.
17 Higgins, R. L., Otter, D. E. and Martini, R. W. High
accuracy load measuring wheelset. In Proceedings of 10th
REFERENCES International Wheelset Congress, Sydney, Australia, 27 Sep-
tember±1 October 1992, pp. 181±188.
1 Johansson, A. and Nielsen, J. C. O. Out-of-round railway 18 Ohtani, T. Development of wheel-flat detection system. In
wheelsÐa literature survey. Report F210, Department of Solid Proceedings of 11th International Wheelset Congress, Paris,
Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, France, 18±22 June 1995, pp. 235±240.
Sweden, 1998, 46 pp. 19 Bracciali, A. and Cascini, G. Detection of corrugation and
2 Bazuin, G. J. (Ed.) State of the artÐfinal report. Brite EuRam wheelflats of railway wheels using energy and cepstrum
III, EUROSABOT, 1996, 65 pp. analysis of rail acceleration. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part
3 FermeÂr, M. Railway wheelsetsÐtheory, experiments and F, Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, 1997, 211(F2),
design considering temperatures, stresses and deformations as 109±116.
induced by braking loads and contact forces. PhD thesis, 20 Bracciali, A., Cascini, G. and Pierally, M. A wheelflat
Department of Solid Mechanics, Chalmers University of detection device based on cepstrum analysis of rail accelera-
Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 1993. tion measurements. In Proceedings of World Congress on

