PE 252: Heat Transport

Processes
S. Adjei, Ph.D.
 Course Objectives
The objectives of this course include the following:
• To develop the fundamental principles and laws of heat transfer.
• To explore the implications of these principles on systems behavior.
• To formulate the models necessary to study, analyze and design heat transfer
systems real world applications.

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 Course Content
• Fundamentals of Heat Transfer; heat energy vs heat, temperature vs heat, heat
capacity, measurement of amount of heat transfer.
• Modes of heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation.
• Steady and unsteady state heat conduction.
• Steady state: Fourier law, derivation of 1D diffusion equation, the concept of
thermal resistance, the concept of contact resistance, critical radius of
insulation, heat transfer from extended surfaces/fins.
• Design of heat exchange equipment: double-pipe, shell-and-tube heat
exchangers. condensers, reboiler.

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 Reference Materials
• Bergman, T. L., Lavine, A., Incropera, F. P., & Dewitt, D. P. (2017). Fundamentals
of heat and mass transfer (pp. 533-534). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
• Delgado, J. M. P. Q., Lima, A. G. B., & Silva, M. V. (Eds.). (2012). Numerical
analysis of heat and mass transfer in porous media. Berlin: Springer.
• Kothandaraman, C. P. (2006) . Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. New
Age International
• Yunus, A. C. (2019). Heat and mass transfer ; fundamentals and applications

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(Fundamentals of Heat Transfer)
 Objectives of Lecture
• Discuss the significance of the kinetic theory of matter
• Define thermal energy and factors influencing it
• Define heat
• Discuss some applications of heat
• Differentiate between heat and temperature
• Define heat and specific heat capacities
• Discuss the forms of heat transfer
• Discuss measurement of heat energy of a material using calorimetry

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Thermal Energy

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 Kinetic Theory of Matter
• All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions.
• According to the kinetic theory of matter (particle theory) these tiny particles
are constantly in motion.
• The theory explains the behavior of matter based on the movement and
interactions of these particles.

• Particles in solids vibrate constantly at a spot.

• Particles in liquids and gases are constantly moving in constant, random.
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• Thermal energy is the energy associated with the motion of particles within a
substance.
• It is a form of kinetic energy that arises due to the random movement of atoms,
molecules, or ions.
• The thermal energy is directly related to the speed of particles and temperature.
• As the temperature of a substance increases, the average kinetic energy of its
particles also increases, resulting in higher thermal energy.

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• Particles, even at the coldest of temperatures, are always vibrating.
• Particles in gas have more energy than in liquids and solids.
• Thermal energy plays a crucial role in various phenomena, such as heat
transfer, phase changes, and the behavior of gases.
• It is responsible for the conduction, convection, and radiation of heat, and it
determines how substances respond to changes in temperature.

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Heat

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• Heat is the transfer of thermal energy (thermal energy in transit due
to temperature difference).
• Heat flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
• Unlike thermal energy, heat is not a property of the substance.

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 Ways of Adding Heat – (Transferring Thermal Energy to
A Substance)
1.Using a Heat Source: By exposing the substance to a heat source, thermal energy
is transferred to the substance, increasing its temperature and overall thermal
energy.
2.Mixing or Combining: If two substances at different temperatures come into
contact or are mixed together, thermal energy will transfer from the hotter
substance to the cooler one until they reach thermal equilibrium.
3.Absorption of Radiation: Some substances can absorb thermal radiation directly
from a heat source. For example, dark-colored surfaces absorb more thermal
radiation than lighter surfaces, increasing the thermal energy of the substance.
4.Mechanical Work: For instance, compressing a gas rapidly can increase its
temperature due to the compression work done on the gas molecules, which
leads to an increase in their kinetic energy and thermal energy.
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Daily Applications Of Heat

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15
Chilling Soda with Ice

Heat flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.

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 why do we feel cold in cold weather?
• Note that heat flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
• During cold weather, our body
temperature is higher than the
surrounding temperature.
• Heat flows from the body to the
surrounding resulting in lowering the
body temperature.
• Thus we feel cold during winter.

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 Pouring milk into a Hot Beverage
• The hot beverage has a higher thermal
energy.
• Due to temperature difference, some of
the energy is transferred from the hot
beverage into the particles of the cold
water.
• The hot beverage cools down because it
lost some of its thermal energy to the
milk.
• The transfer of energy is complete when
the two substances reach a thermal
equilibrium.
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 Heat vs Temperature

• Temperature is a measure of the average amount of kinetic energy possessed by

the particles in a sample of matter.
• The more the particles vibrate, translate and rotate, the greater the
temperature of the object.
• It is measured in Kelvin (K), Celsius (C) or Fahrenheit (F).
• The transfer of thermal energy is called heat.

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 Heat Capacity
• Different substances respond to heat in different ways.
• Heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1 °C.
𝑸
C=
∆𝑻
• The SI unit of heat capacity is Joule per Kelvin or per degree Celsius (J/K or J/oC).
• A metal chair placed in the bright sun on a hot day, may become quite hot to the
touch.
• An equal mass of water under the same sun exposure will not become nearly as hot.
• This means that water has a high heat capacity.
• The heat capacity is an extensive property- dependent on the the mass/size of the
object- extensive properties change when the size or quantity of the substance
changes.
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• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1 oC –(that is, heat
capacity per unit mass).

𝑸
Cp =
𝒎∆𝑻

• Its units are J/(g K) or J/(g °C).

