BASIC SCIENCE

YEAR 8

LESSON NOTES
STRAND 1 – LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SU STRAND 1 – STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES
LESSON 1.1.1 – THE ADAPTIVE FEATURES OR STRUCTURES OF ORGANISMS.

 WHAT ARE ADAPTIVE FEATURES OR ADAPTATIONS?

 Each organism has Characters, both Behavioural and Physical, which enable
it to survive in its own particular habitat.
 These characters are called ADAPTIVE FEATURES or ADAPTATIONS.
 An organism needs Food, Water, Air, Shelter, Suitable Temperature and
Protection from Predators in order to survive.

 ADAPTATION
 Adaptation can be defined as a characteristic of an organism that makes it
suited to its environment or its particular way of life.
 For example:
1. The shape of a bird’s beak will determine what food it can eat.
2. The colour of an animal’s fur may provide an effective camouflage
against predators.
3. Or an animal may have learnt the best way to catch food.
 Anything that helps an organism to survive and successfully reproduce in an
ecosystem is regarded as an ADAPTATION or ADAPTIVE FEATURE.

 The NON – LIVING ENVIRONMENT

 It includes such things as:
1. Temperature
2. Light
3. Humidity
4. Air
5. Water
6. Soil
 These are all important factors for the survival of any organism.
 TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
 Adaptations can be:
1. Structural or Physical.
2. Behavioural.
3. Physiological or Functional.

STRUCTURAL OR BEHAVIOURAL PHYSIOLOGICAL OR

PHYSICAL FUNCTIONAL
A physical adaptation A behavioural adaptation is Physiological
DEFINITION is the body structure how an animal behaves in adaptations relate to the
of an organism. response to some type of general functioning of
external stimulus. the body and the
chemical processes of
the organism.

 Webbed Feet.  How an animal moves to  The way an animal

 Sharp Claws. catch its food. digest food.
 Large Beaks.  How an animal or plant  How snakes and
 Wings – Flying. may protect itself. scorpion produces
 Feathers/ Fur  Example: poisonous fluids.
EXAMPLES  Fish Scales. 1. Migration.  Ability to keep a
 Long Legs of 2. Camouflage. constant body
Wading Birds 3. Dormancy. temperature to
 The sharp teeth of 4. Hibernation. survive in its habitat.
carnivorous  What an animal is able to  How an eel produces
animals eat. slime body to survive
 The bright, in its habitat.
fragrant blooms
of flowering
plants.

PLANTS SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS

 Plants also have special adaptations to help them survive in their Habitats.
IVI TREE [Buttress Roots] MANGROVES [ Prop Roots]
 LIANA EPIPHYTES

PITCHER PLANT VENUS FLY TRAP

CACTUS WATERLILLY

ADAPTATIONS AND HABITATS

 Organisms need to have special adaptations to survive in their habitats.
 So adaptations are related to the organism’s habitats.
 Organisms with lack appropriate adaptations may Die or Extinct.
 In other situations organisms may migrate to other suitable habitats in order to
survive.
  Most organisms have DEFENCE MECHANISM.
 Defence Mechanism
 It is simply a behavioural adaptation that the organism has to scare
away enemies or protect it from Predators.
Some examples of Local Organisms with Defence Mechanism are shown below:
STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ORGANS FUNCTIONS
1. Mouth  First step in digestion takes place in the mouth.
 Mouth contains the teeth which chews food to
break it down into smaller pieces.
 As it is chewed it is mixed with saliva to help in -
digestion.
2. Oesophagus  It connects the mouth to the stomach.
 When the food is swallowed it goes down the
oesophagus.
 Food travels to the stomach with the help of
muscles in the wall of the oesophagus.
3. Liver  Produces bile which makes the food alkaline and
fat particles smaller.
4. Stomach  The stomach lies below the diaphragm.
 It is like a bag where food can stay there for some
time.
 The walls of the stomach are thick and many
gastric glands are found in them.
  Stomach produces Hydrochloric Acid from the
glands in the stomach.
5. Pancreas  Produces pancreatic juice to further break down
starch and protein into smaller particles.

6. Small Intestine  It is the first part of the small

intestine immediately beyond the
1. stomach.
Duodenum  More chemicals (bile and
pancreatic juices.) are mixed with
food in the Duodenum.
 It is the third part of the small
2. Ileum intestine.
 Digested food particles are taken
in or absorbed in the
bloodstream in the Ileum.
7. Large Intestine  Receives indigestible food from the small
intestines.
 Much of the water is absorbed and passes into
the blood vessels in the Large Intestine.
8. Rectum  Receives the remaining intestinal content
[faeces] as solid form.
9. Anus  Passes the faeces out of the body.

LIVING TOGETHER
FEEDING PATTERNS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
The ultimate source of energy for most living organism is the SUN.
 Plants are said to make their own food are known as PRODUCERS.
 Animals all depend either directly or indirectly on green plants for their food and are
therefore known as CONSUMERS.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS – It is the process whereby green plants traps energy from the sun
and use it to convert Carbon Dioxide and Water into food energy in
the form of sugar.
 HERBIVORE – are animals that feed directly on plants. [Primary Consumer]
 CARNIVORE – are animals that feeds on other animals[Secondary Consumer]
 OMNIVORES – are animals that feeds on both plants and animals [Tertiary Consumer]
 FOOD WEB
o A food web can be drawn in different directions but still starting from a producer
or group of producers.
o Food Chain is also similar to a food web,in that the energy flows in the same
direction following the feeding pattern but the food chain is Linear [one line only]

 An Example of a FOOD WEB is drawn below:

 ENERGY FLOW IN FOOD CHAINS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

 In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few
generalisations can be made.
1. SUN is the ultimate source of energy.
2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystem is for it to be lost as heat.
 3. Energy and Nutrients are passed from organisms to organisms through the
food chain as they eat another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic Nutrients are cycled but Energy is not recycled.
 ENERGY is lost as Heat.

