AMI 415 Packaging of Agric Produce 2

AMI 415:
Agricultural Produce Packaging

(Elective)
First Trimester, 2023/2024, 2 Credits
Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Senior Lecturer/Head of Department
Agricultural Mechanisation and Irrigation Technology
Objective of the course
1. train students in
▪ the principles and practices of packaging materials,
▪ packaging designs and
▪ packing methods used for agricultural produce.
2. expose students to
▪ healthy and safety aspects of packaging,
▪ new concepts in food packaging as well as
▪ environmental issues associated with food packaging.

Course content
▪ Packaging-basic functions, categories of packaging
▪ Packaging for fresh produce and durable crops
▪ Packaging design
▪ Basic packaging materials
▪ Packaging testing
▪ Packing methods
▪ Health and safety aspects of packaging
▪ Environmental aspects of packaging
▪ Recycling possibilities and symbols

Assessment procedure
▪ The following are used to assess the
students:
▪ Class tests
▪ Assignments
▪ Mid trimester examination
▪ End of trimester examination
▪ For the class tests and assignments
procedures,
▪ questions are given to students from specific topics
taught.

Assessment procedure
▪ The mid-trimester examination questions are
set from topics treated from the beginning to
the period of the examination.
▪ This examination and assignments forms 25% of the
overall performance of the student for the trimester.
▪ The end of trimester examination is conducted
and questions are set to cover
▪ all aspects of the course content including practical
applications.
▪ This examination forms 75% of the overall performance of
the student for the trimester.

Recommended textbooks
1. Walter Soroka, CPP. (2009). FUNDAMENTALS OF PACKAGING

TECHNOLOGY. Institute of packaging professionals.
2. Coles, R., McDowell, D. and Kirwan, M. J. (2003). FOOD PACKAGING
TECHNOLOGY. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Packaging
▪ Packaging is best described as a coordinated
system of preparing agricultural products for:
– transport
– distribution
– storage
– retailing and
– use.
▪ It’s a complex, dynamic, scientific, artistic and
controversial business function.

▪ In its most fundamental form,
– packaging contains
– protects/preserves
– transports
– informs/sells.
▪ Packaging is a service function that cannot
exist by itself; it needs a product.
➢If there is no agricultural product, there is no need for
a package.

▪ Packaging functions range from those that
are technical in nature to those that are
marketing oriented.
– Technical packaging professionals need
science and engineering skills
– Marketing professionals need artistic and
motivational understanding.

▪ Packaging managers need a basic
understanding of both marketing and technical
needs, mixed with good business sense.
– this unusual skill spread makes the packaging industry
a unique career choice.

Basic functions of packaging
▪ Packaging has four primary functions:-
1. containment,
2. protection/preservation
3. utility
4. communication

1. Containment function
▪ The term “containment” means, simply, to
contain products to enable them to be moved
or stored.
▪ It is so basic that it is easily overlooked.
– however, containment is a key factor for all other
packaging functions.
▪ All agricultural products must be contained for
delivery from their point of production to their
ultimate destination.

▪ Even products that consumers consider as “not a
packaged product,” such as bulk produce, must
be packaged for transportation.
▪ Without packaging,
– products are likely to be lost or contaminated by
the environment.
▪ The containment function significantly
contributes to protecting and preserving products
during their distribution.

2. Protection/preservation function
▪ There are two broad types of damage that

fresh and processed foods sustain during
storage and transportation.
1. physical damage such as shock, vibration,
compressive forces, etc.
2. environmental damage that occurs due to
exposure to water, light, gases, odors,
microorganisms, etc.

Moisture content of a plant material and intensity of
activity of enzymes, molds, yeasts and bacteria vs.
relative humidity surrounding air

▪ A good packaging system will protect or
reduce these types of damage to the
package contents.
▪ For example,
− an essential aroma or flavor in coffee or juice may
easily be evaporated or oxidized without optimum
barrier packaging.
− a shelf-stable food in a CAN may maintain its
stability (especially against microorganisms) as
long as the package provides protection.

▪ However, in the case of fresh food products,
the ideal protection is usually hard to
achieve with packaging alone.
– since temperature is a major influence on the
degradation of food, it is more economical to
control temperature through supply chain
modification (refrigeration, freezing, etc.).
▪ however, packaging can also add a certain
level of protection to slow down temperature
changes.

3. Utility function
▪ This function of packaging is sometimes

termed “convenience.”
▪ Consumers demand products that fit into their
lifestyles and the packaging industry has had
to respond to this.
– thus, the utility function encompasses all the
packaging attributes that provide added value and
convenience to the users of the product and/or
package.

▪ Examples include
– microwavable entrees,
– steam-in-pouch vegetables,
– oven-safe meat pouches,

4. Communication function
▪ Packaging must identify
– the product,
– the net quantity of the contents,
– name/address of business of the
manufacturer,
– packer, or distributor,
– nutritional information.

▪ The communication function of packaging
– not only includes the information provided by
the written text,
– but also elements of the packaging design
such as;
❖package shape,
❖color,
❖recognized symbols or brands.

▪ Beyond giving information,
– the communication function is expected to entice the
consumer to purchase the product.
▪ Packaging has been regarded as the “silent
salesman”.
– Consumers may instantly recognize products through
1. appetizing pictures or distinctive brands on packaging, and
2. even simple transparency of the packaging material can
attract consumers by allowing them to view the product
inside.

Levels/categories of packaging
There are different levels of packaging a
consumer may be exposed to, they are:-
1) Primary package
2) Secondary package
3) Tertiary package
4) Quaternary package
Packaging
Levels

Primary package
▪ A primary package is the one which is in

direct contact with the contained product.
▪ It is a direct-food-contact surface, and
therefore is subject to approval by the FDA
– which tests for the possible migration of
packaging materials into food.

▪ Examples:
metal cans, paperboard cartons, glass bottles
and plastic pouches, beverage can, plastic
bottles, skin pack.

Secondary package
▪ A secondary package contains a number of
primary packages.