F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

90 J C O NIELSEN AND A JOHANSSON

Railway Research, Florence, Italy, 16±19 November 1997, pp. caused by static and dynamic unbalances. J. Sound Vibr.,
513±521. 1999, 227(5), 979±986.
21 Knothe, K. and Grassie, S. L. Modelling of railway track and 38 Zobory, I. Prediction of wheel/rail profile wear. Veh. Syst.
vehicle/track interaction at high frequencies. Veh. Syst. Dynamics, 1997, 28, 221±259.
Dynamics, 1993, 22(3±4), 209±262. 39 Morys, B. Enlargement of out-of-round wheel profiles on
22 Nielsen, J. C. O. Train/track interactionÐcoupling of moving high speed trains. J. Sound Vibr., 1999, 227(5), 965±978.
and stationary dynamic systemsÐtheoretical and experimental 40 Morys, B. and Kuntze, H.-B. Simulation analysis and active
analysis of railway structures considering wheel and track compensation of the out-of-round phenomena at wheels of
imperfections. PhD thesis, Department of Solid Mechanics, high speed trains. In Proceedings of World Congress on
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, Railway Research, Florence, Italy, 16±19 November 1997, pp.
1993. 95±105.
23 Jenkins, H. H., Stephenson, J. E., Clayton, G. A., Morland, 41 Morys, B. Investigation on vibration in ICE-wheelsets caused
G. W. and Lyon, D. The effect of track and vehicle parameters by unbalanced masses at high speeds. In Proceedings of 1st
on wheel/rail vertical dynamic forces. Railway Engng J., ADAMS/Rail Users' Meeting, Utrecht, 9±10 May 1996, 13
January 1974, 2±16. pp.
24 Newton, S. G. and Clark, R. A. An investigation into the 42 Morys, B. Enlargement of out-of-round wheel profiles on
dynamic effects on the track of wheelflats on railway vehicles. high speed trains. Available from CHARMEC Railway
J. Mech. Engng Sci., 1979, 21(4), 287±297. Engineering Library at Chalmers Department of Solid Mech-
25 Ahlbeck, D. R. A study of dynamic impact load effects due to anics, 26 pp.
railroad wheel profile roughness. In Proceedings of 10th 43 Morys, B., Kuntze, H.-B. and Hirsch, U. Investigation of
IAVSD Symposium, Prague, CSSR, 24±28 August 1987, pp. origin and enlargement of out-of-round phenomenas in high
13±16. speed ICE-wheelsets. In Proceedings of 10th European
26 Ahlbeck, D. R. and Hadden, J. A. Measurement and ADAMS Users' Conference, Frankfurt, 14±15 November
prediction of impact loads from worn railroad wheel and 1995, 14 pp.
rail surface profiles. Trans. ASME, J. Engng for Industry, 44 Kalker, J. J. Three-dimensional Elastic Bodies in Rolling
1985, 107, 197±205. Contact, 1990, 314 pp. (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-
27 Ahlbeck, D. R. and Harrison, H. D. The effects of wheel/rail drecht, Netherlands).
impact loading due to wheel tread runout profiles. In 45 Meinke, P., Meinke, S. and Szolc, T. On dynamics of rotating
Proceedings of 9th International Wheelset Congress, Mon- wheelset/rail-systems in a medium frequency range. Lecture at
treal, Canada, September 1988, pp. 6.1.1±6.1.6. the 4th German±Polish Workshop on Dynamical Problem in
28 FryÂba, W. Dynamischer Einfluss der unrunden RaÈder auf die Mechanical Systems, Berlin, Germany, 30 July±4 August
EisenbahnbruÈcken. Monatschrift der Internationalen Eisen- 1995, 12 pp.
bahn-Kongress-Vereinigung, Brussels, Belgium, 1967, pp. 46 Soua, B. and Pascal, J. P. Computation of 3.D wear of the
353±389. wheels in a high speed bogie. Report INRETS-LTN, Arcueil,
29 Grassie, S. L. Allowable impact loading and wheel irregula- France, 1995, 40 pp.
rities. In Proceedings of 8th International Rail Track Con- 47 Vohla, G. Large rotations of elastic bodies in linearized
ference, Sydney, Australia, October 1990, 5 pp. (available formulations of multibody dynamics (abstract). In Proceed-
from CHARMEC Railway Engineering Library at Chalmers ings CISSÐFirst Joint Conference of International Simulation
Department of Solid Mechanics). Societies Proceedings (Eds J. Halin, W. Karplus, et al.),
30 Cai, Z. and Raymond, G. P. Theoretical model for dynamic Zurich, 22±25 August 1994, 1 p.
wheel/rail and track interaction. In Proceedings of 10th 48 Vohla, G. and Brauchli, H. A wheel/rail contact module for a
International Wheelset Congress, Sydney, Australia, 27 Sep- realistic simulation of the running behaviour of railway
tember±1 October 1992, pp. 127±131. vehicles. In Proceedings of ESM'96, 10th European Simula-
31 Cai, Z. and Raymond, G. P. Modelling the dynamic response tion Multiconference, Budapest, Hungary, 2±6 June 1996,
of railway track to wheel/rail impact loading. Structural Engng 9 pp.
and Mechanics, 1994, 2(1), 95±112. 49 Vohla, G., Linder, C. and Brauchli, H. Corrugation of
32 Dong, R., Sankar, S. and Dukkipati, R. V. On the prediction of railway wheelsÐa brief presentation of their research on
railway wheel/rail impact loads. In Proceedings of International INTERNET (updated 14 November 1996; cited in June 1998),
Symposium on Technological Innovation in Guided Transports, http://www.ifm.mavt.ethz.ch/research/rail-4.html, 1996.
Lille, France, 28±30 September 1993, pp. 859±869. 50 Frischmuth, K. Rail±wheel contact, dynamical simulation
33 Dong, R. G. and Sankar, S. The characteristics of impact and damage. In Environmental and Damage Mechanics (Ed.
loads due to wheel tread defects. RTD Rail Transpn ASME, W. Kosinski), 1997, 10 pp. (PSP, Warsaw).
1994, 8, 23±30. 51 Frischmuth, K. and Langemann, D. Numerical analysis of
34 Kalay, S. F. and Hargrove, M. B. Research, test and long-term wear models. In Proceedings of 5th Polish±
developmentÐexamining the economics of high-impact wheel German Workshop on Dynamical Problems in Mechanical
loads. Railway Track and Struct., 1994, 29±33. Systems, Zakopane, Poland, 31 August±7 September 1997,
35 Tajaddini, A. and Kalay, S. F. Time to revise wheel-removal 10 pp.
rules? Railway Age, September 1995, 93±98. 52 Meywerk, M. Polygonalization of railway wheels. Arch. Appl.
36 SaÈkerhetsordning BVF 900.3, }43 (Safety regulations, in Mechanics, 1999, 69(2), 105±120.
Swedish). Swedish National Rail Administration, Banverket, 53 Meywerk, M. StabilitaÈt und Verschleiss bei auf Schienen
HandlaÈggare: Hans Ring, 1994, pp. 236±237. laufenden EisenbahnradsaÈtzen. PhD thesis, Braunschweiger
37 Meinke, P. and Meinke, S. Polygonalization of wheel treads Schriften zur Mathematik, No. 30-1997, Technische Universi-

Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F F01199 # IMechE 2000

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012

 OUT-OF-ROUND RAILWAY WHEELS Ð A LITERATURE SURVEY 91

taÈt Braunschweig, Mechanik-Zentrum, Braunschweig, 1997, men am Eisenbahnrad. Eisenbahningenieur, 1998, 49(1),
146 pp. 50±53.
54 Schneller, runder, leiser und 50 Prozent billiger. Berner 56 Mombrei, W. and Loop, B. M. E. Einige grundsaÈtzliche
Oberland News, 6 May 1997. Ergebnisse aus UNRA-NS-Versuchen. Eisenbahningenieur,
55 Mombrei, W. and Rode, W. Kenntnisse zu aktuellen Proble- 1998, 49(1), 54±56.

F01199 # IMechE 2000 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 214 Part F

Downloaded from pif.sagepub.com at UNIV OF VIRGINIA on October 2, 2012