HIGH TAKE-OFF WEIGHT MULTI ROLE TANKER

TRANSPORT

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT

Submitted by

Name (Reg no)

Aswini V S 720821101007
Devi S 720821101012
Kowsickraj J 720821101029
Manoj Kumar K 720821101033

In the partial fulfilment for the award

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
HINDUSTHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
COIMBATORE - 641 032
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI - 600 025
May -2024

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI-600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report on “BUSINESS AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work
of

Name (Register number)

Aswini V S 720821101007
Devi S 720821101012
Kowsickraj J 720821101029
Manoj Kumar K 720821101033

Who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.Sakthivel R Dr.K.P.Dhanabalakrishnan
Assistant Professor Professor & Head
Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering
Hindusthan Institute of Technology Hindusthan Institute of Technology
Coimbatore- 641032 Coimbatore- 641032

Date of viva voice……………...

................................... ..................................
Internal Examiner External Examiner

2
S.NO EXPERIMENT Page No.

1 Introduction to aircraft design

2 Literature survey: Collection of aircraft parameters for

different types of aircrafts

3 Comparative parameters of different types of aircrafts

4 Preliminary weight estimation-Empty weight, Fuel

weight, Crew weight, and payload.

5 Selection of design parameters-power plant selection.

6 Selection of design parameters-aerofoil selection

7 Selection of design parameters - Fixing the geometry of

Wing, tail, control surfaces

8 Selection of design parameters-Landing gear selection

9 Drag estimation. Performance calculations.

10 Stability analysis and V-n diagram.

3
 Exp No 1
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The aircraft design process is a loosely defined method used to balance many competing and
demanding requirements to produce an aircraft that is strong, lightweight, economical and
can carry an adequate payload while being sufficiently reliable to safely fly for the design life
of the aircraft. Similar to, but more exacting than, the usual engineering design process, the
technique is highly iterative, involving high-level configuration tradeoffs, a mixture of
analysis and testing and the detailed examination of the adequacy of every part of the
structure. For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by civil airworthiness
authorities.
This article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs.

AIRCRAFT REGULATION
Another important factor that influences the design are the requirements for obtaining a type
certificate for a new design of aircraft. These requirements are published by major national
airworthiness authorities including the US Federal Aviation Administration and the European
Aviation Safety Agency.
Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan allowed for
a conventional aircraft is 80 metres (260 ft) to prevent collisions between aircraft while
taxiing.
SAFETY
The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards
(thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of the many hazards that
pose a threat to air travel.
Airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly. [20] The responsibility
for airworthiness lies with the national civil aviation regulatory bodies, manufacturers, as
well as owners and operators.
The International Civil Aviation Organization sets international standards and recommended
practices on which national authorities should base their regulations. The national regulatory
authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators
and the standards of personnel training. Every country has its own regulatory body such as
the Federal Aviation Administration in USA, DGCA (Directorate General of Civil
Aviation) in India, etc.
The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the aircraft meets existing design standards,
defines the operating limitations and maintenance schedules and provides support and
maintenance throughout the operational life of the aircraft. The aviation operators include
the passenger and cargo airliners, air forces and owners of private aircraft. They agree to
comply with the regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the limitations of the
aircraft as specified by the manufacturer, report defects and assist the manufacturers in
keeping up the airworthiness standards.

4
Most of the design criticisms these days are built on crashworthiness. Even with the greatest
attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation
of how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or
valuable cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed
skin of the pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact,
large bending moments build all the way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell,
causing the fuselage to break up into smaller sections. So the passenger aircraft are designed
in such a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an
accident, such as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. The interior of the cabin
is also fitted with safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in the event of loss of
cabin pressure, lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors
and luminous floor strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency water landing in
mind, for instance the Airbus A330 has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings
beneath the aircraft slowing the ingress of water.
PURPOSE
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are
designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency
whereas fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support
to ground troops. Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious
airplanes have a unique design that allows them to operate from both land and water, some
fighters, like the Harrier jump jet, have VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) ability,
helicopters have the ability to hover over an area for a period of time.
The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a British Air
Ministry specification, or fill a perceived "gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of
aircraft which does not yet exist, but for which there would be significant demand.

DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all the
constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually headed by a
Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives and coordinated the
team accordingly. As time progressed, the complexity of military and airline aircraft also
grew. Modern military and airline design projects are of such a large scale that every design
aspect is tackled by different teams and then brought together. In general aviation a large
number of light aircraft are designed and built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT

In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to do the
various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a lot of
experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time-consuming. In the 1940s,
several engineers started looking for ways to automate and simplify the calculation process
and many relations and semi-empirical formulas were developed. Even after simplification,
the calculations continued to be extensive. With the invention of the computer, engineers
realized that a majority of the calculations could be automated, but the lack of design
visualization and the huge amount of experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft
design stagnant. With the rise of programming languages, engineers could now write
5
programs that were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe
computers and used low-level programming languages that required the user to be fluent in
the language and know the architecture of the computer. With the introduction of personal
computers, design programs began employing a more user-friendly approach.

IMPORTANT PARAMETER
Important points regarding aircraft design:
Several important consumption’s during designing of an aircraft which
represents or includes the performance, capabilities and characteristic of an
airplane which are given below.
1.Aerodynamic Parameters:
• Lift-to-drag ratio.
• Stall speed
• Maximum speed.
• Manoeuvrability.
• Stability.

2.Structural Parameters:
• Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)
• Empty weight.
• Payload capacity.
• Wing loading.
• Structural materials
• Fatigue life and durability.