▪ It is the physical distribution carrier and is
sometimes designed so that it can be used in
retail outlets for the display of primary
packages.
▪ Example: cardboard box with a number of
identical products inside

Tertiary packaging
▪ A tertiary package is made up of a number
of secondary packages.
▪ It is used for bulk handling.
➢Example being a pallet of corrugated cases.

Quaternary packaging
▪ A quaternary package is frequently used to
facilitate the handling of tertiary packages.
▪ This is generally a metal container up to 40
m in length which can be transferred to or
from
– ships,
– trains,
– flatbed trucks

▪ Certain containers are also able to have their
− temperature,
− humidity and
− gas atmosphere controlled.
▪ This is necessary in particular situations such
as the
– transportation of perishable agricultural
products (e.g. frozen foods, chilled meats and
fresh fruits and vegetables etc.).

Packaging for fresh produce and
durable crops

▪ There are many different types of packages
in use throughout the world,
– many of which have been carefully evaluated
with respect to produce and market system,
– while other types have often been adopted for
general use without thorough evaluation.
• changes to improve such packages are still
required.

▪ Some different types of packages used for
perishables and durables include:
1. Sacks: flexible, made of plastic or jute.
− bags: small size sack
− nets: sacks made of open mesh
2. Wooden crates.
3. Carton or fibreboard boxes.
4. Plastic crates.
5. Pallet boxes and shipping containers.
6. Baskets

Sacks and nets
Advantages
▪ sacks and nets are cheap
▪ have a low weight/volume ratio
▪ if made of a synthetic material, will not rot.

Disadvantages
▪ low protection against puncturing,
compression, vibration and impact injuries
such as dropping,
▪ difficult stacking,
▪ low rate of vapour transmission
▪ need of special stitching equipment

▪ In general, nets are only suitable for hard
produce such as coconuts and root and bulb
crops (eg. potatoes, onions)

Wooden crates

Advantages of wooden crates are:
▪ The crates can be manufactured and repaired
locally.
▪ Wood is relatively resistant to different weather
conditions and (sea)water.

▪ Wooden crates are often used on more than
one journey and have a higher efficiency for
larger fruits, e.g. watermelons.
▪ Most crates have good ventilation and fast
pre-cooling is possible.

Disadvantages of wooden crates are:
▪ Untreated wood can easily become contaminated
with fungi and bacteria.
▪ Treatment of wooden crates with paint or other
chemicals may cause produce deterioration.

▪ The material may be too hard or rough for
produce like soft fruits, and therefore liners
of a soft material may be needed.
▪ Manufacturing of wooden crates puts an
extra claim on the natural forest resources.

Fibreboard boxes
▪ Fibreboard boxes are frequently used

because of their
– low weight,
– their range of sizes
– shapes
– availability

Advantages of fibreboard boxes:
▪ Low weight and easy to handle.
▪ The relatively soft walls have a cushioning
effect.
▪ The box can have any design, although it is
recommended to use sizes fitting on the
standard design of pallets.
▪ The boxes are delivered flat and assembling
boxes can be done locally.

▪ The box has a low purchase cost.
▪ The material can be printed to give the box a
pleasant and recognisable appearance.
– also the label can be included in this print

Disadvantages of fibreboard boxes:
▪ Moisture and high humidity can seriously
weaken the box.
– Washed produce should be dried before putting
it into the box.
– Empty boxes should be stored in a dry place
preferably flat on top of pallets and not for long
periods of time.

▪ The low rigidity causes the stacking strength
to be lower than for wooden or plastic
crates.
▪ The fibreboard boxes are easily damaged by
rough handling
▪ too much weight on top of the box can crush
the perishable produce inside.

▪ Ventilation holes are usually small, because
large holes would seriously influence the
strength of the box.
▪ The boxes are not re-usable.

Plastic crates
▪ In general, plastic crates are more expensive than
wooden crates or carton boxes,
– but as a result of their longer life span the running
costs are relatively low.
▪ The hard surfaces have no cushioning effect, but,
on the other hand, a hard, smooth surface is easy
to clean and gives good protection to the
produce.

Advantages of plastic crates:
▪ As a strong, rigid crate these plastic crates
can be used for many journeys, making the
cost per journey relatively low.
▪ Different sizes and shapes are available to
suit different customers needs.
▪ The containers are easy to clean and to
disinfect.

▪ Plastic crates are strong and weather
resistant
– because of their water resistance, the
containers can be used in humid areas and
during hydro-cooling.

Disadvantages of plastic crates:
▪ The hard surfaces can damage the produce

and it is advised to use liners.
▪ The high purchase cost combined with the
risk of pilferage could make this type of crate
a financial risk.
▪ These crates generally have to be imported.

Pallet boxes
▪ Where conditions like the size of the field,
the method of harvesting, the level of
processing and packaging and the
commodity allow better transport and
storage, a higher efficiency can be reached
by using pallet boxes.

Advantages of a pallet box system:
▪ Less manual handling and thus reduced
cost in loading, filling and unloading (e.g.
citrus harvest).
▪ More efficient use of available storage as
compared to smaller crates.
▪ Increased speed of mechanical harvest.

Disadvantages of a pallet box system:
▪ The return volume of most of the pallet
boxes is the same as the full load.
▪ The system requires higher investments in
fork-lift trucks, trailers and handling systems
to empty the pallet box.

▪ Because of the larger volumes, the produce
is more easily injured during filling and
unloading and the top layers will have made
more movements during transport than
when packed in smaller boxes.