 SUMMARRY OF ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

 DECOMPOSITION
 Decomposition is the breakdown of dead organic materials into smaller particles,
which helps release nutrients and carbon for plants.
 Decomposition converts these dead materials into organic materials, inorganic
nutrients and CO2.
 The process involves a series of physical and chemical reactions that are performed
by many soil organisms, enzymes, chemicals and physical processes.
 FOOD PREFERENCE IN AN ECOSYSTEM
 Food preference describes how organisms choose or prefer what type of food to eat for
survival.
 Food preference are based on a factor or combination of factors such as;
1. SPEED to take in food or drink into the body to obtain energy.
2. ABILITY to DIGEST food eaten.
3. NON-LIVING FACTORS in the ecosystem.
4. TIME of the day [morning/day/night/dusk/dawn]
5. ADAPTATIONS to CAPTURE food.
6. AVAILABILITY of POTENTIAL COMPETITORS – compete for the same food.
7. AVAILABILITY of FOOD SOURCE – where there is an Abundant or Limited
supply.
 Resources must be limited for competition to occur.
 When resources are limited or finite NOT every individuals in population can survive
and this may lead to INTRA-SPECIFIC [Within the Species].
 When there is an increase in Population when the resources are Limited, the
quantity of resources available becomes less. Therefore, Intra-Specific competition
becomes intense so ONLY the STRONGEST ORGANISMS WILL SURVIVE.

 Competition can be reduced using Behavioural Adaptations

 RESOURCE PARTITIONING - is defined as eating different parts or at different
time of the same food source.

 Example: The owl and the hawk both eat rats, but the owl eats at
night while the hawk eats during the day.

 EATING DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE FOOD SOURCE

 Organisms can rely on the same food but eat different parts of the food
source.
 Example: Bulbul [bird] eats the pawpaw seeds, while humans eat
the flesh [ovary] of the pawpaw.
  Apart from Competition for food, organisms can have other feeding/sheltering
relationships while living together. Some of the examples are listed below:
TYPE OF DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
RELATIONSHIP

A mutualistic relationship is
when two organisms of
MUTUALISM
different species work together
each benefiting from the
relationship.

Commensalism is a class of
relationships between two
COMMENSALISM
organisms where one organism
benefits from the other without
affecting it.

A predator is an organism that

eats another organism. The
prey is the organism which the
PREDATION
predator eats.

Parasitism is a non-mutual
symbiotic relationship between
species.
PARASITISM One species, the Parasite
benefits at the expense of the
other, the host.

Parasites referred to organisms

visible to the naked eye.
 BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY
HUMAN ACTIVITY AND ITS IMPACT ON SPECIES

 Humans have done the activities below without realising its impact on other organisms
which we share the same planet.
1. Reclaimed land.
2. Cut down forest.
3. Dumped wastes in the sea or forests.
 The negative effects of human activity have drastically affected the survival and
existence of species.
 IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

 Negative Human Impacts on the environment are mainly on WATER and LAND
POLLUTION.

 CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTIONS

1. URBAN SPRAWL
 Urban sprawl is the removing of natural habitats to make room for communities,
usually with irresponsible planning.
 E.g. Waste of land area for unused developments.
Building excessive roads, Decorative and Unused Areas etc.

2. POOR AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

 Animal manure runoff.
 Use of chemical fertilizers.
 Herbicides and Pesticides.
 Practice of growing Monocultures (Only one crop Season after Season)
 Deforestation required to expand farm land.
 All these Agriculture Practices contribute to Land Degradation and
Pollution.

 CLIMATE CHANGE
 It is the change in regional or global climate patterns.
 This change was noticed in the 20th Century onwards whereby the level of
atmospheric carbon dioxide had increased greatly due to the use of fossil fuels.

 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES

 The Pacific Island Countries are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change.
 Today extreme weather conditions are being experienced by the inhabitants of these
Pacific Island Countries.
1. Hurricanes.
2. Droughts.
3. Heavy Rainfall or Flooding.
4. Coastal Erosion.
5. Water Shortage in Atoll Countries.
6. Sea Level Rise
 Pacific Island people depends on the natural resources from;
1. Farming.
2. Forestry.
3. Fisheries.
Unfortunately, these resources are harmed by the effects of CLIMATE CHANGE.
IMPORTANCE AND PROTECTION OF SPECIES.
 Due to Human Activities Species of organisms have become ENDANGERED.
 Endangered Species – organisms or species that is at the risk of Extinction.
 Endemic Species – organisms or species that is only found at a particular region
and nowhere else in the world.
 Extinct Species – organisms or species that are no longer existing [died].

 SOME ENDEMIC SPECIES OF FIJI

  CORAL REEFS
 Fiji is blessed and known to have the 3rd Largest Coral Reef System in the World.
 The Itaukei or Indigenous people of Fiji have GONEDAU (fishermen) who are;
1. Knowledgeable of the fishing grounds areas.
2. Aware of the availability of resources.
3. Concerned with sustaining resources.
 With the advent (arrival) of;
1. Commercial Fishing.
2. Tourism.
3. Overfishing or overharvesting.
Some of these resources have been exploited and destroyed.
 Fiji is still coming to grips with the invasion of Human Activities and their Impacts on
these Natural Resources and Coral Reefs.

 SOME MAJOR CORAL REEFS SYSTEM IN FIJI

1. The Barrier and Great Sea Reef near Vanua Levu and Viti Levu.
2. The Vuna and Rainbow Reef in Taveuni and Vanua Levu.
3. The Great Astrolabe Reef in Kadavu.