3.Propulsion Parameters:
• Thrust-to-weight ratio
• Specific fuel consumption.
• Engine type.

6
• Powerplant reliability and maintenance requirements.
4.Performance Parameters:
• Range.
• Endurance.
• Rate of climb.
• Service ceiling.
• Take-off and landing distances.
• Fuel efficiency.
5.Operational Parameters:
• Mission profile
• Operating costs
• Crew requirements
• Maintenance intervals and costs
• Compatibility with available infrastructure (runways, hangars, etc.)
DESIGN PROCESS
The design process for an aircraft can be seen as very similar to other
engineering products. However, the complexity of an aircraft and the tight
safety regulations required make it a very expensive and long process. The
general process can be divided as shown below:
Fig. 1: Aircraft design: process-map example

STEP 1: Problem Definition

At this initial stage, a new market demand has been identified. For example, a
company might have identified that there is a growing demand for small private
jets. In the initial problem definition stages it is crutial to first identify the key
requirements of the new product then to determine how realistic it is to create
this product through a feasibility analysis.

7
STEP 2: Conceptual Design
This stage includes back of the envelope calculation, where all the ideas are
brainstorm. As the design continues to be revised it will undergoe many
transformations to conform to the fit/form/functions that are desired by the end
user or purchaser. These basic functions are brought together to create the initial
configuration design which is used to discuss different possibilities with the
consumer during a conceptual design review.

STEP 3: Preliminary Design

The preliminary design phase is where engineers go a step further into the
design process to create a basic proof of concept. In this stage the engineers will
calculate requirements that the airplane will have to conform with in order to
fly, these can include Aerodynamics, Flight Mechanics, Structure stresses and
stability. Following these is a preliminary design review, to ensure the concept
can become a reality and for a reasonable price.

STEP 4: Detail Design

At the detail design stage, every single component will be designed from and
tested. This is a highly complex and critical stage of the process. It also requires
all the different design teams to work closely. The main aircraft components
designed stages are:
• Wing Design
• Tail Design
• Fuselage Design
• Propulsion System
• Landing Gear
• Equipment/Subsystems
• Integration
• Wing Tunnel Testing

8
• Wight Distribution
• Performance and stability analysis
• Control Surfaces design
• Evaluation and test review

STEP 5: Flight Testing

At this stage, a prototype is build and will undergo rigorous flight tests.This is a
very lengthy and expensive process to ensure quality and safety in the new
aircraft, this can take years to complete. There are two different types of aircraft
certifications:
Military Aircraft: e.g.: Mil-Specs
Civil Aircraft: e.g.: EASA (Europe) or FAA (USA)
In order to become certified the design must follow these standards, sometimes
also referred to as Technical Standard Orders (TSOs) which govern the approval
of the design.

STEP 6: Critical Design Review

Here the design is reviewed, final small changes are made to adjust for different
needs identified in flight testing.

STEP 7: Certification
Once the aircraft is certified, it can now be allowed into commercial airspace
and move into full use and production. During the final certification process
there are a wide variety of approvals that are needed to be obtained for design
and safety:
• Aircraft Software
• Engines, Propellers, Aux power units
• Human safety factors
• Technical Standard Orders

9
• Parts Manufacturer Approval
• Origional Design Approval Process
• National Automated Conformity Inspection Process
This myriad of tests and approvals is done to ensure the safe operation and
functions of the aircrafts.
Conceptual design
Conceptual design of a Breguet 763 Deux-Ponts
Aircraft conceptual design involves sketching a variety of possible configurations that meet
the required design specifications. By drawing a set of configurations, designers seek to reach
the design configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand in hand
with factors such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance, structural and control
systems. This is called design optimization. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape,
wing configuration and location, engine size and type are all determined at this stage.
Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken into account at this stage as
well. The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on paper or
computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers.

10
 Conceptual design of a Bréguet 763 Deux-Ponts

Exp No 2
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS BUSINESS AIRCRAFTS

 10 Jet type aircraft

 4 Propeller type aircraft
 3 Piston type aircraft

PARAMETER
Range: The maximum distance the aircraft can travel without refueling.
Cruising Speed: The speed at which the airplane typically operates during
flight.
Payload Capacity: The maximum weight of passengers and cargo that the
airplane can carry.
Cabin Size: The dimensions of the passenger cabin, including seating capacity
and comfort features.
Avionics: The advanced electronic systems used for navigation,
communication, and monitoring.
Fuel Efficiency: The aircraft's ability to operate economically in terms of fuel
consumption.
Takeoff and Landing Performance: Distance required for takeoff and landing
under specific conditions.
Altitude Capability: The maximum altitude the airplane can reach while
maintaining safe operation.
Noise Levels: Compliance with noise regulations and considerations for
passenger comfort.
Safety Features: Emergency equipment, systems redundancy, and overall
safety measures.

11
Operational Costs: Considerations such as maintenance, insurance, and overall
operating expenses.
Interior Design: Customization options for the interior, including materials

12
 EX NO: 3
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PASSANGERS AIRCRAFT

INTRODUCTION
In this comparative study, we will analyse and compare some of the most popular business aircraft
models. Now a days, Business aircraft are a crucial mode of transportation for millions of people
around the world. There are several key factors that differentiate passenger aircraft, including cruise
speed, range, wing loading, gross weight, aspect ratio.