Basic requirements for modern packages and
packaging for fresh produce
1. Have sufficient mechanical strenght to protect the content during
handling and transport and while stacked
2. Be largely unaffected, in terms of mechanical strenght, by mositure
content when wet or at high relative humidity
3. Stabilise and secure the product against movement within the
package during handling
4. Not contain chemicals that could become transfered to the
produce and taint it or be toxic to the produce or to humans
5. Meet handling and marketing requirements in terms of weight,
size and shape
6. Alow rapid cooling of content and/or offer a degree of insulation
from external heat or cool

7. Use gas barriers (e.g plastic films) with suffcient permeability to
respiratory gases in order to avoid and risk of anaerobiosis
8. Offer security for the contents and/or ease of opening and closing
in some marketing situations
9. Identify the contents, profer handling instructions and aid retail
presentation through comprehensive and accurate labelling
10. Either exclude light (e.g from potatoes) or be transparent
11. Facilate easy disposal, reuse or recycling
12. Be cost-effective in relation to the value and the required extent of
protection of the contents

Basic packaging materials

Basic packaging materials
▪ Both natural and synthetic materials are

used for the manufacture of packaging
materials for fresh produce and durable
crops.
▪ They are classified as;
1. Traditional packaging material
2. Modern packaging material

Types of packaging materials
(A) Traditional materials

▪ These materials have been used since the
earliest times for domestic storage of
agricultural produce.
▪ However, with the exception of glazed pottery,
– they have poor barrier properties and are only
used to contain foods and keep them clean.
– they are also unsuited to the needs of commercial
production processes and are considered by
many users to be less attractive than the newer
‘industrial’ materials

▪ The main types of traditional materials,
possible current uses and advantages and
disadvantages are as follows:
– Leaves – used as direct wrapping or by
weaving and forming them into container and
baskets.
– They provide good packaging for products
that are quickly consumed.
– Examples include; marantaceae, banana and
plantain, corn husk, palm leaves

▪ Advantages:
1. Cheap and locally available
2. Offer reasonable protection against dust and flies
3. Biodegradable
▪ Disadvantages:
1. Provide little protection against moisture,
odour, microorganisms and insects and are
therefore not suitable for prolonged storage
2. Not attractive to many consumers

▪ Plants stems, fronds and fibers –
Examples of plant materials are bamboo,
jute, rattan, oil palm and kenaf.
– These are made into bags and baskets.
– They are mostly used for grains, fruits and
vegetables packaging.

▪ Advantages:
1. Cheap and locally available
2. Light, flexible but with reasonable strength
3. Non-slip surface makes them better for
stacking than plastic sacks
▪ Disadvantages:
1. Rough internal surface of baskets can cause
bruising to produce
2. Containers from such plant materials provide
little protection against air, moisture,
temperature, bacteria and insect attack.
▪ Vegetable-based containers – Gourds and
calabashes for storing milk, shea-butter and
seeds.
▪ Animal-based packaging – Containers
from animal hides have been used for
storing water and wine.
– Can also be used for dry and powdered
agricultural produce.

▪ Earthenware – Used for storing liquid and
solid foods such as yoghurt, traditional
beers, dried fruits and vegetables, flour, oil
and honey.
▪ Pots can be covered or sealed with either
ceramic lids, corks, wooden plugs and
leaves
▪ For liquid use such as oils, wine and honey,
they need to be glazed on the inside.

▪ Wood – Used for construction of boxes
and crates for packaging fish, fresh fruits
and vegetables, and for packaging of trays
of eggs.
▪ Advantages:
1. Wooden containers offer good protection
against mechanical damage (breaking,
squashing and crushing)
2. Can be easily stacked
3. Can be re-used many times

▪ Disadvantage:
1. Protruding nails and splinter wood can
damage produce
2. Using resinous wood can taint the produce
with the smell

(B) Modern packaging material
1. Plastics
2. Paper and paper-based materials
3. Metals
4. Glass
5. Others packaging

1. Plastics
▪ Plastics are a special group of polymers that
can be formed into a wide variety of shapes
using
– controlled heat
– pressure at relatively low temperatures
▪ There are hundreds of identified “species” of

synthetic polymers but in practice, only a few
polymers are often used for food packaging.

▪ The use of plastics has increased more
rapidly than any other material for
packaging.
– Each plastic has its own unique properties,
based on its chemical composition.

▪ The performance and interaction with a
variety of agricultural products (raw or
processed food products) are different for
each material.
– Thus, the plastic material for the packaging of
a specific food product is selected to function
well within the parameters of the application.

Types of plastics and general properties
i. Polyethylene (PE)
ii. Polypropylene (PP)
iii. Polystyrene (PS)
iv. Polyamides (PA or nylon)
v. Polyester (PET)
vi. Polycarbonate (PC)
vii. Ionomers

Types of plastics and general
properties
i. Polyethylene (PE)
▪ Polyethylene, polymerized from ethylene, is

the plastic most commonly used for food
packaging.
▪ PE generally has
– flexibility,
– good moisture control,
– oil and chemical resistance,
– good impact strength.
▪ PE is also an inexpensive plastic,
− so for applications where its performance is
suitable, this plastic is usually the most
economical choice.
▪ The simplest form of PE is a completely
unbranched structure of –CH2– units.
– however, some side branches are always
formed during polymerization.
(the process of forming larger macromolecules from simpler
sub-units known as monomers)

▪ If the branches are relatively few and short
(2–4 carbon atoms),
– the structure can fold and pack tightly and
yields high-density polyethylene (HDPE).
▪ Conversely, if there are many long
branches,
– PE becomes low-density polyethylene
(LDPE).

▪ LDPE is
– softer and more flexible, and has lower tensile
strength than HDPE.
– has a low melting temperature, 105–115°C,
so it is a useful material for heat sealing.
– has good impact and tear strength.
▪ Common applications for LDPE include
stretch wraps, shrink wraps, and many types
of bags and pouches.

▪ LDPE is also used as an adhesive layer for
multilayer composite structures,
– as a coating on paper to provide water protection
(such as in milk cartons), and in a variety of other
applications.
▪ By far the majority of its use in packaging is
in some form of flexible structure, and
packaging is the largest market for LDPE.

▪ HDPE
– has good oil and grease resistance.
– It has better barrier properties than LDPE,
since
❖permeation occurs almost exclusively through
amorphous areas of a polymer
– HDPE has less amorphous area and higher
crystallinity than LDPE.
❖It is, therefore, a good water vapor barrier.

▪ The improved stiffness of HDPE makes it
more suitable than LDPE
– for rigid or semi-rigid packaging applications,
such as bottles, tubs, and trays.

ii. Polypropylene (PP)
▪ Polypropylene is polymerized from propylene gas,
which is a relatively low-cost feedstock like
ethylene.
▪ As with the PE family, PP has
– good chemical and grease resistance
– it is a good water vapor barrier but a poor gas barrier
– Barrier properties of PP are similar to those of HDPE
− a lower density
− higher glass transition temperature
i.e. the temperature above which a plastic becomes
soft and flexible
− higher melting temperature than PE.