 HUMAN IMPACT ON THE CORAL REEFS IN FIJI.

 Coral Reefs have become Bleached and Smothered (suffocate) by;
1. Rapid Development on land.
2. Extraction of resources.
3. Mining of Bauxite lately in Nawailevu – Bua.
4. Felling (cutting) of trees.
 Some of these run off and soil erosion from the activities above may
smother(suffocate) and asphyxiate (not supplying air) to the coral reefs which house
organisms living in the sea.
 Climate Change has also affected these Coral Reefs due to the changing
temperature;
 Corals will die if the temperature is greater than 37 o C and so do the
other life forms in the sea.
 Constant Cutting down of trees and Burning will release Carbon Dioxide to the
atmosphere which will continue to increase the heat in the atmosphere affecting all
the life forms in the oceans, especially Coral Reefs.
 HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE FORESTS IN FIJI
 Forests are lungs of the nations such as Colo I Suva in Fiji, and likewise the Amazon
Forests were once the Lungs of the world.
 The cutting down of trees to make way for developments has weaken the needs to
cater for the World’s volume of Greenhouse Gases.
 Fiji is also experiencing Climate Change. As an example, the felling of trees in Bua for
Bauxite Mining. A 22 year lease has been granted with a $1 billion dollars bond for
the rehabilitation will not change the livelihood of the people and creation of
employment.
 However, extraction of the Bauxite will cost them heavily and likewise the impacts
are going to be felt for a long period of time.
 The mining of resources and the removal of top soil needs to be carefully
monitored, because this can build up to a billion dollar trade with environmental
repercussions (unintended consequences)for the people to find ways in solving the
issues of;
1. Land Degradation.
2. Loss of fishing grounds.
3. Income for the families.
4. Resource Depletion.
5. As well as poisoning of water ways.

CONSERVATION OF THE SPECIES AND SUSTAINABILITY

 Why Is Conservation Important?
 Conservation is not just important for animals but to all Living Things.
 Conservation is also very important in the protection and prevention of:
1. Floods, fires, new deserts and drought.
2. Habitats and natural areas like rainforests, marine and desert ecosystems.
3. Global Warming.
4. Melting of Arctic and Antarctic Ice Caps.
5. Sea Levels Rising
6. Flooding of Low Lands.
  CONSERVATION and PRESERVATION
 Conservation and Preservation are often confused and are used to mean the same
thing, although differences exist.

1. CONSERVATION
 To prevent the wasteful overuse of resources.
 Conservationists have warned us that if we continue to be wasteful
and pollute the environment, then it won’t just be our generation that
suffers, but our future generation too.

2. PRESERVATION
 To maintain resources in its original or existing state.
(Untouched by Human)
 Preservationist are concerned that mankind is encroaching (intrude –
getting in) onto the environment very fast that many untamed
landscapes are being given over to;
1. Farming.
2. Industries.
3. Housing.
4. Tourism.
5. Other Developments.

 The Government of Fiji has established some projects listed below for the benefits of
our future generations.
1. Nature Reserves. (Parks)
2. Forest Reserves.
3. Marine Reserves.
Names of Reserves Establishment
1. Bouma National  The park was established in 1990 to protect the Rainforest.
Heritage Park
 It is also a means of generating income for the 4 villages whose land is
bound by the park
2. Colo I Suva Forest  Established in 1872, renowned for Tropical Flora and Birds.
Park
 Government owned Forest Reserve.
3. Namena Marine  Established in 1997, to protect their Fisheries and Natural Marine
Reserve
Resources from over exploitation.
 Located between Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
 Part of the fishing grounds (Qoliqoli) of Kubulau Coommunity.
  RECENT ORGANISATION PROMOTING CONSERVATION & PRESERVATION OF SPECIES
IN FIJI
1. Nature Fiji – Mareqeti Viti
2. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
3. The University of the South Pacific.
4. Fiji Marine Conservation and Diving.
STRAND 2: MATTER
UNIT 2.1 INVESTIGATING MATTER
CHANGING STATES OF MATTER
 All matter moves from one state to another.
 Matter has mass (can be weighed) and occupy space (have volume).

 THE 3 STATES OF MATTER

1. SOLID
- Fixed shape and cannot be changed easily.
- Example: desk, book, chair, blackboard, and cups.
2. LIQUID
- Water, soft drinks, orange juice are all liquids and have some solutes.
- Volume of liquids remain the same unless heated, its shape can changed.
- Liquid takes up the shape of a container.
- Example: Juice poured into a glass tumbler will take up the shape of the
tumbler.
3. GASES
- It is not seen with our eyes but it is present in the atmosphere.
- It has weight and it can occupy space.
- It can also be compressed and squeezed into smaller containers.
- Example of gases: Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, Water Vapour and
several other gases.

 EVAPORATING AND DISTILLING

 Evaporation was used to separate salt from the salt solution.
 Evaporation process involves the removing of Solvent (water) from the solution
and leaves behind the Solute (salt).
 Evaporation requires heat to drive away the solvent.
 In evaporation the solvent is always lost in the atmosphere as gas.
 To get the gas (water vapour) back, the gas must first be changed into liquid
(Condensation). When the liquid solvent is trapped it can be used again.
 These two processes, Evaporation and Condensation will separate the Solvent
from the Solution and this process is known as Distillation.
STUDY THE REVERSIBILITY OF THE THREE STATES OF MATTER.

 There are six major phase changes in the 3 States of Matter.

 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE CHANGES

 Some of the changes in states of matter can be Reversible while others are
Irreversible.

 SOME EXAMPLES OF REVERSIBLE CHANGES

 The melting of ice (Solid) as temperature increases to form Liquid. The reversibility
of this change can be achieved through freezing the water in the refrigerator.