COMPARASION BETWEEN

 CRUISE SPEED VS RANGE

 CRUISE SPEED VS ALTITUDE
 CRUISE SPEED VS WING LOADING
 CRUISE SPEED VS GROSS WEIGHT
 WING LOADING VS ASPECT RATIO

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

1. CRUISE SPEED VS RANGE

Cruise Speed VS Range

14000
12000
10000
Range (nmi)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Cruise Speed

Cruise Speed VS Range

2. CRUISE SPEED VS ALTITUDE

Cruise Speed VS Altitude

60000

50000

40000
Altitude (Ft)

30000

20000

10000

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Cruise Speed

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3. CRUISE SPEED VS WING LOADING

Cruise Speed VS Wing Loading

100
90
80
Wing Loading (lb/sqft)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Cruise Speed

4. CRUISE SPEED VS GROSS WEIGHT

Cruise Speed VS Gross Weight

400,000
350,000
300,000
Gross Weight (kg)

250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Cruise Speed

15
5. WING LOADING VS ASPECT RATIO

Aspect Ratio VS Wing Loading

100
90
Wing Loading (lb/sqft)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Aspect Ratio

Aspect Ratio VS Wing Loading

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 Exp no. 4
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION
Preliminary weight estimation-Empty weight, Fuel weight, Crew weight,
and payload.

FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The design take off gross weight Wo is the weight of the airplane
at the instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight of all the fuel
on board at the beginning of the flight.
Empty weight fraction =empty weight/ max take off weight
=13,890/21,500 = 0.646 ------------------------ Eqn 1
Fuel weight fraction =fuel capacity/max take off weight
Wfuel = 6062/21,500 = 0.282
Wo = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty
5.2 CREW WEIGHT
The two pilots and two cabin attendants at 175 lbs each and 30 lbs
baggage each
Therefore,
No.of Crew = 2
Wcrew = (80kg * 2) = 160 kg
5.3 PAYLOAD WEIGHT
The payload of this aircraft is 900 kg
Wpayload = 1319.954 kg
Therefore,
Wfuel = 2750 kg
Wempty = 6,300kg

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Wo = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty
Wo = 10,529.954 kg
MTOM =10,529.954 /(1-0.646-0.282)
= 146,249.361 kg
The initial mass statement
Operational empty weight => 6,300 kg (59%)
Maximum payload => 1,319.954 kg (12%)
Full weight => 2,750 kg (26%)
-----------------------
MTOM=>146,249.361kg

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 Exp No. 5
SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
POWERPLANT SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
 From the first weight estimate, we can have a rough idea of the
weight of the power-plant that is to be used.
 Choice of engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as
higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.
 Most of the business aircraft were found that
Having 2 engines . Hence the preference is towards
having two engines.
The estimated weight percentage of engine in our aircraft is 0.01
Engine weight = total weight* estimated percentage weight of engine
= 1,46,249.361*0.0119407
Engine weight =1746.331 kg
The engine can be used in combination of 2* 873.1655 kg
The available engine have weight of nearly 873.1655 kg
 Honeywell TFE731-40BR

 The preferable choice of engine, would be Honeywell TFE731-40BR

engine which meets our demand of weight and powers. Learjet 75 liberty
and Dassault Falcon 10 aircrafts uses these engines which are similar in
payload capabilities such as the one under design.

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The Honeywell TFE731-40BR is a family of geared turbofan engine developed
by the Honeywell TFE731-40BR designed in the 1972. It has been built in large
numbers, serving as the powerplant for both the Learjet 75 liberty and Dassault
Falcon 10.

SPECIFICATION
General characteristics
Type: Geared turbofan
Length: 1,260 mm (49.7 in )
Diameter: 1000 mm (39.4 in) (intake casing)[10]
Width: 842 mm (33.1 in)
Dry weight: 337-408 kg (743-899 lb)
Components
Compressor: 1 stage fan, 1.8:1 gearbox, [citation needed] 4 axial LP stages, 1
centrifugal HP stage.
Combustors: Annular.
Turbine: 1 stage HP turbine

Fuel type: Aviation Kerosene fuels such as Jet A or Jet A-1

Oil system: Pressure type feed, fully recirculating.
Performance
Maximum power output: 3,500–4,750 lbf (15.6–21.1 kN)
Max. cruise power: 4,750 to 5,000 lbf (21.1 to 22.2 kN)
Engine operating rpm: 31,800 rpm
Engine ground idle: 25,500 rpm
Overall pressure ratio: 13:1
Turbine inlet temperature: TIT max. 1,300°C to 1,400°C (2,372°F to 2,552°F)
Specific fuel consumption:
Take-off s.f.c.: 0.65 lb/(hp⋅h)

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Cruise s.f.c.: (0.60 lb/(hp⋅h))
Power-to-weight ratio: 4.7-5.3 kW/kg

Design and development

The TFE731-40 has an inlet diameter of 0.787 m. The fan consists of 22 fan
blades, 52 exit-guide vanes, and ten struts, and is driven by a gearbox. The five-
stage compressor has four axial (LP) stages and one radial or centrifugal (HP)
stage.
The TFE731 was based on the core of the TSCP700, which was specifically
developed for use as the auxiliary power unit (APU) on the McDonnell Douglas
DC-10. The design featured two important factors: low fuel consumption, and
low noise profiles that met the newly established U.S. noise abatement
regulations.
The first test run of the TFE731 occurred in 1970 at Garrett's plant in Torrance,
California.[2] The first production model, the TFE731-2, began rolling off the
assembly line in August, 1972, and was used on the Learjet 35/36 and Dassault
Falcon 10, both of which entered production in 1973.

