Lesson 1: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Forms of Electromagnetic Waves

Waves - Any disturbance that moves through matter or space and transfers
energy from one specific place to another
Mechanical Waves - Waves that require a medium or a matter in order to travel
“MEDIUM: kind of matter. VIBRATION: back-and-forth or up-and-down.”
Electromagnetic Waves - Waves that can travel through empty spaces
Longitudinal Waves - Particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of
the motion of the waves
“COMPRESSIONS: coils are closer to each other. RAREFRACTIONS: coils are far."
Transverse Waves - Particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction
of the motion of the waves
“CRESTS: Highest points of wave. TROUGHS: Lowest points of waves”

PIONEERS
James Clark Maxwell - An English Scientist who developed a scientific theory to
better explain electromagnetic waves.
Key Words: “deduced the finite velocity of light, electric field and vice versa”
Heinrich Hertz - A German physicist who applied Maxwell’s theories to the
production and reception of radio waves.
Key Words: “used two rods as a receiver and a spark gap as the antennae”
Michael Faraday - A English Scientist who contributed to the study of
electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Key Words: “electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis”.
Andre-Marie Ampere – Made the revolutionary discovery that a wire carrying
electric current can attract or repel.
Key Words: “The attraction is magnetic, Ampere’s Law of Electromagnetism.”
Hans Christian Oersted - A Danish physicist and chemist, discovered the electric
current wire can deflect a magnetized compass needle.
Guglielmo Marconi - An Italian inventor and electrical engineer, development of
Marconi’s law and long-distance radio telegraph system transmission.

EM WAVES
Planck’s equation was mentioned as a relationship between the energy of the EM
wave and its frequency or wavelength.

RADIO WAVES – “Longest wavelengths, Least amount of energy” Natural: from

lightning or cosmic phenomena involving the magnetic fields of celestial objects.
Artificial: broadcast radio towers, satellites, and radars.

RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) – is a rate of oscillation range of kHz to 300 GHz.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION - longer wavelengths (ranging from 180-550 meters)
radio waves come loud and clear.
FREQUENCY MODULATION – shorter wavelengths (from 2.8 – 2.4 meters) when
compared. FM reception is often poor in localities.
AM - (frequency constant, amplitude modulated)
FM - (amplitude constant, frequency modulated)

MICROWAVES
Frequencies overlap with radio waves, Highest RW = Lowest MW, Produced by
oscillating electrons in magnetic devices. High-frequency radio waves, Has a very
short wavelengths “1 mm to 30 cm”.
VISIBLE LIGHT
ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS
• Any light source that produces light instead of natural light produced by the
sun

OPTICAL FIBERS
• Endoscope - a flexible tube with a tiny camera that is used to observe the
internal parts of the body

SCREEN LIGHT
• Light in the screen of most electronic devices

■ Range of wavelengths that people can see

■ Enables us to see things around us
■ Seen as the colors of the rainbow

LEVEL OF EXPOSURE
Hiroshima Bombing - Most people killed in Hiroshima died from the immediate blast
and not from radiation, and people farther away experienced a short-term dose of
about 200 mSv.

CHERNOBYL NUCLEAR POWER PLANT - During the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power
plant accident in Ukraine, four hundred times more radioactive material was released
than during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.

FUKUSHIMA NUCLEAR POWER PLANT - The radiation exposure around Japan's

Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster in 2011 reached levels of 400mSv per
hour.
LIGHT
An optical illusion is characterized by visually perceived images that differ from
objective reality.
Optical illusions use light as well as color and other features to trick the mind.
Einstein’s quantum theory of light
The first theory was the “wave (undulatory) theory, proposed by Christiaan
Huygens. Reflection of light using wave motion
The other one is corpuscular (emission) theory by Isaac Newton. Explain that
light consists of tiny particles of matter emitted by a sources and travels in straight
lines.
The quantum theory of light explains that light is composed of bundles of wave
energy called photons.

REFLECTION
SPECULAR REFLECTION – “Smooth Surface”
• Light strikes a smooth, polished surface
• Light rays striking a uniformly flat surface are reflected in the same direction
• Produces sharp, detailed images
DIFFUSE REFLECTION – “Rough Surface”
• Light strikes a dull or rough surface
• Each bump on the surface sends light bouncing in a different direction
• What we see is an illuminated spot on the surface
Diffusion is the dispersal of the reflected light
Absorption is the transfer of energy carried by the light waves to the particles of
matter
Scattering is the reflection of light by particles

LAWS OF REFLECTION
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The normal line, incident ray, and reflected ray all lie on the same plane.

REFRACTION
The bending of the path of a light wave as it passes from one material to another
material.

DISPERSION
The effect associated with the separation of light into colors

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• The wave speed is always greatest in the least dense medium
• The wavelength is always greatest in the least dense medium
• The frequency of a wave is not altered by crossing a boundary
Boundary - The dividing line between two mediums
Medium
• A substance that carries a wave from one point to another
• Different Optical Densities
• Different Refractive Indices
Optical Density
• Measure of transmittance
• The degree to which a medium reduces the intensity of light passing through it
• ↑OD = ↓ transmittance = ↓ Speed
Refractive Index
• Describes how fast light travels through the material

Incident Ray - A ray of light that strikes a surface

Emergent Ray - A ray leaving a medium in contrast to the entering or incident
Refracted Ray - A ray that, in the general case, undergoes a change in both
velocity and direction, as a result of interaction with the material medium in
which it travels.

PLANE MIRRORS
Real Images – occur when light rays actually intersect at the image, making them
appear inverted or upside down.
Virtual Images – occur when rays do not meet at the image, but because the eye
projects light rays backward.