• The specific heat capacity is an intensive property- does not depend on the
amount/size of substance.

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 Example
• A 59.7 g piece of metal that had been submerged in boiling water (100 °C) was
quickly transferred into 60.0 mL of water initially at 22.0 °C. The final
temperature is 28.5 °C. Use these data to determine the specific heat J/(g °C) of
the metal. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.184 J/(g °C).

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• Assuming perfect heat transfer;
heat given off by metal = -heat absorbed by water
(Q= mC∆𝑇)metal = -(Q= mC∆𝑇)water

59.7 x C x (28.5-100)=-(60 x 4.184 x (28.5-22))

C metal = 0.38 J/(g °C)

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 Example
• A metal weighing 4.82 g was heated to 115.0 °C and put into 35 ml of water of
temperature 28.7 °C. The metal and water were allowed to come to an
equilibrium temperature, determined to be 34.5 °C. Assuming no heat was lost
to the environment, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. Consider
the specific heat capacity of water as 4.186 joule/gram °C.

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• Q released by metal = -Q absorbed by water (negative sign to indicate heat transfer from metal to water)

• Q absorbed by water = -(mwCw ΔT)

= -(35 x 4.186 x (34.5 – 28.7))
= -850 J
Note; 1 ml of water = 1 g of water
• 4.82 x Cm x (34.5 - 115) = -850

Cm = 2.19 J/g. °C

The negative sign indicates heat transfer from the metal to the water, and the specific heat
capacity of the metal is approximately
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 Forms of Heat Energy
• Thermal energy can be transferred through various mechanisms such as
conduction, convection, and radiation.
• During this energy transfer, the thermal energy can manifest as either
ü sensible heat
ülatent heat
…….depending on the nature of the process.

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Sensible Heat:
• Sensible heat transfer refers to the transfer of thermal energy that results in a
change in temperature without a change in phase (e.g., air condition).
• Sensible heat is literally the heat that can be felt.
• The heat energy that can be measured by temperature and can be sensed by
thermometer is called sensible heat.

Latent Heat
• Latent heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy that leads to a phase
change without a change in temperature (e.g., water to vapor).
• The heat energy cannot be measured by temperature likewise cannot be sensed
by thermometer is called latent heat.

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ü Latent heat of fusion
ü Latent heat of sublimation
ü Latent heat of sublimation: The energy required to change a substance directly from a solid to
a gas state or vice versa, bypassing the liquid state. 29
 Calorimetry---how much heat is transferred?
• A calorimeter is a device specifically
designed to measure the heat exchange
between a system and its surroundings.

Bomb Calorimetry- constant volume calorimetry

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Q given off = - Q absorbed (Calorimeter + water)
Q given off + Q absorbed = 0
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 Underlying Theorem of Calorimetry
• The purpose of a calorimeter is to capture the heat released in some process,
such as an exothermic chemical reaction, that would otherwise be lost to the
environment.
• Calorimeters are well insulated.
• Calorimeters operate at a constant atmospheric pressure or constant volume
calorimeters.
• The temperature of a body or an object determines the amount of thermal
energy present in that body.
• Temperature and heat energy are directly proportional to each other.
• Hence, the more the amount of heat energy the more is the temperature of a
body.

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• In a calorimetric determination, either an exothermic process occurs and heat
energy, Q, is negative, indicating that thermal energy is transferred from the
system to its surroundings.
• Or an endothermic process occurs and heat energy, Q, is positive, indicating
that thermal energy is transferred from the surroundings to the system.
• The temperature change, along with the specific heat and mass of the
solution, can then be used to calculate the amount of heat involved in either
case.

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 Procedure for Bomb Calorimetry
• The sample is placed in the bomb, which is then filled with oxygen at high
pressure.
• A small electrical spark is used to ignite the sample.
• The energy produced by the reaction is trapped in the steel bomb and the
surrounding water.
• The temperature increase is measured and, along with the known heat capacity
of the calorimeter, is used to calculate the energy produced by the reaction.

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 Q = mCpΔT
Q = Total heat energy (J)
m = mass of an object or body (g)
C = specific heat capacity (J/gK)
ΔT = change in temperature (°C)

Q: What is the amount of heat energy needed to change 1 g of water by 40 °C. Provided that
the specific gravity of water is 4.2 J/g K.

Q= 1 x 4.2 x 40= 168 Joules

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 Heat energy released = -heat absorbed (Q water + Q calorimeter)

ü The answer should be indicated negative because the

heat is being released from the combustion,
indicating an exothermic reaction.

• Note:
• Specific heat capacity of water = 4.184 J/g °C
• The temperature change of the calorimeter is the same as the temperature
change of the water
• For the calorimeter, we use the heat Capacity which is already known/given.
• When using the heat capacity, the mass of the calorimeter is not required
(already incorporated in the heat capacity).

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 Example
• Mass of substance burned in calorimeter= 1 g
• Mass of water = 1200 g
• Initial temperature of water = 25 °C
• Final temperature after reaction = 33.2 °C
• Specific heat capacity of water = 4.184 J/ g°C
• Heat capacity of calorimeter = 837 J/ °C

How much heat is released from the combustion?

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• Heat absorbed by water, mCw∆𝑇 = 41170 J = 41.2 KJ
• Heat absorbed by calorimeter; Cc∆𝑇 = 6863.4 J = 6.86 KJ

Hence
Total heat absorbed = 48.1 KJ
• Heat released = - 48.1 KJ

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Next Class/ Reading List – Modes of Heat
Transfer

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