The TFE731-3 was developed for use in the Lockheed JetStar re-engining
program, and subsequent versions of it have been used on a number of aircraft,
including the Learjet 55.
In 1975, the TFE731 was named Aviation Product of the Year by Ziff-Davis
Publishing Company.
The -5 model was certified in 1982, and a decade later, an engine utilizing the
TFE731-5 power section and a TFE731-3 fan was built and designated the
TFE731-4, intended to power the Cessna Citation VII aircraft.
The most recent version is the TFE731-50, based on the -60 used on the Falcon
900DX, which underwent its flight test program in 2005. Honeywell has
developed this engine complete with nacelle as a candidate to retrofit a number
of aircraft equipped with older engines.

21
 Exp No. 6
SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
AIROFOIL SELECTION
AIROFOIL

The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils affects
the cruise speed landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling qualities
and aerodynamic efficiency during the all phases of flight.
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,
design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.An airfoils shape is defined by several
parameters, which are shown inthe following figure:

DEFINITIONS

CHORD LINE

Straight line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge

CHORD LENGTH (C)

Length of the chord line 38

22
MEAN CAMBER LINE
Curved line from the leading edge to the trailing edge, which is equidistant
between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.

MAXIMUM CAMBER
Maximum distance between the chord line and the mean camber line

MAXIMUM THICKNESS
Maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil normal
to the chord line
SPAN
Width of the airfoil
ANGLE OF ATTACK
Angle between the chord line and the stream wise flow direction

ZERO LIFT ANGLE OF ATTACK

Angle of Attack that no lift is produced. For our symmetric wedge this would be
an angle of attack of zero.

STALL ANGLE OF ATTACK

Angle of attack at which there is maximum lift (or lift coefficient).

SYMMETRIC OR UNCAMBERED AIRFOIL

Upper and lower surfaces are mirror images, which leads to the mean camber
line to be coincident with the chord line. A symmetric airfoil will
also have a just camber of zero.

CAMBERED AIRFOIL
An asymmetric airfoil for which the mean camber line will be above the chord
line
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PITCHING MOMENT
Torque or moment created on the wing due to net lift and drag forces. Tends to
rotate the leading edge either up or down.

PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT

Cm = (M) / (0.5  V2 S c)

Where,

M- Pitching moment (will depend on the moment reference center)

c- Chord length

CENTER OF PRESSURE

The moment reference center for which the moment is zero. Depends on the
angle of attack.

AERODYNAMIC CENTER
The moment reference center for which the moment does not vary with
angle of attack

NACA CLASSIFICATION
Airfoils have been classified by the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA), the forerunner of NASA, and have been catalogued using
a four digit code. Hence a specific airfoil can be identified by NACA WXYZ
Where, W: maximum camber as % of the chord length X: Location of the
maximum camber form the leading edge along the chord line in tenths of chord
length Y&Z: Maximum thickness in % of the chord length

24
NACA AIRFOIL CHARTS
Every NACA airfoil has two charts to present the lift, drag, and moment
coefficient data for the airfoil. The first chart will have curves of lift coefficient
versus angle of attack at various Reynolds numbers and curves of moment
coefficient at the quarter chord point versus angle of attack at various Reynolds
numbers. See the chart below. In addition to the lift and moment coefficients,
the stall angle of attack and zero lift angle of attack can be determined. The
second chart will have curves of drag coefficient versus lift coefficient at
various Reynolds numbers and curves of moment coefficient at the aerodynamic
center versus lift coefficient at various Reynolds numbers. In addition to smooth
airfoils, it is common for data for an airfoil whose leading edge has a sandpaper
surface texture to be included. The second chart also has an insert picture of the
air foil geometry and the aerodynamic center for the airfoil at different
Reynolds numbers is provided in tabular form.

SELECTED AEROFOIL:
Since our aircraft has the maximum take off weight is 35100kg
In order to lift this weight we have to use high lift producing aerofoil
For that in our comparative study Cessna 152 NACA 2412 aerofoil MTOM is
near to our aircraft. Choose airfoil based on literature survey
The type of aerofoil need in Cessna 152 NACA 2412 supercritical airfoil
This airfoil has,
i) High lift low Reynolds number
ii) Max thickness 12 % to 30% chord
iii) Max camber 2% at 40% chord

25
 Exp No. 7
SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
WING GEOMETRY SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the
aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities
are in general, a function of the thickness of the airfoil section that is used in the
wing structure. The first step towards designing the wing is the thickness
estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn depends on the critical mach
number of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number corresponding
to the wing section.The wing may be considered as the most important
component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly without it.
Since the wing geometry and its features are influencing all other aircraft
components, we begin the detail design process by wing design. The primary
function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply lift (L).
However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or drag (D)
and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to
maximize the lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment) must be minimized.
In fact, a wing is considered as a lifting surface that lift is produced due to the
pressure difference between lower and upper surfaces. Aerodynamics textbooks
are a good source to consult for information about mathematical techniques for
calculating the pressure distribution over the wing and for determining the flow
variables During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be
determined. They are as follows:
1. Wing reference (or planform) area (SW or Sref or S)
2. Number of the wings
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5. Cross section (or airfoil)
6. Aspect ratio (AR)
7. Taper ratio ()
8. Tip chord (Ct)
9. Root chord (Cr)

26
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
11. Span (b)
12. Twist angle (or washout) (t)
13. Sweep angle ()
14. Dihedral angle ()
15. Incidence (iw) (or setting angle, set)
16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron
18. Other wing accessories
8.2 NUMBER OF WINGS
One of the decisions a designer must make is to select the number of wings.
The options are:
1. Monoplane (i.e. one wing)
2. Two wings (i.e. biplane)
3. Three wings