 Liquid is changed to Gas through Evaporation. The reversibility of this change can be
achieved through Condensation where the warm gases rise and meets with the
cooler surfaces and changed back to Liquid.

 Sublimation – any Solid that turns into vapour (Gas) without going through the
Liquid phase can be said to be sublime or sublimate. The process is called
Sublimation.

 SOME EXAMPLES OF IRREVERSIBLE CHANGES

 Carbon dioxide is frozen into “dry ice” and when it is left at room temperature it
sublimes directly into CO2 without changing into its Liquid form. This is known as
Sublimation and it is Irreversible.

 Iodine when burnt, changes directly into its gaseous form via Sublimation. These
fumes can be used to reveal finger prints in Forensic research. This is also an
Irreversible Change.

 Another Irreversible Change is moth ball that contains Naphthalene which keeps
clothes fresh and aired. It changes from Solid to Gas via Sublimation.
 2.2.2 METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
 There are 4 methods of Separating Mixtures.
1. SIEVING
2. DECANTING
3. SEPARATING BY SPINNING
4. SOME SPECIAL SEPARATION.

1) SIEVING
 The process of separating mixtures by sieving or filtering is important both;
1. In our homes.
2. Factories.
3. Laboratories.

 We use filtering process at home as;

1. Tea Strainer.
2. Sieve flour to make cakes, puddings and roti.

 Filters are also found in;

1. Motor Mower
2. Generators
3. Outboard Motors
4. Cars
5. Brush Cutters

This is use to remove small pieces of dirt which can damage the engine or will
not make the engine run properly.

 Filters are also found in our body;

1. Our nostrils – which filters out dust so it will not irritate our wind pipe
making us cough or sneeze.
2. Kidney – it filters impurities from blood but it works in a more complicated
way than the other filters we have studied above.
2) DECANTING
 Decanting is the separation of an insoluble solid substance which is mixed with
liquid.
 Decanting is a method you can use to roughly separate the liquid from the solid.
 For example;
1. A pot of uncooked rice which has just been thoroughly washed.
2. The solid or (rice) should be allowed to settle to the bottom of the pot.
3. Then gently pour the liquid off the top trying not to shake the pot.
4. This will leave the rice in the bottom of the pot.
3) SEPARATING BY SPINNING
 Sometimes it is not possible to separate the heavier particles in a mixture.
 A Centrifuge separates a mixture by spinning.
 For example;
1. Cream is separated from milk by this method.
2. Red Blood cells is separated from the Blood Plasma using this method.
3. Sugar crystal is separated from Liquid sugar using the same method in the
Sugar Mill.
4. The Spin Dryer in a Washing Machine is also a form of Centrifuge.
4) SOME SPECIAL SEPARATIONS
 SEPARATING WITH A MAGNET
 Some substances have special properties which can be used to separate them
from a mixture.
 Iron is attracted to magnets which can help to separate it from sand.
 STRAND 3: ENERGY
SUB STRAND 3.1 ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER
 Our fossil fuels (Oil, Coal and Gas) use has grown so large that its emission are affecting the
earth.
 Today energy options are being reviewed, even though large coal resources remain,
pollution problems may restrict its use.
 Natural gas is a clean and convenient fuel for whose advantages over their fossils

FORMS OF ENERGY
 Energy can be found in different forms.
1. Heat Energy.
2. Electrical Energy
3. Sound Energy
4. Solar Energy

 3 WAYS OF HEAT TRANSFER

i. Conduction – Energy is transferred by direct contact.
ii. Convection – Energy is transferred by the mass motion of molecules.
iii. Radiation – Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation.
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 STRAND 3.3 FORCES
: Investigate And Identify How Different Mediums Such As Oil, Water and Air Affects
The ` Weight Of Mass Of Objects.

 What Are Forces?

 A force can be a Push or Pull.
 Example 1 – When you push open a door you have to apply force to the door.
 Example 2 – You will have to apply force to pull open a drawer.
 You cannot see a force but often you can see what it does.
 Forces can also change;
1. The speed of something.
2. The direction it is moving.
3. Its shape.
 Example – An elastic band gets longer if you pull it.

 Measuring Forces
 The unit of force is called Newton
 The symbol for force is N
 A Force Meter is used to measure force.
 Force Meters contain a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches when a
force is applied to the hook.
 The bigger the force applied the longer the spring stretches and the bigger the reading.

 Weight, Mass and Gravity

 Many people confuse Mass and Weight.
 Remember that Weight is a Force and is measured in Newtons.
 Mass is measured in (Kg)

 Mass
 The mass of an object is the amount of matter or stuff it contains.
 Mass is measured in kilograms (kg), grams (g)
 Example – An elephant contains more matter than a mouse, so it has a greater mass.

 Weight
 Weight is a force caused by gravity.
 The weight of an object is the gravitational force between the object and the earth.
 The more mass the object has the greater its weight will be.
 Weight is force so it’s measured in Newtons.
 On the surface of the earth an object with a mass of 1kg has a weight of about 10 N.

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  Gravity
 Gravity is a force in all objects that attracts them towards each other.
 Even you attract other objects to you because of gravity, but you have too little mass for
the force to be very strong.
 Gravitational Force increases when:
1. The Masses are bigger
2. The objects are closer.
 We are pulled down towards the ground because of gravity.
 The gravitational force pulls in the direction towards the centre of the earth.
 Gravity only becomes noticeable when there is a really massive object like a moon,
planet or star.

FRICTIONAL FORCES

 Frictional forces is felt whenever an object moves against another object.

 These forces act in the opposite directions to the movement.
 Friction makes it harder for things to move.