▪ PP is suitable for use with products that
require moderately high temperatures such
as hot filling or reheating (but not cooking) in
a microwave oven.
▪ One of the main uses of PP in food
packaging is in closures (caps).
– Particularly for threaded caps,

▪ While HDPE is deformed too readily and
loses sealing force under stress, PP
maintains its original stiffness and performs
successfully.
▪ PP also has outstanding living hinge
properties, which is particularly useful for
caps where an integral hinge is part of the
design.

iii. Polystyrene (PS)
▪ It is a material that is brittle and clear

and has high surface gloss.
▪ The use of PS in food packaging is
aesthetically appreciated,
– but the material cannot generally be used
when extended shelf life is required
because of its poor water vapor and gas
barrier properties.

▪ The brittleness of PS limits its use where
good impact resistance is required.
▪ Typical applications include produce and
meat trays.
▪ Polystyrene foam incorporates small bubbles
within the plastic, which increase the
cushioning properties and insulating ability of
PS.
– PS foam is usually called expanded
polystyrene (EPS).
– Foamed PS is commonly used for meat and
produce trays, egg cartons, etc.
iv. Polyamides (PA or nylon)
▪ Nylons, or polyamides (PA), are a whole

family of synthetic polymers.
▪ Various chemical structures can be
produced but the amide (−CONH−)
functional group is always present in the
main structure
– is largely responsible for the mechanical
strength and barrier properties.

▪ Polyamides in general provide excellent
– optical clarity,
– oil and chemical resistance, and
– mechanical strength over a wide range of
temperatures.

▪ In packaging applications, the use of PA is
often found in
– the form of film for high temperature
sterilization
– hot-filling applications.
▪ PAs also act as flavor and gas barriers, but
have poor water vapor barrier properties.
– thus, for most applications PAs are combined
with other materials, such as LDPE, to add
water vapor barrier and heat sealability
properties.
▪ These types of materials are used in the
vacuum packaging of meats and cheeses.
v. Polyester (PET)
▪ Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is
commonly produced by the reaction of
ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid
– has been one of the fastest growing food
packaging plastics for the last several
years.

▪ The properties of PET are attractive as a food
packaging material;
– it has very high mechanical strength,
– good chemical resistance,
– light weight,
– excellent clarity, and
– reasonably high barrier properties.

▪ PET is also stable over a wide range of
temperatures (−60°C to 220°C).
– thus, under some circumstances PET can be
used for “boil-in-the-bag” products which are
stored frozen before reheating or
– in dual-ovenable containers, since it has
resistance to higher temperatures than many
other plastics.

vi. Polycarbonate (PC)
▪ The material is a very tough and rigid
plastic with excellent clarity.
– however, it has a relatively high
permeability to both water vapor and
gases.
❖thus, it must be coated if good barrier
properties are required.
▪ Its main packaging uses are large
refillable milk jugs.

▪ PC is also used to a very limited extent in
food packaging as a component of
multilayer structures to
– provide transparency and
– in high strength containers (with high barrier
materials).

vii. Ionomers
▪ Ionomers also have excellent adhesion
properties
– so they are commonly used in composite
structures with film, paper, or aluminum foil to
provide an inner layer with excellent heat
sealability.
▪ They are especially useful in applications
where the sealing layer may become
contaminated, making it difficult to provide
strong heat seals,
– E.g. such as in packaging of processed meats.
▪ The excellent impact and puncture resistance
of ionomers, even at low temperatures,
– is also useful for skin packaging of sharp items
such as meat cuts containing bone
▪ Another advantage is ionomers’ high infrared
absorption, which allows faster heat shrink
packaging processes.
▪ On the other hand,
– ionomers are relatively high-cost materials
– have relatively poor gas barrier properties.
Plastic permeability

▪ Permeability, as reported in the literature, is
defined as the quantification of permeate
transmission, gas or vapour, through a
resisting material.
▪ So, the concept of permeability is normally
associated with the quantitative evaluation
of the barrier properties of a plastic material.

▪ Several factors can influence the barrier
properties of a packaging material,
▪ like
– food contact and
– environmental conditions such as temperature
and relative humidity.

▪ Permeates diffusion across a film is
influenced by the
– film structure,
– film permeability to specific gases or vapour,
– thickness,
– area,
– temperature,
– difference in pressure, or
– concentration gradient across the film.
▪ While glass and metal have almost perfect barrier
properties, plastics are permeable in various
degrees to
– gases,
– water vapor,
– organic vapors, or
– other low molecular weight compounds.

▪ When the gas or vapor compounds pass
through the plastic,
– they must solubilize at first,
– diffuse through the material, and
– finally desorb on the other side.

▪ Such vapor or gas mass transfer (or
permeability) has a significant impact on the
– shelf life
– quality
– safety of foods.
❖For example, the expected loss of moisture from

fresh agricultural products, depending on storage
conditions, can be estimated through quantitative
evaluation of the package permeability.

❖ Similarly, the time required to reach certain
atmospheric conditions in the package that
favor the growth of aerobic or anaerobic
pathogens can also be estimated through
calculation of the permeability.

▪ These are just two of many examples that
could be cited.
▪ This section only provides a

– general theoretical background for permeability
– discussion of factors affecting the permeability
of gases/vapors through materials.