Fig 8.1Configuration of wing

WING VERTICAL LOCATION
One of the wing parameters that could be determined at the early stages of wing
design process is the wing vertical location relative to the fuselage centerline.
This wing parameter will directly influence the design of other aircraft

27
components including aircraft tail design, landing gear design, and center of
gravity. In principle, there are four options for the vertical location of the wing.
They are:

Fig 8.2 Position of wing

SELECTED WING IS LOW WING
LOW WING
In this section, advantages and disadvantages of a low wing configuration
(Figure 9.2-c) will be presented. Since the reasons for several items are similar
with the reasons for a high wing configuration, the reasons are not repeated
here. In the majority of cases, the specifications of low wing are compared with
a high wing configuration.
ADVANTAGES
1. The aircraft take off performance is better; compared with a high wing
configuration; due to the ground effect.
2. The pilot has a better higher-than-horizon view, since he/she is above the
wing.
3. The retraction system inside the wing is an option along with inside the
fuselage.
4. Landing gear is shorter if connected to the wing. This makes the landing gear
lighter and requires less space inside the wing for retraction system. This will
further make the wing structure lighter.

28
5. In a light GA aircraft, the pilot can walk on the wing in order to get into the
cockpit.
6. The aircraft is lighter compared with a high wing structure.
7. Aircraft frontal area is less.
8. The application of wing strut is usually no longer an option for the wing
structure.
9. Item 8 implies that the aircraft structure is lighter since no strut is utilized.
10.Due to item 8, the aircraft drag is lower.
11.The wing has less induced drag.
12.It is more attractive to the eyes of a regular viewer.
13.The aircraft has higher lateral control compared with a high wing
configuration, since the aircraft has less lateral static stability, due to the
fuselage contribution to the wing dihedral effect.
14.The wing has less downwash on the tail, so the tail is more effective.
15.The tail is lighter; compared with a high wing configuration.
16.The wing drag is producing a nose-down pitching moment, so a low wing is
longitudinally stabilizing. This is due to the lower position of the wing drag line
relative to the aircraft center of gravity.
8.4.1.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. The wing generates less lift; compared with a high wing configuration; since
the wing has two separate sections.
2. With the same token to item 1, the aircraft will have higher stall speed;
compared with a high wing configuration; due to a lower CLmax.
3. Due to item 2, the take-off run is longer.
4. The aircraft has lower airworthiness due to a higher stall speed.
5. Due to item 1, wing is producing less induced drag.
6. The wing has less contribution to the aircraft dihedral effect, thus the aircraft
is laterally dynamically less stable.
7. Due to item 6, the aircraft is laterally more controllable, and thus more
maneuverable.

29
8. The aircraft has a lower landing performance, since it needs more landing
run.
9. The pilot has a lower lower-than-horizon view. The wing below the pilot will
obscure part of the sky for a fighter pilot.

WING GEOMETRY DESIGN:

The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing
loading (W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the Sweepback angle at
quarter chord.The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is
used to find the Wing area S (from W/S).The value of S also enables us to
calculate theWingspan b (using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can now be
found using the equation.
Here, S = 14.9 m2
b = 10.17m
average taper ratio for jet aircraft
λ= 0.4
the root chord is given by
Croot =(2*s)/ b(1+ λ)
= (2*14.9)/10.17(1+0.4)

30
Croot = 2.09 m
The tip chord is given by,
Ctip = λ* Croot
= 0.4 * 2.09
Ctip = 0.836 m
The mean chord is given by,
C mean =(2/3) Croot*(1+ λ+ λ2/1+ λ)
=(2/3)(2.09)*(1+0.4+0.16/1+0.4)
C mean =1.25 m
Design of Control Surfaces
High Lift Systems
A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from one
designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are
strongly influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring
lower acceleration or deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It
is always possible to reduce stall speed by increasing wing area, but it is not
desirable to cruise with hundreds of square feet of extra wing area (and the
associated weight and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes. Since
the stalling speed is related to wing parameters by: It is also possible to reduce
stalling speed by reducing weight, increasing air density, or increasing wing
CLmax . The latter parameter is the most interesting. One can design a wing
airfoil that compromises cruise efficiency to obtain a good CLmax , but it is
usually more efficient to include movable leading and/or trailing edges so that
one may obtain good high speed performance while achieving a high CLmax at
take-off and landing. The primary goal of a high lift system is a high CLmax;
however, it may also be desirable to maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag
on approach. It is also necessary to do this with a system that has low weight
and high reliability. This is generally achieved by incorporating some form of
trailing edge flap and perhaps a leading edge device such as a slat.
6.2. Flaps
Wing flaps can be found on virtually every modern airplane. The effect of
adding flaps to the trailing edge of the wing is equivalent to increasing the
camber of the wing. Some flap designs also increase the chord length of the
wing. This increases the area of the wing so that more air is diverted, thus