 Helpful Friction Forces

1. Friction can be useful between our shoes and the floor that stops us from slipping.
2. Friction can be useful between tyres and the road that stops cars from skidding.
3. Friction can be useful between the brakes and the wheel that help bikes and cars
slow down.
4. Friction can be useful between the parachute and the air resistance that slows
down the parachute for safe landing.
5. Frictional Forces are much smaller on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces,
which is why we slide on ice.

 PARACHUTES
 Air resistance is the frictional force air exerted against a moving object.
 As the object moves, air resistance slows it down.
 The large surface area of a parachute increases the amount of air resistance
the sky divers encounters, allowing for a slow descent to the ground.
 Air pushes the parachute back up and creates a force opposite to the gravity
slowing the skydivers.
 As the skydiver descends slowly to the earth, the Push and Pull forces are
almost in a balance.

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 Unhelpful Frictional Forces
 Friction can also be unhelpful.
 If you don’t lubricate your bike regularly with oil, the friction in the chain and axles
increases. Your bike will be noisy and difficult to pedal.
 When there is a lot of friction between moving parts, energy is lost to the
surroundings as heat.
 When you rub your hands together quickly, the friction warms them up.

 Air Resistance
 Air resistance is caused by the frictional forces of the air against the vehicle.
 Bikes, Cars, and other Vehicles experience Air Resistance as they move.
 The faster the vehicle moves the bigger the air resistance becomes.
 The top speed of vehicle is reached when the force from engine is balanced by air
resistance.

 Streamlining
 Streamlining reduce the air resistance on objects.
 Bikes, Cars and Vehicles are also streamlined and smooth in shapes to make
resistance smaller, which allows them to travel further on the same amount of fuel.
 Racing cyclist crouch down low on their bikes to reduce the air resistance on them.
This helps them to cycle faster. They also wear streamlined helmets.

 The Up – Thrust Force In Liquids

 The upward push of the liquid is called the Up – Thrust Force.
 There are different types of forces liquids exert on solid.
 Brine being a strong solution of Salt Water has more Up – Thrust than Fresh Water.
 Different liquids exert different amounts of up-thrust.

 Hydrometer
 Hydrometer is used to measure the pushing up power or up-thrust of liquids.
 Hydrometers are usually made of glass.
 They are made heavier at the bottom to keep them floating upright in liquids.

 Uses Of Hydrometer
1. Milk Inspector use hydrometer to test if farmers add water to milk before
sending it to factory. It can be caught out because adding water to milk
changes it’s pushing up power. A hydrometer will tell the difference
between up-thrust in pure milk and diluted milk.

2. Mechanics use hydrometers in testing the Acids in the car batteries. As the
battery gets old, the acid changes and its pushing up powers gets less. A
hydrometer can show whether the battery needs to be re-charged or not.

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 LIQUIDS HAVE DENSITIES

 When we want to compare the weight of different liquids, it is important that we use equal
volumes.
 When we are comparing the equal weights of equal volumes of different liquids, we are
trying to find out how dense they were.
 We say that Brine is denser than Water.
 Water is denser than Oil.
 Oil is denser than Kerosene.
 The weight of equal volume order is the same as the pushing up order.
 This shows that more dense liquids can push more strongly than less dense ones.

 PUTTING SOLIDS IN ORDER

 Liquids can be put in order in two ways.
1. To be put according to weights of equal volume.
2. To be put in relation to their pushing up order. (Up-Thrust Force)
 Solids can also be put in order according to their densities and this could determine
why some solids sink and why others float in liquids.

FLOATING AND SINKING

 Have you learned to swim?

 If learning to swim was easy, you probably found it more difficult to learn how to float.
 Your body is denser than water, but because your lungs are full of air, you can float.
 Also the water is pushing you upwards.

 SUBMARINES
 Submarines are made to swim under water, but of course they need to come to the
surface sometimes.
 They have Ballast Tanks a special tank that controls the depth to which they can go.
 When the submarines need to sink, the tanks are filled with water, and when they
need to rise to the surface, the water is pumped out and air is pumped in.

 FISH
 Fish living in water need to sink and rise to the surface too.
 They do not have Ballast Tanks, but they have Bags of Air called Gas Bladder inside
them.
 Air passes in and out of the bladder from the blood.

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  WATER PLANTS
 Water plants have air spaces in their stems that help them float.
 If you have water hyacinths growing nearby, you could cut open the swollen parts of
the leaves and look at the air spaces inside that make them float.

 SHIPS
 Large ships weigh many thousand tones but they still float.
 The air filled inside the ships makes the ship less dense and float on the water.
 A boat floats because its weight is balanced by the up-thrust from the water.
 The ship will only sink until the weight of the water it pushes out of the way is the
same as the weight of the ship. (If the ship is Overloaded)
 The ship may also sink if a hole lets water inside the ship.
 That is why Captains must be very careful not to overload their ships and keep away
from reefs that could make a hole in the bottom of the ships.

STRAND 4: EARTH AND BEYOND

 The solar system is made up of the;
1. Sun
2. Planets
3. Comets
4. Asteroids
5. Minor Planets
6. Dust
7. Gas

 Everything in the Solar System orbits or revolves around the Sun.

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 The pull of gravity of the Sun and the orbiting of these planets contribute to the features of
the Earth such as;
1. Day and Night Cycles.
2. High Tides and Low Tides
3. Eclipses (Lunar and Solar)

THE DAY AND NIGHT CYCLES

 The day and night cycle are caused by the earth’s rotation on its axis.
 The axis is an imaginary line passing through North Pole and South Pole.
 The time taken by the earth to complete one rotation on its axis is 24 hours, which is what
we calculate total up to 1 day.
 When North Pole of the Earth faces the Sun, it is day time for all those countries on top half
of the hemisphere and those around the South Pole is at night time.
 The earth faces the sun 365 and a quarter days then it makes 1 complete orbit around the
sun.