They are located behind the mirror.

• Virtual Image - any image formed by extended (or imaginary rays of light)
They are upright, or erect.
• Images are oriented the same as the objects
They are unmagnified.
• Images are always the same size as the objects
They are laterally inverted.
• Images are flipped from left to right

Image distance and object distance are the same.

• The object distance (in front of the mirror) is equal to the image distance
(behind the mirror).
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
RADIUS OF THE CURVATURE (R)
• How far from being flat the mirror is
• Radius of the hypothetical sphere
PRINCIPAL AXIS - Main Reference Line
FOCUS (F) - Focal Point

VERTEX (V)
• The point at the center of the mirror
• Intersection with the principal axis
FOCAL LENGTH (f) f = 1⁄2 R
Distance between the focus and the vertex
CENTER OF CURVATURE (C)
Center of the sphere related to the mirror

PARALLEL RAY (RULE 1)

• Drawn parallel to the axis
• Reflected through the focal point
FOCAL RAY (RULE 2)
• Drawn through the focal point
• Reflected parallel to the axis
RADIAL RAY (RULE 3)
• Chief Ray
• Drawn through the center of the curvature

SIMPLE LENS
DIVERGING LENSES
• Negative lens
• Thicker along the edges than in the middle
CONVERGING LENSES
• Positive lens
• Thicker in the middle than along the edges

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Objective Lens – Real, inverted images in the space inside the microscope.
Eyepiece – Virtual, upright, and magnified image of the first real image.
NOTE: the object that the eyepiece is looking at is an inverted image of the actual
specimen.

TELESCOPE
Two types: reflecting telescope and refracting telescope.

REFLECTING TELESCOPE
Newtonian Reflector/Telescope
• The earliest known functional reflecting telescope
• First completed in 1688
• Invented by Sir Isaac Newton
• Uses a concave primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror.
REFRACTING TELESCOPE
Galilean Telescope
• Invented by Galileo Galilei
• Used a convergent (plano- convex) objective lens and a divergent (plano-
concave) eyepiece lens
• The design has no intermediary focus
• Results in a non-inverted and an upright image

BINOCULARS
Two identical mirrors mounted side by side and aligned to point accurately in the
same direction. The modern version was made available in 1894.

Design considerations
• Handheld
• Two telescopes with the same magnification ratings to magnify distant objects
• Adjustable interpupillary separation
• Upright images

THREE MAIN PARTS

1. OBJECTIVE LENS ASSEMBLY

• Located at the big end
• Gathers light from the object
• Forms the image at the image plane
 2. EYEPIECE LENS ASSEMBLY
• Part that is placed by the eyes
• Allows the examination of the image at the image plane
• Has a focusing mechanism that allows the viewer to move either the eyepiece
assembly or an intermediate “transfer” lens which in turn focuses the eyepiece
onto the image formed by the objective lens

3. IMAGE ORIENTATION CORRECTION

• Prism assembly
• Ensures that the image is properly oriented and not inverted laterally reversed
• Enables the eyepieces to be 45 degrees or 90 degrees to the main optical tube

HUMAN EYE
• Superior bio-optical system
• The optical system of prime importance.
• The cornea and lens form a system that acts as a single thin lens.

MAGNET
- A material or object that produces a magnetic field
● Biggest things inside motors and generators
● Produce a magnetic field
o Have two poles (North & South) where effects are greatest
o Like poles repel; unlike poles attract

ELECTROMAGNET
-A magnet that runs on electricity

MAGNETIC FIELD
-A vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges,
electric currents, and magnetized materials
IRON FILINGS – Show the pattern
COMPASSES – Show the direction

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

• Never cross
• Form individual loops around the magnet
• Are continuous
• Always go from North to South
• Most concentrated at either pole
• All have the same strength
• Is strong when close together
• Is weak when farther apart

MAGNETIC FORCE
Attraction or repulsion that arises between electrically charged particles because
of their motion.
Non-contact Force – Pull or push on objects without touching them
MAGNETIC, GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTRICAL FIELDS

TORQUE
-A measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
• Maximum when the normal of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field
• Zero when the normal is parallel to the field.

CURRENT
● Flows clockwise
● Some segments will be perpendicular to the external magnetic field
● Some segments will be parallel to the external magnetic field

MAGNETIC FIELD (EXTERNAL)

● From north to south

MAGNETIC FORCE
There will be two forces:
● Segment close to the S-pole (directed upward)
● Segment close to the N-pole (directed downward)

DC MOTOR
● Conversion of Electrical energy (the input current) into mechanical energy (the
turning of the coil)
● Movement of the coil can be used to move something else (MOTOR EFFECT)

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
-The potential difference across the terminals of a source
EMF
● Not a force but a potential difference
● The potential difference across the terminal of a source of potential such as a
dry cell, a battery, or a power supply
● The numerical value depends on the source of potential difference.
● Open-circuit voltage -maximum potential difference when there is no current
and the circuit is not closed

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
-Process of generating electric current with a magnetic field

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Direct current (DC) - Electrons flow consistently in one direction.
Alternating Current (AC) - The direction of the flow of electrons switches back and
forth at regular intervals.

MOTORS
-Devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING - Analyze their work using the principles of motion,

energy, and force - ensuring that designs function safely, efficiently, and reliably,
all at a competitive cost.
GENERATORS
- Devices that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
- A square coil, 20 cm to a side, is rotating in a magnetic field of strength 0.02 T. If
the angular speed of a coil is 377 rad/s, find the maximum and minimum EMF per
cycle.