31
reducing the angle of attack needed for lift. There are many types of flaps. In the
1930s and 1940s the split flap, shown in Figure was introduced and was one of
the first types of flap to appear in production airplanes. Splitting the last 20
percent or so of the wing forms this type of flap. The top surface of the wing
does not move while the bottom surface lowers. The split flap is effective in
improving the lift, but it creates a great deal of form drag, as shown in the
figure. The last 20 percent or so of the inboard section of the wing is simply
hinged so that it can increase the camber. The first 20 degrees of flap extension
increase the lift without greatly increasing the drag of the wing at low speeds.
Many airplanes extend their flaps to 10 or 20 degrees on takeoff in order to
shorten the takeoff distance. When the flaps are extended greater than 20
degrees, the form drag increases rapidly with little or no increase in lift.
Increasing the drag increases the descent rate, which is desirable during the
approach for landing. Thus it is not uncommon for an airplane to land with the
flaps set at 40 degrees. Multi slotted flaps are seen on many modern passenger
jets, while large airplanes use single-slotted flaps. Until the 1990s airplane
performance was the key design criterion. Airplane companies were proud of
sophisticated triple-slotted flap systems. During the 1990s a shift toward
reducing cost as a key design criterion has pushed airplane companies to
maximize the performance of single-slotted flaps. One technique that is used is
to place vortex generators on the leading edge of the single slotted flap. When
the flap is retracted, the vortex generators on the flap are hidden in the wing.
Thus, the vortex generators do not penalize the airplane in cruise but are
available for takeoff and landing. The next times you fly a commercial airplane
ask for a window seat behind the wing. During the approach and landing phase
of the flight, watch the wing unfold. It is truly remarkable how the wing evolves
into a high-lift wing from its normal cruise configuration.
6.3. Slots and Slats
Leading-edge devices, like flaps, are sometimes used to increase the camber of
the wing and increase the stall angle of attack. But the details are somewhat
different. Other times, the purpose of the leading edge devices is much like that
of the slot in a slotted flap. These devices allow the high-energy air from below
the wing to flow to the upper surface of the wing. This energizes the boundary
layer. Thus, the wing stalls at a higher angle of attack and the maximum lift is
increased. The simplest leading edge device is the fixed slot shown in Figure.
This is a permanent slot near the leading edge of the wing. The high-pressure air
below the wing is drawn up through the slot and flows over the top of the wing.
This energizes the boundary on top of the wing. A permanent slot can increase
the critical angle of attack significantly. The disadvantage of the fixed slot is

32
that it causes increased power consumption and drag at cruise speeds. A device
similar to the slot is the fixed slat, shown in Figure It is added onto the wing,
increasing the wings cord length as well as energizing the boundary layer. Like
the fixed slot, the fixed slat causes increased drag at cruise speeds. The solution
to the drag caused by fixed slots and slats is to design a slat that is deployed
only at slow speeds and causes little or no drag in cruise. The Handley-Page
retractable slat, shown in Figure extends to large droop angles to give the wing
large leading-edge camber. In cruise the slats are retracted and do not cause
increased drag. This type of slat is often designed so that they deploy by
themselves at slow speeds and high angles of attack and return to the flush
position in cruise.

Fig-6.1

Double slotted flap

Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash

One way to increase lift at slow flight speeds is to divert the propellers
slipstream or the jet engines exhaust down. To achieve a substantial lift increase
with a slipstream, the plane must have engines mounted on the wings with large
propellers that generate a slipstream over a substantial portion of the wing. The
wing must also have a multi slotted flap system to deflect the slipstream
effectively. This technique has not found significant commercial applications.
The exhaust of a turbofan-powered airplane can be diverted down to produce
additional lift at low speeds. One way to produce the diversion is to have the
flaps extend down into the exhaust when fully extended. One problem with this
technique is that the flap extension into the jet exhaust exposed it to very high

33
temperatures, creating a significant design challenge. Another way to divert the
jet exhaust is to mount the engines on the top of the wing with the engine
exhaust crossing the top of the wing as in Figure. Flaps behind the engines use
the Coanda effect to divert the exhaust down when extended. This gives a
substantial increase in lift for takeoff and landing. Slats operate rather
differently from flaps in that they have little effect on the lift at a given angle of
attack. Rather, they extend the range of angles over which the flow remains
attached. This is shown in fig

Fig-6.2 Motion of Double slotted Flap

Leading Edge Devices

Leading edge devices such as nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and slats reduce the
pressure peak near the nose by changing the nose camber. Slots and slats permit
a new boundary layer to start on the main wing portion, eliminating the
detrimental effect of the initial adverse gradient.
Wing tips
Wing tips shape has two effects upon subsonic aerodynamic performance. The
tip shape affects the aircraft wetted area, but only to a small extent. A far more
important effect is the influence the tip shape has upon the lateral spacing of the
tip vortices. This is largely determined by the ease with which the higher-
pressure air on the bottom of the wing can escape around the tip to the bottom
of the wing A smoothly-rounded tip easily permits the air to flow around the tip.
A tip with a sharp edge makes it more difficult, thus reducing the induced drag.
Most of the new lowdrag wing tips use some form of sharp edge. In fact, even a
34
simple cut-off tip offers less drag than a rounded-off tip, due to the sharp edges
where the upper and lower surfaces end. The mostly widely used low-drag wing
tip is the Hoerner wingtip. This is a sharpedged wing tip with a upper surface
continuing the upper surface of the wing. The lower surface is “undercut” and
canted approximately 30 deg to the horizontal. The lower surface may also be
“under cambered”.