THE EARTH’S SEASON

 The earth’s season are caused by the 23.5 tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation, a yearly
revolution around the sun.
 As the result of the tilting of the earth, one part of the earth being more directly exposed
to rays from the sun than the other region of the Earth.
 The part of the earth that gets exposed to the sun gets the warmer season – (summer)
while the other part that is tilted away from the sun experiences cooler season – (winter).
 Seasons changes as the Earth continue its revolution causing the hemisphere to be tilted
away from or towards the Sun to change accordingly.

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 HOW THE POSITION OF THE SUN, MOON, and EARTH

DOES CAUSE THE OCEAN TIDES TO CHANGE

 Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon upon the Ocean of the
Earth.
 The Sun has the greatest pull.
 The tides are greatest during a new moon when the Sun and the Moon are pulling from the
same direction, or when they are align together.

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  The side of the earth that faces the sun usually has the high tide while the side away from
the sun has the low tide.
 The centrifugal force caused by the earth’s rotation produce another mound of water
resulting in High Tides.
 High Tide – is when the water reaches its highest point.
 Low Tides will be occur somewhere in between these two tides in which two flat areas on
the surface of the ocean will be seen.
 Tides change every 6 hours. If it’s High Tide at 6:00 am in the morning, Low Tide will be
expected at 12:00 noon.
 One tidal day is 24 hours, 50 minutes. If it’s High Tide at 6:00 am today; tomorrow high tide
will be at 6:50 am.

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 HOW THE POSITION OF THE SUN, MOON and EARTH CAUSE CHANGES IN THE ECLIPSES

(SOLAR ECLIPSE and LUNAR ECLIPSE)

 Eclipse – occur when a huge shadow travels across the surface of the earth.
 Umbra – The darker part of the shadow.
 Penumbra – The lighter part of the shadow.
 Total Eclipse – It will be seen when the earth’s surface is shadowed by the Umbra (Darker
Shadow)
 Partial Eclipse – It will be seen when the Penumbra (Light Shadow) cast over the surface of the
earth.

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 SOLAR ECLIPSE

 Solar Eclipse – Occurs sometimes when the moon passes between the Sun and the Earth
at a new moon.
- The shadow of the moon passes fall on the Earth that shadows out
the Sun.
- This shadow is called the Solar Eclipse.

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 LUNAR ECLIPSE

 Lunar Eclipse – Occur sometimes when the moon travels on the opposite side of the
earth from the sun
at full moon.
- The moon passes in the Earth’s shadow.
- It is very dull and can only be just little visible.
- A Lunar Eclipse can occur only when the Sun, Earth and Moon are
exactly or very closely aligned, with Earth between the Sun and the
Moon.

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 SUN – THE IMPORTANT SOURCE OF ENERGY ON EARTH

 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUN

 The sun is considered to be the most important body in the universe.

 Without the Sun there will be no Solar System and there will be no earth.
 We owe everything and anything to the Sun because without it there will be no life on
Earth.
 The sun’s energy heats up our planet preventing us from over cooling.
 The sun’s heat warms up the whole planet keeping it warm and a very comfortable
temperature.
 The sun also generates electricity (Solar Energy) in which most areas in Fiji are now using
electricity generated from the solar power energy.
 The sun gives light in which we are being blessed with to do a lot of our activities during
the day.
 The sun is the main component of Photosynthesis process which is a necessity for both
plants and animals.
 Sunlight is needed in leaves of plants to make Oxygen gaseous for mankind, animals and
other creatures to breathe in order to stay alive and vice versa.
 The exhaled carbon dioxide from mankind, animals and other creatures is a necessity for
plants to breathe in and for the making of oxygen.

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 EFFECT OF THE MOON AND THE SUN ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE LOCAL CULTURE

 Before the invention of technologies people were very dependent on the Sun and the Moon
for almost everything.
 The Sun and the Moon had been a traditional source of light for thousands and thousands of
years ago.
 The Sun and the Moon were also used to calculate Time, Days and Years.
 The Cultural beliefs in those days about the Sun, Moon and Earth towards living things was
something very important and of great significance the gone generation.
 In Fiji, myths and legends about the Sun, Moon and Earth is now of less importance to the
modern society.
 However, the oral history of its traditional beliefs is very much alive in many Fijian
communities.

ITAUKEI CULTURE

 In the Itaukei traditional Calendar, the Moon plays a significant role for the Fijian ancestors
in order to;
1. Determine the kind of food that will be of sufficient during that time.
2. Know the kind of fish that is plentiful at sea when it is full moon or half moon.
3. Study the weather pattern.
4. Know the sprouting flowering plants and food plants of the season.
 During hot and humid sunny days, when there are a lot of ants around the home carrying
tiny particles, it is a symbol of wet weather that is going to happen soon.
 Pregnant ladies are discouraged from going out at night on a full moon because it is believed
that the baby will be a weak baby when it’s born.
 Fishermen study the Sun and Wind directions to guide them to places of the sea where there
is a lot of fish and also they are the traditional compass.
 Fishermen do not fish during a new moon or full moon, if they do then the catch will not be
consumed as it is believed to have been contaminated fish.
 During wet weather, people in the islands go down to the beach at sunset to check for a red
shadow in the horizon. This will signify fine weather the next day.

MUSLIM CULTURE

 In the Muslim religion they observe a sacred fasting period called RAMADAN.
 It is the 9th month of the Islamic Calendar which last for 29 – 30 days based on the visual
sighting of the crescent moon.
 It is the Holy month for them in which they pray from dawn until dusk while focusing on
prayer for forgiveness and reading the Holy Book (Quran) and they do not do anything sinful
during the fasting period.
 EID is celebrated at the end of the fasting month especially on the new moon which is the
biggest celebration in the Muslim Calendar to mark the end of a successful fasting period.