Basic theory of permeability
▪ Under steady-state conditions,
– the permeability coefficient (P) of a non-
porous plastic is described by the
following equation:
𝐏=𝐃×𝐒
▪ where
– D is the diffusion coefficient, which is a
measure of how fast the permeant
compounds are moving through the plastic
polymer,
– S is the solubility coefficient that shows how
much permeant is contained within the plastic.
▪ Calculation of permeability of plastics is based
on Fick’s first law of diffusion.
– A gas or vapor will diffuse through a plastic film at
a constant rate if a constant pressure difference
is maintained across the plastic:
𝜕c
F= −D
𝜕x
where
– F is the flux (vapor mass transfer),
– D is the diffusion coefficient,
– c is concentration of permeant in
the plastic and
– x is the distance across the plastic
(or thickness).
▪ The flux (F) is deriven by the negative gradient
in the direction of increasing x
𝜕c
F= −D
𝜕x

▪ If the flow and diffusion rate are constant, the
above equation gives the following equation:
c2 −c1
F= −D
L
▪ where
– c1 and c2 are the
concentrations of the
diffusing compound on the
two sides of the plastic film.
– L refers to the thickness of
the film.
▪ The negative sign indicates that F is positive
when movement is down the gradient, i.e., the
negative sign cancels the negative gradient
along the direction of positive flux.
c2 −c1
F= −D
L

▪ The flux or vapor mass transfer (F) can be
defined as the amount of permeant (Q)
passing through a surface of unit area (A) in
time (t).
Q
F=
At

▪ Thus, the above equation can be rewritten
as follows:
(c1 −c2 )At

Q= D
L
➢the negative sign cancels the

negative gradient along the direction
of positive flux.

▪ In the case of gas permeation, it is easier to
measure
– the equilibrium vapor pressure (p) rather than
the actual concentrations of the permeant in
the film.

▪ Using Henry's law, the concentrations of the
permeants (c) can be expressed as:
c = Sp
where
p is the partial pressure
and
S is the solubility
coefficient.
ABSORPTION involves atoms or molecules crossing
the surface and entering the material
DESORPTION is the release of one substance from

another, either from the surface or through the
surface
▪ combine
(c1 −c2 )At
Q= D and c = Sp
L
(p1 −p2 )At

Q= DS
L

▪ The DS can be replaced with P, the
permeability coefficient, based on
P=DS
▪ Finally, the permeability coefficient (P) can

be rewritten as:
QL
P=
At(p1 −p2 )

▪ The permeation of compounds through a
plastic is described by a diffusing model, using
Henry's and Fick's laws

▪ The permeability coefficient (P) can be used
to estimate
– the shelf life of a product or
– to determine an appropriate package to
provide the desired shelf life.
▪ There are various units available to express
P.
▪ In the SI system, common units for P are:
Quantity of permeant Q × thickness(L)

P=
area A × time t × partial vapor pressure(∆p)
cm3 × cm
=
cm2 × s × Pa

▪ Instead of the permeability coefficient, the
quantity of permeant flowing per unit area
per unit time, such as the
– Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR) or
– Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR),
❖is frequently used to express the barrier
characteristics of plastic materials.
▪ For example, OTR is related to P as follows:
QL L
P= = OTR
At∆p ∆p

▪ Pumpkin seed oil, stored in a polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) jar with a wall thickness of 1
mm and a surface area of 425 m2 becomes rancid if
it absorbs 30000 mm3 of oxygen. The oxygen
permeability coefficient of PET is 1.43 × 10−15 cm3
cm cm− 2 s−1 pa−1. The oxygen vapor pressure
outside the jar was 21590 Pa and inside the jar was
0 Pa. What is the shelf life of this product?

QL
P=
At(p1 − p2 )

▪ The oxygen transmission rate of PET film with
0.1 cm thickness is 0.41 cm3 cm−2 s−1. The partial
pressure difference (Δp) through the film is
21278 Pa. What is the oxygen permeability
coefficient of the film?

Paper and paper-based packaging
materials

Paper and paper-based materials
▪ Paper and paperboard are the most commonly

used packaging materials in the world.
▪ Paper is produced from plant fibers.
– More than 95% of paper is made from wood,
and the remaining sources are mainly
agricultural by-products,
❖E.g. straw (of wheat, rye, barley, and rice),
sugar cane bagasse, cotton, flax, bamboo, corn
husks, and so on.

▪ Making pulp is the initial stage in making paper
or paperboard
– the quality of the paper is closely related to the
quality of the pulp.
▪ Pulping aims to remove as much lignin as

possible without compromising fibre strength
▪ It, therefore, frees the fibres and removes
impurities that cause discoloration and
possible future disintegration of the paper
▪ Pulping can be done using

– mechanical
– chemical,
– a combination process.
▪ The fibre from nearly any plant or tree can
be used for paper.
▪ However, the strength and quality of fibre,
and other factors that can complicate the
pulping process, vary among tree species.
▪ In general, the softwoods (e.g., pines, firs,

and spruces) yield long and strong fibres
that impart strength to paper and are used
for boxes and packaging.

▪ Hardwoods, on the other hand, generally
have shorter fibres and therefore produce a
weaker paper, but one that is smoother,
more opaque, and better suited for printing.
▪ Both softwoods and hardwoods are used for

papermaking and are sometimes mixed to
provide both strength and printability to the
finished product.

▪ Mechanical pulping: a process used for
separating fibres without the addition of any
chemicals.
▪ Mechanical pulping produces papers that
are characterized by relatively
– high paper yield (92-96%)
– high bulk
– high stiffness
– high opacity
– low strength
– relatively low cost.

▪ The use of mechanically produced pulp in
packaging is very limited
– mainly used to produce newsprint, printing
papers, towelling, tissue and coated specialty
papers that do not require high-strength
– Secondary uses include wallpaper and
paperboard.

▪ Chemical pulping: Involves treating wood
chips with chemicals to remove the lignin
and hemicellulose, thus separating and
cleaning the fibres.
▪ Delignification gives the fibres greater

flexibility, resulting in a substantially stronger
paper (because of greater contact between
the fibres in the finished sheet) than can be
manufactured from high-lignin fibres
produced by mechanical pulping.
▪ Paper strength and durability is gained at
the expense of fibre yield.
▪ Chemical processes may yield only half the
fibre that can be obtained by the use of
mechanical pulping techniques
▪ Chemical pulping thus produces

– stronger and
– higher quality paper
– also more expensive.
▪ The pulp produced may be unbleached or
bleached to various degrees, and various
sizing agents and other additives are used
to control functions and appearance.

Types of paper and their applications
▪ Different varieties of papers are used in
packaging applications.
▪ This section will give a brief overview of the
major type of papers used for agricultural
produce packaging.

1. Kraft paper
▪ Kraft paper is the most used packaging paper

and has excellent strength.
▪ It is made using the sulfate (kraft) chemical
pulping process or a sodium sulfide and
sodium hydroxide solution, and is usually
produced from softwood.
▪ Unbleached kraft is
– the strongest and
– most economical type of paper.