35
 Exp No. 8
SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
Landing gear selection
Landing gear
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and is used in
both takeoff and landing. For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it
is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheels are
typically used but skids, skis, floats or a combination of these and other
elements can be deployed depending both on the surface and on whether the
craft only operates vertically (VTOL) or is able to taxi along the surface. Faster
aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight
to reduce air resistance or drag. For launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the
landing gear is typically designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are
not used for takeoff or surface movement.
Types of landing gear
• Detachable landing gear
• Rearwards and sideways retraction
• Tandem layout
• Early shock absorption
• "Kneeling" gear
• Folding gear
• Light aircraft Mono wheel
Detachable landing gear
Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison them soon afterwards for
improved aerodynamic streamlining without the complexity, weight and space
requirements of a retraction mechanism. In these cases, the wheels to be
jettisoned are sometimes mounted onto axles that are part of a separate "dolly"
(for main wheels only) or "trolley" (for a three-wheel set with a nose wheel)
chassis. Landing is then accomplished on skids or similar other simple devices.
Historical examples include the "dolly"-using Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket
fighter the Messerschmitt Me 321 Giant troop glider, and the first eight
"trolley"-using prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance bomber. The

36
main disadvantage to using the takeoff dolly/trolley and landing skid(s) system
on German World War II aircraft intended for a sizable number of late-war
German jet and rocket-powered military aircraft designs was that aircraft would
likely be scattered all over a military airfield after they had landed from a
mission, and would be unable to taxi on their own to an appropriately hidden
"dispersal" location, which could easily leave them vulnerable to being shot up
by attacking Allied fighters.
Rearwards and sideways retraction
Some main landing gear struts on World War II aircraft, in order to allow a
singleleg main gear to more efficiently store the wheel within either the wing or
an engine nacelle, rotated the single gear strut through a 90° angle during the
Rearwards-retraction sequence to allow the main wheel to rest "flat" above the
lower end of the main gear strut, or flush within the wing or engine nacelles,
when fully retracted. Examples are the Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F
Hellcat, "Messerschmitt Me 210 and Junkers Ju 88. The Aero Commander
family of twin-engine business aircraft also shares this feature on the main
gears, which retract aft into the ends of the engine nacelles. The rearward-
retracting nose wheel strut and the forwardretracting nose gear strut similarly
rotated 90 degrees as they retracted.
Tandem layout
An unusual undercarriage configuration is found on which has two main wheels
in line astern under the fuselage (called a bicycle or tandem layout) and a
smaller wheel near the tip of each wing. On second generation Harriers, the
wing is extended past the outrigger wheels to allow greater wing-mounted
munition loads to be carried. A multiple tandem layout was used on some
military jet aircraft during the 1950s, pioneered by the Martin XB-51, and later
used on such aircraft as the U-2, Yakovlev Yak-25, because it allows room for a
large internal bay between the main wheels. A variation of the multi tandem
layout is also used on the B-52 Strato fortress which has four main wheel bogies
(two forward and two aft) underneath the fuselage and a small outrigger wheel
supporting each wing-tip. This allows the landing gear to line up with the
runway and thus makes crosswind landings easier (using a technique called crab
landing. The challenge of designing a tandem-gear layout is that the aircraft has
to sit (on the ground) at the optimum flight angle for landing – when the plane is
nearly in a stalled attitude just before touchdown, both fore and aft wheels must
be ready to contact the runway. Otherwise there will be a vicious jolt as the
higher wheel falls to the runway at the stall.

37
 Kneeling gear
Some early jet fighters were equipped with “kneeling” nose gear consisting of
small steerable auxiliary wheels on short struts located forward of the primary
nose gear, allowing the aircraft to be taxied tail-high with the primary nose gear
retracted. This feature was intended to enhance safety aboard aircraft carriers by
redirecting the hot exhaust blast upwards, and to reduce hangar space
requirements by enabling the aircraft to be parked with its nose underneath the
tail of a similarly equipped jet. Kneeling gear was used on the North American,
but was found to be of little use operationally, and was not used on later Navy
fighters. The nose wheel gear systems of some large cargo jets, like the Condor,
kneel to assist in loading and unloading of cargo using ramps through the
forward, "tilt-up" hinged fuselage nose while stationary on the ground.
Folding gear
In order to save precious space, various folding and splay able landing gear
designs have been created.

Light aircraft
For light aircraft a type of landing gear which is economical to produce is a
simple wooden arch laminated from ash, as used on some homebuilt aircraft. A
similar arched gear is often formed from spring steel. The Cessna Air master
was among the first aircraft to use spring steel landing gear. The main advantage
of such gear is that no other shock absorbing device is needed; the deflecting
leaf provides the shock absorption.
Monowheel
To minimize drag, modern gliders most usually have a single wheel, retractable
or fixed, centered under the fuselage, which is referred to as mono wheel gear or
mono wheel landing gear. Mono wheel gear is also used on some powered
aircraft, where drag reduction is a priority, such as the Much like the Me 163
rocket fighter, some gliders from prior to the Second World War used a take-off
dolly that was jettisoned on takeoff and then landed on a fixed skid.

38
 Fig-8.1 Landing Gear

SELECTED LANDING GEAR :

There are several types of landing gear are used in aircraft like detachable
landing gear, rear wards and side ways retraction ,tandem layout ect,
According to our comparative study the most commonly used type of landing
gear is conventional triycycle type landing gear. With this type of landing gear
using the back wheels to with stand the weigths initially during landing and then
load is distributed to front landing gear. The landing gear used for our aircraft
should have shock absorber ,wheel ,brake system ,turing system,under carriage
retractable.

39
 Exp No.9
DRAG ESTIMATION AND PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
DRAG ESTIMATION
DRAG
 Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is
parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
 It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
 It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the
desirable component.
DRAG COEFFICIENT (CD)
 Amount of drag generated depends on:
 Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)
 CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
 Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack (α), compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).
DRAG COMPONENTS
SKIN FRICTION
 Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
 Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.
Fig9.1 Skin friction drag

40
FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG
 Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in
direction of motion.
 Sometimes considered separately as fore body and rear (base) drag
components.

Fig9.2 Form drag

WAVE DRAG
 Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
 Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the
boundary layer.