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HINDU CULTURE

 In the Hindu Religion – they pray to their Sun God called – Surya Narayan their most
significant and powerful god in which they pray to every morning by putting the holy water
on their forehead facing towards the sun, believing that blessings will come from the Sun for
Healthy Life.
 They also pray to their Moon God called – Chandra (God of Peace) in order to receive power
and peace from the moon light and also transmit peace to plants and all kinds of species.
 Pregnant mothers are not allowed to see or work during the eclipses since it will affect the
unborn babies.
 Hindus also pray to the 9 planets which is significant to their Cultural Life. E.g. For marriage,
the Priest will advice the couples of the right partner to marry by looking at their birth
months if the planets matches, then marriages will be approved.

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

 Geologist – scientists who study and explore about the Earth, Rocks and Soil.

 Crust – Is the part of the Earth that we live on, where soil, plants and animals are found.
- It is so hard that it is able to hold the oceans together.
- As compared to the whole Earth the Crust is very thin.
- The thickness of the Crust is about 70 km and 10 km thick under the
Ocean.

 Mantle – Is the layer under the Crust.

- It is thicker and made up of heavy rocks.
- It is 3,000 km thick.
- The temperature at this level is very hot that it melts the rocks.

 Outer Core – It is found below the Mantle, deeper in the Earth.

- It is made up of hot liquid rocks.

 Inner Core – It is found deeper than the Outer Core, which is deep in the Earth’s center.

 It is observed and experienced that the deeper we go down the earth, the hotter the
temperature is.

 People who dig minerals and oil wear special suit because as they get deeper the
temperature is high.

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 STRUCTURE OF ROCKS

 Rocks – are made of 2 or more minerals.

 Massive Minerals – It is formed from a large piece of Minerals.
 Mineral Crystal – It has a definite shape with easy to see flat sides.
 The rock structures are divided into Primary and Secondary structures.

1. Primary Structures
- It is when rocks are formed before or at the same time as materials
is in process of becoming rocks.
- Example:
i. Rocks formed from Magma as it crystallises (make or become
definite and clear)
ii. Rocks formed when sediments accumulate.

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 2. Secondary Structure
- It is the structure being forced (imposed) on rocks after it has
already formed.
- Example
i. This is when the rocks change due to compression of existing
rocks.
ii. When the initial shapes of rocks are changed by man or the
natural process.

TYPES OF ROCKS AND HOW THEY ARE FORMED

 There are 3 types of rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
a) Igneous – means the result produced by the action of fire or overheating.

b)Magma – Is the melted minerals and metals inside the earth that changes into liquid
due to the strong
heat of the volcanoes.

c) Larva – Is the erupted magma from the Volcano.

d)Basalt Rocks – It is formed when the larva cools and forms rocks.

e) Extrusive Igneous Rocks – It is the term given to Basalt Rocks which means
(The rocks formed outside the volcano).
(Cooled on the surface)

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 f) Intrusive Igneous Rocks – It is the term given to rocks formed when the magma erupts
within the Volcano. (Cooled under the surface)

g) Granite Rocks – Large crystal rocks formed from the magma that erupts within the
volcanoes when it cools slowly.
- Small crystals rocks from magma which cools faster.

h)Pumice Rocks – It is formed from volcanic eruption under the oceans.

- Gases are trapped in them and they can be found floating. (Soata)

i) Scoria Rocks – It is formed from the small pieces of Basalt Rocks (Larva) erupted from
the volcanoes.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 The sedimentary rocks are made from sediments which are collected at the bottom of the
sea, rivers and lakes.

 Sediments of small parts of rocks, dead animals and plants eroded by the push of water and
wind into the water/ocean press on each other, as the result of the compression Sedimentary
Rocks are formed.

 This change takes thousands of years and layers can also be seen on sedimentary rocks called
the beds or the bedding planes.

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  THE 3 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. Sand Stone
2. Conglomerate Rocks
3. Lime Stone
 There are many types of Sedimentary Rocks and each is dependent on the type of sediments
in which it is made.

1. Sand Stone
 It is made from the sediments of sand.
 In Fiji people call it Soap Stone because it is slippery like soap.

2. Conglomerate Rocks
 It is made from gravel and large brown particles cemented together.
 They are found along the coast lines of many islands and inland of larger
islands.

3. Lime Stone
 It is formed from sediments of shellfish, snails and dead plants that drop to the
bottom of the sea.
 They are compressed together by water and wind and change very slowly
taking thousands of years to form.
 Lime Stone can be found in the caves in Yasawa (Sawa – I – Lau Caves) which
is also known as the Lime Stone Caves.

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 3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Metamorphic means to be changed or transformed.

 These rocks are the changed forms of Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks through the process
of Heat and Pressure in the upper layer temperature of the atmosphere and molten magma
at the bottom of the earth.

 THE 2 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Marble Rocks
 These rocks are changed from lime stones and sedimentary rocks through pressure from above.
2. Slate
 These rocks are clay that changed through heat and pressure.

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 NATURAL OCCURANCES THAT IMPACT THE STRUCTURES OF ROCKS
 The structure of rocks change during Natural Occurances.
 Some of these Natural Occurances are;
A. Weathering
B. Soil Erosion
C. Natural Disasters – (Volcanic Eruption, Earthquakes, Tsunamis)

A. WEATHERING
 Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil, minerals and other artificial
materials by the different atmospheric conditions in the atmosphere, biota
(wildlife organisms) and waters.
 This process takes place millions of years ago before significant changes can
be seen.
 This process does not move the rocks or relocate rocks and soil to other places.