▪ It is used in uncoated form in the production
of
– corrugated board for boxes, as well as for
– drums
– cans
– other applications.
▪ It can be coated or laminated for improved
barrier properties and additional strength, or
creped for cushioning.
2. Bleached paper
▪ Bleached paper is produced using bleached pulps that are
relatively white, bright, and soft.
▪ Pulp bleaching agents include chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide,
oxygen, sodium/hydrogen peroxide, sodium or calcium
hypochlorite, sodium bisulfite, sodium or zinc hydrosulfite.
▪ These chemicals are added to further remove remnant lignin and

other discolorations to produce light-colored or white papers
preferred for many products.
▪ Its whiteness enhances print quality and aesthetic appeal.

▪ It is generally more
– expensive and
– weaker than unbleached paper.

▪ This type of paper is used uncoated for
fancy bags, labels.
– however, it is often clay coated for
overwraps and labels.

3. Greaseproof and glassine
▪ Greaseproof is a dense, opaque, non-porous

paper made from highly refined bleached kraft
pulp.
▪ The prolonged beating during processing
results in short fibers.
▪ Glassine derives its name from its glassy
smooth surface.
▪ These papers are often used for packaging
butter and other fatty food products.
4. Waxed paper
▪ Waxed paper is produced by adding paraffin
wax to one or both sides of the paper during
drying.
▪ Many base papers are suitable for waxing,
including greaseproof and glassine.
▪ The major types are
– dry waxed,
– wet waxed, and
– wax laminated.

▪ Dry-waxed paper is produced using a heated
roller to allow the wax to soak into the paper.
▪ Wet-waxed paper is produced when the wax is
cooled quickly after it is applied, so that the wax
remains on the surface of the paper.
▪ Wax-laminated paper is bonded with a
continuous film of wax which acts as an
adhesive, so that it can provide both moisture
barrier and a heat-sealable layer.

5. Vegetable parchment
▪ Vegetable parchment is produced by adding
concentrated sulfuric acid to the surface of the
paper to
– swell and
– partially dissolve the cellulose fibers.
▪ It produces a grease resistant paper with good

wet strength
– meaning that it maintains its strength well when
it is wet.

▪ Vegetable parchment is
– odorless,
– tasteless,
– boilable, and
– has a fiber-free surface.
▪ Labels and inserts on products with high oil
or grease content are frequently made from
parchment.

Paperboards and their applications
▪ Paper and paperboard can be distinguished
by
– thickness (caliper) and
– weight of the material
▪ Material is generally termed “paperboard”

when its
– thickness is more than 300 μm
– its weight exceeds 250 gm−2.

▪ Various types of paperboard are manufactured
but paperboard for food packaging generally
includes:
– Whiteboard
– Linerboard
– Foodboard
– Cartonboard
– Chipboard
– Corrugated board.

a. Whiteboard
▪ Whiteboard is made with a bleached pulp liner
on one or both sides to
– improve appearance and printability, and
– the remaining part is filled with low-grade
mechanical pulp.
▪ Whiteboard is suitable for contact with food
and is often coated with polyethylene or wax
for heat sealability.
▪ It is used for e.g. frozen food cartons.

b. Linerboard
▪ Linerboard is usually made from softwood
kraft paper and is used for the solid faces of
corrugated board.
▪ Increasingly, linerboards containing recycled
fiber are being used in packaging.

c. Foodboard
▪ Foodboard is used to produce cartons that
are suitable for direct food contact.
▪ Foodboard is a
– sanitary,
– coated,
– water-resistant paperboard.

▪ It should be designed to protect against
migration of outside contaminants into
packaged food.
▪ Foodboard can be used for all types of
foods, particularly frozen and baked foods.

d. Cartonboard (boxboard)
▪ Cartonboard is used to make folding cartons

and other types of boxes.
▪ Most often, this is a multilayer material made of
more than one type of pulp, and often
incorporating recycled fibers.
▪ To improve its appearance, it may be clay
coated or may have a ply of virgin fibers on
one or both surfaces.

e. Chipboard
▪ Chipboard is the lowest quality and lowest

cost paperboard, made from 100% recycled
fiber
– not used in direct contact with foods.
▪ Outer cartons for breakfast cereals are
some examples.
▪ It is also commonly lined with whiteboard to
produce a multi-ply board such as
cartonboard.

f. Corrugated board
▪ Corrugated board has an outer and inner

lining of kraft paper with a central
corrugating (fluted) material.
▪ Corrugated boards resist impact, abrasion,
and compression forces
▪ They are commonly used in shipping
containers.

Metals
▪ Metal is used in packaging in a variety of
applications, from rack systems to tin cans
for meat, fruit juice, etc.
▪ For food packaging, four types of metal are
commonly used:
– steel
– aluminum
– tin
– chromium.
▪ Steel and aluminum are commonly used in
production of food cans, and are the primary
materials for metal packaging.
▪ Food cans are most often made of steel.
▪ Steel tends to oxidize when it is exposed to
moisture and oxygen, producing rust.
▪ Therefore, tin and chromium are used as
protective layers for steel.

▪ Advantages:
1. Provide total protection of the contents.
2. Tamperproof.
3. Convenient for presentation.
▪ Disadvantages:
1. Heavier than other packaging materials
except glass.
2. Heat treatment associated with the use of
metal cans is not suitable for small-scale
production.
3. Metal containers are relatively expensive.

Glass
▪ Glass is defined as “an amorphous inorganic

product of fusion that has been cooled to a
rigid condition without crystallizing”.
▪ For food packaging, bottles or jars are the
types of glass packaging most often used,
bottles being the primary use.
▪ It is available in a large range of shapes,
sizes and colours.

▪ Advantages:
1. Glass can withstand heat treatments, therefore
suitable for heat processing of juices, jams and
pickles.
2. Can withstand internal pressure as used for beer
and soft drinks.
3. Does not react with food.
4. Rigid and protects food from crushing and
bruising.
▪

5. Impervious to moisture, gases, odours and
micro-organisms.
6. Re-usable, re-sealable and recyclable.
7. Transparent, allowing products to be
displayed.
− Coloured glass is used either to protect the
food from light or to attract customers.