41
 Fig9.3 Shock formation over wedge
TYPICAL STREAMLINING EFFECT

LIFT INDUCED (OR) TRAILING VORTEX DRAG

42
CALCULATION:
Induced drag estimation
Generally for the business jet aircraft it is given that
Cd0=0.003
ρ =0.8
the general drag equation is given by
D=1/2* ρv2S(Cd0+CL2/ΠAR.e)
Where, AR=Aspect ratio=b2/S
e=0.9

DRAG AT CRUISE:
ρ =0.27641 kg/m3 at (12750m) Calculate based on your operational altitude
v= 602 km/h= 167.222 m/s( from the comparative study)
s=75m2
CL(cruise)=0.523(from wing &aerofoil estimation) calculate based on
airfoilCL=0.9Cl
Dcruise =1/2*(0.27641)*(167.22**2)*(75)*(10.10*10-3 )
Dcruise=2927.40N

DRAG AT TAKE OFF:

Vstall= 150
ρ =1.225 kg/m3 at sea level
v=0.7*1.2*VSTALL

43
 =0.7*1.2*150
V= 126 m/s
s=75m2
CL(take off) =0.625(flaps at 20 deg)
=1/2(1.225)(126**2)(75)(12.08*10-3)
=8809.98N

Drag at landing
ρ =1.225 kg/m3 at sea level
v=0.7*1.3*VSTALL
=0.7*1.3*150
V= 136.5 m/s
s=75m2
CL(landing)=0.65
D(landing)= 1/2(1.225)(136.5**2)(75)(15.5*10-3)
D(landing)= 13266.74N

44
 Exp No.10
STABILITY ANALYSIS and V-n DIAGRAM
Introduction
• V-n diagram shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different
airspeeds. At higher temperatures, air is less dense than planes must fly faster to
generate the same amount of lift.
Load factor = Lift / Weight
n = L/W
• The lift limitation of turning performance refers to that portion of the flight
envelope in which the aircraft is limited in angle of attack.
• The maximum speed of which an aircraft in symmetrical flight at the specified
flight weight and configuration will stall (unload) before exceeding limit load
and sustaining possible structural damage.
Maneuvering Loads
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift
during high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized
by the lift of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the
fuselage. Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a
standard acceleration due to gravity.
Symmetrical Maneuver Load
These will occur when the aircraft's pilot (or the autopilot) operates the
longitudinal control surface (e.g. the elevator or canard to cause aircraft to pitch
nose- up or nose-down. This action may result in two distinct forms of
acceleration:
• Translational, which may be either longitudinal or normal to the flight path.
• Rotational

NORMAL LOAD FACTOR

The loads due to symmetric maneuvers are most commonly analyzed, through
use of the definition of a normal load factor(n), whereby:

45
n=Lift (L)/Weight (W)
The load factor is more properly defined as the component of aerodynamic
force perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis divided by the aircraft weight.
CALCULATION
Load factor = lift/weight=0.5 ρv2sCL/w
n= L/W
our aircraft maximum take off weight -5666.67kg
our aircraft payload weight- 1020kg
the lift limitation of turning performance refers in symmetrical flight at the
specified filght weight and configuration will stall before encoding limit load
and sustaining possible structural damage
n1=1/2ρv2 sCL /w
n1 =1.225(39.9**2)*50.28*0.6257/2*5666.67
= 5.41
n2 = 0.27641(238.9**2)*50.28*0.528/2*5666.67
=36.86
n3 =1.225(43.225**2)*50.28*0.65/2*5666.67
=6.6

IMPORTANT VELOCITY
The main velocities that r plotted in the V-n diagram are:
• VS- Stall Velocity
• VA- Maneuvering Velocity
• VC- Cruise Velocity
• VD- Dive Velocity
VC Cruise velocity of our aircraft which should be taken from parameters of
our aircraft.
46
VA Maneuvering velocity = 40% to 50% of the VC.
VD Dive velocity = 1.5 VC
VS Stall velocity
Vstall = √(2𝑊/ 𝜌 SCL max)
38
Where;
W - Weight
𝜌 - Density of air at cruising Altitude
S - Wing area
CL max - Maximum Lift Coefficient
CALCULATION
VC = 829 km/hr (As per comparative study)
= 446.95 knots
VA = 200.45 knots
VD = 669.48 knots
VS = 467.78 knot

V-n DIAGRAM SPREADSHEET

Maneuver Gust
Normal Utility
+ ve - ve + ve - ve + ve - ve
VA 200.45 kts 3.5 -1.5 4.03 -1.73
VC 446.95 kts 3.5 -1.5 4.03 -1.73 5.08 -2.18
VD 669.48 kts 3.5 0 4.03 -1 3.5
-1.5 VS 467.78 kts

47
CONCLUSION
Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the
application of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything
needs experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal system. The
scientific society always look for the best product design .This involves a strong
fundamental in science and mathematics and their skill full application which is
a tough job endowed upon the designer .

We had put enough hard work to the best of our knowledge for this
design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one
further step towards the ideal system. But during the design of this business
aircraft we learnt about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an
aircraft. Thus a conceptual design of a cargo aircraft has been successfully done.
The Aircraft is a two engine configuration. It uses two Pratt & Whitney PW 500
engines which fulfills the power requirement. The wing is 64006 supercritical.

48
REFERENCES

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) “Aircraft Performance and Design”,

McGraw-Hill, New York.
2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill ,
New York.
3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) “Airplane Performance”, Stability and
Control, Wiley, New York.
4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”,
AIAA Education series, Washington, DC.
Taylor, J. (2004) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”, Jane’s, London, UK.

49