 Weathering is classified as 3 processes.

i. Physical
ii. Chemical
iii. Biological

i. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 This is the breaking down of rocks and soil through direct contact with
the atmospheric conditions such as;
a) Heat
b) Water
c) Ice
d) Wind

a) HEAT
 The heat temperature can crack rocks and soil when it is too hot
during the day.
 The rocks expand when it is hot and contract when it is too cold
in the night causing the breaks.
b) WATER
 Over flowing of water over rocks wear the rocks away.
 Water also carries small hard rocks that break softer rocks as they
tumble against them.
 Falling rain on rocks wear out minerals and causes the breaks
as well.
 This form of erosion is also called FLUVIAL EROSION and a good example is
the SAND DUNES of Sigatoka.
 AEOLIAN EROSION is also found on the Sand Dunes in Sigatoka.

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c) ICE
 In colder parts of the world, when water besides rocks freezes they
cause expansion causing the rocks to break.
d) WIND
 Wind blow sands into rock surfaces and smooths them down and
smaller particles are removed.
 This form of erosion is also known as AEOLIAN EROSION.
 A good example is found on the movement of dust particles too.

ii. CHEMICAL WEATHERING

 Chemical weathering is also known as (Decomposition or Decay) is one of
the Chemical Mechanisms to break down rocks.
 The most important ones being;
I. Carbonation
II. Hydration
III. Hydrolosis
IV. Oxidation
V. Ion Exchange in Solution
 Rain water and Oxygen join together causing the rocks to break and
also change them to Red Soils.
 Carbon Dioxide and Air dissolves in rain forming a weak acid that dissolves
rocks like Lime Stones.

iii. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

 It is the breaking down or decomposition of rocks caused by Living
Organisms such as Plants and Animals
 Plants and trees crash their way through rocks to find water and minerals
causing the breaks.
 Plants also give off organic acid that chemically breakdown the rock
minerals.
 Decay plants and animals releases carbon dioxide into the air which
mixes with water and forms Carbon Acid to break minerals in rocks.
 Animals, Worms Termites, Gophers are some organisms that physically
break rocks apart during their physical activities such as boring (insects and
worms digging holes)

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 B. SOIL EROSION
 Soil Erosion is the washing away of Soil, Rocks and Minerals caused by Water,
Wind and Mankind forcing the Soil, Stones and Minerals to relocate.
 Soil Erosion is also a factor that changes the physical appearance of the world
around us.

 EROSION CAUSED BY WATER

 This happens when there is a heavy downpour washing away soils
from hill sides due to the force of the rain as in FLOODING.

 EROSION CAUSED BY WIND

 When there is a natural disaster such Hurricane, Whirlwinds and
Tornadoes, the strong winds blows small rock particles and sand
away.

 EROSION CAUSED BY MANKIND

 People are also contributors to Soil Erosion in activities such as;
- Deforestation – People remove forests to build buildings and
malls thus causing Landslide on idle lands during extreme
weather conditions.

C. NATURAL DISASTERS
 Natural Disasters also contributes more to the changes in the physical
structures of the Earth.
 Earthquakes, Tsunami and Volcanic Eruption are a few to mention.

NATURAL DISASTER EARTHQUAKE TSUNAMI VOLCANIC ERUPTION

CAUSES Vibration caused by rocks Caused by sudden Magma rises through

breaking under stress result movement of the cracks or weaknesses in
in the compression in the ocean due to the Earth’s crust.
earth’s crust causing the Earthquakes and Pressure makes the
break. Underwater Landslides. plate movement causing
magma to explode.
EFFECT Earthquakes intensity Marine ecosystem is Environment in the
causes the break in the destroyed and marine volcanic zones is
earth’s surface, collapse of species are lost. destroyed.
structures and loss of lives. Human’s natural Burning of wildlife and
environment also loss of lives.
destroyed and also Magma cools and forms
human lives loss. rocks.
Displacement of rocks,
soil and minerals.

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 NATURAL BEFORE DURING AFTER
DISASTER
EARTHQUAKE  Learn the Earthquake  Stay calm, never run  Check yourself for
Evacuation Plan. around. injuries.
 Prepare all necessary  Crawl under furniture –  Check water, pipes,
items such as; table or beds. and gas and electric
1. Torch  If outdoor, stay in the lines for damages.
2. Batteries open away from  Listen to latest radio
3. First Aid Kit powerlines. broadcast.
4. Radio  If in the car, stop the car  Be careful of broken
5. Bottle of Water and stay in the car. items and debris.
 Push heavy furnitures to  Move away from
the wall or lie them coastal lines, tsunami
down. may happen next.

TSUNAMI  Know your disaster  Stay at higher ground.  Wait for water level to
evacuation plan.  Keep on listen to the decrease.
 Collect adequate amount radio.  Listen to advice from
of food, water and  If walking try and get authorities to move
clothing. closer to a tree to hold on back to your home.
 Take your radio and all to.  If injured get medical
other necessary items  Never swim in the aid.
and move to higher running water.  Clear all debris and
grounds. boil all drinking water.

VOLCANIC  Have your emergency  Listen and take heed of  Do not go near
ERUPTION plan ready. instructions from the remains of volcanic
 Evaluate risks of volcanic radio. eruption.
eruption before putting  Stay away from the  Stay indoors and wear
up structures. volcanic area. face mask to protect
 Reinforce existing  Cover nose and eyes with your lungs and eyes.
building structures and wet piece of cloth.  Only move out when
build protective structure  Do not inhale the smoke. you’re advice to.
like dikes to prevent Lava.  Evacuate from places as  If outside cover you up
soon as authorities from head to toe.
advice.  Remove ash from
roofs and around the
house.

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