▪ Disadvantages:
1. Glass is heavier than other packaging
materials and this may lead to higher
transport costs.
2. Easy to fracture and break if heated or
cooled too quickly, or when not carefully
handled.
3. Potentially serious hazards may arise from
glass splinters or fragments in the food.
Other packaging types

1. Modified Atmosphere Packaging
(MAP)

▪ Modified Atmosphere Packaging
(MAP) is based on modifying or
altering the atmosphere inside the
package to prolong shelf life and
maintain quality of fresh or minimally
processed foods products.

▪ Modification of the atmosphere may be
achieved either actively or passively.
▪ Active modification involves displacing
the air with a controlled, desired
mixture of gases,
– a procedure generally referred to as
gas flushing.

▪ The passive type of MAP modifies the
optimum gaseous environment in a
package by
– a combination of the food’s respiration and
– the metabolism of microorganisms
associated with the food and the
permeability of the packaging.

▪ With the optimized gaseous atmosphere,
degradation reactions in foods such as
– enzyme activity
– oxidation
– moisture loss
– postharvest metabolic activities
– growth of microorganisms
….are delayed.
▪ In this way, the initial fresh state of the
product may be prolonged.
▪ MAP is used with various types of products,
where the mixture of gases in the package
depends on the
– type of product,
– packaging materials and
– storage temperature.
▪ But fruits and vegetables are respiring
products where the interaction of the
packaging material with the product is
important.

▪ If the permeability (for O2 and CO2) of
the packaging film is adapted to the
product respiration,
– an equilibrium modified atmosphere will
establish in the package and the shelf-
life of the product will increase.

▪ There are many factors which affect MAP of
fresh produce.
▪ Movement of O2, CO2, and ethylene (C2H4) in
produce tissues is carried out by the diffusion of
the gas molecules under a concentration gradient.
▪ Different commodities have different amounts
of internal air space (potatoes 1–2%, tomatoes
15–20%, apples 25–30%).
– A limited amount of air space leads to increase
in resistance to gas diffusion.

▪ Ethylene is a natural plant hormone and
plays a central role in the
– initiation of ripening,
– physiologically active in trace amounts
(0.1 ppm).

▪ Also metabolic processes such as
respiration and ripening rates are sensitive
to temperature.
– biological reactions generally increase two
to three-fold for every 10° C rise in
temperature.
▪ Therefore temperature control is vitally
important in order for a MAP system to
work effectively.

▪ Film permeability also increases as
temperature increases, with CO2
permeability responding more than O2
permeability.
▪ Low relative humidity can increase
transpiration damage and
– lead to desiccation,
– increased respiration, and
– ultimately an unmarketable product.

▪ One serious problem associated with high
in-package humidity is condensation on the
film that is driven by temperature
fluctuations.
▪ For most commodities light is not an
important influence in their post-harvest
handling.
– However green vegetables, in the presence of
sufficient light, could consume substantial
amounts of CO2 and produce O2 through
photosynthesis.

▪ Shock and vibration leads to damage to
produce cells which causes
– an increase in respiration
– may lead to enzymes being released that
will cause browning reactions to begin.

Gases used in MAP
▪ The three main gases used in modified

atmosphere packaging are CO2, O2 and N2.
▪ The choice of gas is very dependent upon
the food product being packed.
▪ Used singly or in combination, these gases
are commonly used to balance safe shelf-life
extension with optimal organoleptic
properties of the food.

▪ Noble or ‘inert’ gases such as argon are in
commercial use for products such as coffee
and snack products;
– however, the literature on their application and
benefits is limited.

Carbon dioxide:
▪ Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas with a
slight pungent odour at very high
concentrations.
▪ It is slightly corrosive in the presence of
moisture.
▪ CO2 dissolves readily in water to produce
carbonic acid that increases the acidity of
the solution and reduces the pH.

▪ This has significant implications for MAP of
foods.
▪ The high solubility of CO2 can result in pack
collapse due to the reduction of headspace
volume.
▪ In some MAP applications, pack collapse is
favoured, for example in flow wrapped
cheese for retail sale.

Oxygen:
▪ Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas that is
highly reactive and supports combustion.
▪ It has a low solubility in water.
▪ Oxygen promotes several types of
deteriorative reactions in foods including
– lipid oxidation,
– browning reactions and
– pigment oxidation.

▪ Most of the common spoilage bacteria and fungi
require oxygen for growth.
▪ Therefore, to increase the shelf life of foods the pack
atmosphere should contain a low concentration of
residual oxygen.
▪ However, with some products the presence of oxygen
can be beneficial.
– With red meat, oxygen helps develop/maintain the red colour
and is used in high concentrations of 70-80% within the pack.
– In the presence of high levels of oxygen, purple myoglobin (in
the meat) may be oxygenated to the red pigment
oxymyoglobin or in low levels oxidised to metmyoglobin, giving
the undesirable brown colour.
• While the above oxygen concentration gives brightly coloured red
meat which is attractive to consumers, it may lead to lipid and
protein oxidation which negatively affects meat quality.

Nitrogen:
▪ Nitrogen is a relatively un-reactive gas

with no odour, taste, or color.
▪ It has
– a lower density than air,
– non-flammable and
– has a low solubility in water and other food
constituents.

▪ Nitrogen does not support the growth of
aerobic microbes
– therefore inhibits the growth aerobic
spoilage but does not prevent the growth
of anaerobic bacteria.

▪ The low solubility of nitrogen in foods can be
used to prevent pack collapse by including
sufficient N2 in the gas mix to balance the
volume decrease due to CO2 going into
solution.

Noble gases:
▪ The noble gases are a family of elements
characterized by their lack of reactivity and
include
– helium (He),
– argon (Ar),
– xenon (Xe) and
– neon (Ne).

▪ These gases are being used in a number of food
applications now
– e.g. potato-based snack products.
▪ While from a scientific perspective, it is difficult to

see how the use of noble gases would offer any
preservation advantages compared with N2 they
are being used.
– nonetheless, since inert gases are colourless,
odourless, tasteless and non-reactive, they help to
maintain the natural colour, aroma, taste and
freshness of the product for a reasonably long time.

▪ Recommended gas mixtures for extending
the shelf life of a variety of products.

2. Aseptic packaging
▪ Aseptic packaging can be defined as the

filling of a commercially sterile food product
into a sterile container under aseptic
conditions and hermetically sealing the
containers so that reinfection is prevented.
– This results in a product, which is shelf-stable
at ambient conditions.

Illustration of the various aspects of
aseptic packaging in diagrammatic form.

▪ The term aseptic implies the absence or
exclusion of any unwanted organisms
from the
– product,
– package or
– other specific areas

▪ The term hermetic (strictly air tight) is
used to indicate suitable mechanical
properties to exclude the entrance of
– micro-organisms into a package and
– gas or water vapor into (or from) the
package.

Principles of sterilization:
▪ The sterilization processes used in

aseptic processing are variously
described as
– high-temperature short time (HTST) (72℃
for 15 seconds, pasteurizing milk) and
– ultra-heat treated or ultra-high temperature
(UHT) (135-154℃ for 1-8 seconds, for milk).

▪ The sterile product is usually cooled to
an appropriate temperature, typically
– 20°C for low viscous food products like
milk and fruit juices, and
– 40°C for products of higher viscosity such
as puddings and desserts.

▪ Aseptic filling system must meet a series of
requirements,
▪ These are:
1. The container and method of closure must
be suitable for aseptic filling, and must not
allow the passage of micro–organisms into
the sealed container during storage and
distribution.

2. The container (or that part of it which
comes into contact with the product)
must be sterilized after it is formed and
before being filled.
3. The container must be filled without
contamination by micro–organisms
either from the equipment surface or
from the atmosphere surrounding the
filler.

4. If any closure is needed, it must be
sterilized immediately before it is
applied.
5. The closure must be applied and sealed
in place while the container is still within
a sterile zone to prevent the passage of
contaminating micro-organisms.

▪ The sterilization methods for aseptic
packaging materials include
1. irradiation (such as ultraviolet rays, infrared
rays, and ionizing radiation),
2. heat (such as saturated steam, superheated
steam, hot air, hot air and steam)
3. chemical treatment (such as hydrogen
peroxide, ethylene oxide, peracetic acid).
▪ These processes can be used either
individually or in combination.

▪ The type of aseptic packaging material
used is influenced by
– the nature of the product,
– the cost of both product and packaging,
– the preference of consumers.
▪ The most widely used aseptic package is
the paperboard laminated carton.

▪ The typical structure of this material
consists of
– unbleached or bleached paperboard,
– polyethylene
– aluminum foil.
▪ The laminated structure is impermeable
to
– liquid
– gas
– light.
▪ Detailed structure of a typical paperboard
carton (which is produced by Tetra Pak)

▪ Aseptic packages can also be in the form of
– cans,
– bottles
– pouches
– cups.
▪ Can type aseptic packages are the same
basic types of metal cans as in the regular
canning process: tinplate, aluminum etc.

▪ Bottle type aseptic packages are
produced from plastics as an economical
alternative to glass for non-returnable
containers.
– HDPE,
– Polypropylene (PP), and
– Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are the
most commonly used materials for this
type of package.

▪ Cup type aseptic packages are produced
from
– High-impact Polystyrene (PS),
– Polypropylene (PP), or
– multilayer film.
▪ Multilayer films are the choice when high
barrier properties are required.

▪ Maintaining the package integrity during
distribution and handling is one of the most
important issues in aseptic food packaging.
– thus, various integrity tests are used
commercially.
▪ Typically,
– electrolytic testing,
– dye penetration or
– vacuum leak tests are used for quality control
during manufacturing.

▪ However, these traditional methods are
destructive and therefore it is impossible to
test and reject all faulty packages in the
processing line.
▪ Thus, non-destructive test methods,
– such as gas leak detectors and
– ultrasound techniques, are gaining more
attention from industry.

▪ Generally there are two specific fields of
application of aseptic packaging technology:
1. Packaging of pre-sterilised and sterile
products.
▪ Examples are;
− milk and dairy products,
− puddings,
− fruit and vegetable juices,
− soups,
− sauces, and
− products with particulates.

2. Packaging of non-sterile product to
avoid infection by micro-organisms.
▪ Examples of this application include;
− fermented dairy products like yoghurt.

Reasons for the use of aseptic packaging:
▪ The three major reasons for the use of aseptic
packaging are:
1. To take advantage of high temperature-short time
(HTST) sterilization processes, which are thermally
efficient and generally give rise to products of a
superior quality compared to those processed at
lower temperatures for longer times
2. To enable containers to be used that are unsuitable
for in-package sterilization
3. To extend the shelf life of products at normal
temperatures by packaging them aseptically.

Vacuum packaging
▪ Vacuum packaging at its simplest is defined
as the evacuation of air from a package
which then is sealed to maintain an
anaerobic environment.
▪ Under such circumstances, the essential
conditions for bacteria life are changing
dramatically, due to a different composition
of the residual air.

▪ In otherwise, vacuum packaging may be
regarded as a special type of MAP, since
part of the normal headspace is removed,
leaving an altered initial atmosphere that is
not controlled after packaging.

▪ In vacuum packaging, the initial gas
composition is that of normal air,
– but because of the reduced partial gas
pressure, the amount of O2 available at the
start of storage is about one-third of the
normal amount.

▪ For foods that are susceptible to
deterioration due to air, vacuum packing can
extend their shelf life.
▪ The tight fitting package around the food is
also more attractive to consumers.
▪ Strong films from propylene are used to
avoid puncturing and to retain the vacuum in
the pack.


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AMI 415:

Agricultural Produce Packaging

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

1. Walter Soroka, CPP. (2009). FUNDAMENTALS OF PACKAGING

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▪ There are two broad types of damage that

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

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▪ This function of packaging is sometimes

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▪ A primary package is the one which is in

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▪ Fibreboard boxes are frequently used

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▪ The hard surfaces can damage the produce

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese

Dr. Joseph Kudadam Korese