DBMS

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

B. Tech (CSE)
UNIT-1

1.Overview of Database Management System:

Database:

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to

retrieve, insert and delete the data efficiently. It is also used to organize
the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin,
staff, students and faculty etc.

Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the
information.

Database Management System:

Database management system is a software which is used to manage

the database. For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular
commercial database which is used in different applications.

DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like

database creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in
the database and a lot more.

It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of

multiple users, it also maintains data consistency.
DBMS allows users the following tasks:

Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of

definition that defines the organization of data in the database.

Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion

of the actual data in the database.

Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which
can be used by applications for various purposes.

User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users,

maintain data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with
concurrency control, monitoring performance and recovering
information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Characteristics of DBMS:

 It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and

manage the information.
 It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that
manipulates data.
 DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
 It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state
in case of failure.
 It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
 It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
 It is used to provide security of data.
 It can view the database from different viewpoints according to
the requirements of the user.

Advantages of DBMS OVER FILE PROCESSING SYSTEM:

Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because
it stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data
is placed in the database.

Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can

share the data among multiple users.

Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the

centralized nature of the database system.

Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.

Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create

automatic backup of data from hardware and software failures and
restores the data if required.

multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like

graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS:

Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data

processor and large memory size to run DBMS software.

Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.

Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and

requirements.

Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database

because in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single
database and if the database is damaged due to electric failure or
database corruption then the data may be lost forever.
2. DBMS - Architecture:
The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be
centralized or decentralized or hierarchical. The architecture of a
DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-tier. An n-tier
architecture divides the whole system into related but
independent n modules, which can be independently modified,
altered, changed, or replaced.
1-Tier architecture:
In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user
directly sits on the DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will
directly be done on the DBMS itself. It does not provide handy
tools for end- users. Database designers and programmers
normally prefer to use single-tier architecture.

2-Tier architecture:
If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an
application through which the DBMS can be accessed.
Programmers use 2-tier architecture where they access the DBMS
by means of an application. Here the application tier is entirely
independent of the database in terms of operation, design, and
programming.
3-Tier architecture:
A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on
the complexity of the users and how they use the data present in
the database. It is the most widely used architecture to design a
DBMS.
 Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along
with its query processing languages. We also have the relations
that define the data and their constraints at this level.
 Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application
server and the programs that access the database. For a user, this
application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. End-
users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the
application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware of
any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the application
layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-
user and the database.
 User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they
know nothing about any existence of the database beyond this
 layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be
provided by the application. All views are generated by
applications that reside in the application tier.

3. DBMS Component Modules and structure:

Structure of DBMS:
 DBMS (Database Management System) acts as an interface
between the user and the database. The user requests the DBMS
to perform various operations such as insert, delete, update and
retrieval on the database.
 The components of DBMS perform these requested operations on
the database and provide necessary data to the users.

 The various components of DBMS are described below:

 Components of a DBMS
 The components of DBMS can be divided into two parts:
Function and Services of DBMS:
1. DDL Compiler:
o Data Description Language compiler processes schema

definitions specified in the DDL.

o It includes metadata information such as the name of the

files, data items, storage details of each file, mapping

information and constraints etc.
2. DML Compiler and Query optimizer:
o The DML commands such as insert, update, delete, retrieve

from the application program are sent to the DML compiler

for compilation into object code for database access.
o The object code is then optimized in the best way to execute

a query by the query optimizer and then send to the data

manager.
3. Data Manager:
o The Data Manager is the central software component of the

DBMS also knows as Database Control System.

o The Main Functions Of Data Manager Are:

1. Convert operations in user's Queries coming from the

application programs or combination of DML Compiler
and Query optimizer which is known as Query
Processor from user's logical view to physical file
system.
2. Controls DBMS information access that is stored on
disk.
 3. It also controls handling buffers in main memory.
4. It also enforces constraints to maintain consistency
and integrity of the data.
5. It also synchronizes the simultaneous operations
performed by the concurrent users.
6. It also controls the backup and recovery operations.
4. Data Dictionary:
o Data Dictionary, which stores metadata about the database,

in particular the schema of the database.

o names of the tables, names of attributes of each table,

length of attributes, and number of rows in each table.

o Detailed information on physical database design such as

storage structure, access paths, files and record sizes.

o Usage statistics such as frequency of query and transactions.

o Data dictionary is used to actually control the data integrity,

database operation and accuracy. It may be used as a

important part of the DBMS
5. Data Files:
o Which store the database itself.

6. Compiled DML:
o The DML complier converts the high level Queries into low

level file access commands known as compiled DML.

7. End Users:
o The second class of users then is end user, who interacts

with system from online workstation or terminals.

o Use the interface provided as an integral part of the

database system software.

3. User can request, in form of query, to access database either
directly by using particular language, such as SQL, or by using
some pre-developed application interface.
4. Such request are sent to query evaluation engine via DML
pre-compiler and DML compiler
5. The query evaluation engine accepts the query and analyses
it.
6. It finds the suitable way to execute the compiled SQL
statements of the query.
7. Finally, the compiled SQL statements are executed to
perform the specified operation
8. Query Processor Units:
Interprets DDL statements into a set of tables containing
metadata.
Translates DML statements into low level instructions that the
query evaluation engine understands.
Converts DML statements embedded in an application program
into procedure calls int he host language.
Executes low level instructions generated by DML compiler.
a. DDL Interpreter
b. DML Compiler
c. Embedded DML Pre-compiler
d. Query Evalution Engine
9. Storage Manager Units
Checks the authority of users to access data.
Checks for the satisfaction of the integrity constraints.
Preserves atomicity and controls concurrency.
Manages allocation of splace on disk.
Fetches data from disk storage to memory for being used.

a.Authorization Manager

b.Integrity Manager

c.Transaction Manager

d.File manager

e.Buffer Manager

4. Three Levels Database Architecture:

Following are the three levels of database
architecture,

1. Physical Level
2. Conceptual Level
3. External Level

three levels database architecture

In the above diagram,
It shows the architecture of DBMS.
Mapping is the process of transforming request response
between various database levels of architecture.
Mapping is not good for small database, because it takes more
time.
In External / Conceptual mapping, DBMS transforms a request on
an external schema against the conceptual schema.
In Conceptual / Internal mapping, it is necessary to transform the
request from the conceptual to internal levels.
1. Physical Level:
Physical level describes the physical storage structure of data in
database.
It is also known as Internal Level.
This level is very close to physical storage of data.
At lowest level, it is stored in the form of bits with the physical
addresses on the secondary storage device.
At highest level, it can be viewed in the form of files.
The internal schema defines the various stored data types. It uses
a physical data model.
2. Conceptual Level:
Conceptual level describes the structure of the whole database
for a group of users.
It is also called as the data model.
Conceptual schema is a representation of the entire content of
the database.
These schema contains all the information to build relevant
external records.
It hides the internal details of physical storage.
3. External Level:
External level is related to the data which is viewed by individual
end users.
This level includes a no. of user views or external schemas.
This level is closest to the user.
External view describes the segment of the database that is
required for a particular user group and hides the rest of the
database from that user group.

5.Schema and Instance:

 The data which is stored in the database at a particular
moment of time is called an instance of the database.
 The overall design of a database is called schema.
 A database schema is the skeleton structure of the
database. It represents the logical view of the entire
database.
 A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key,
primary key, views, columns, data types, stored procedure,
etc.
 A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a
schema like the name of record type, data type, and
constraints.
 Example:
6.Data Independence:
One of the biggest advantages of database is data independence.
It means we can change the conceptual schema at one level
without affecting the data at other level. It means we can change
the structure of a database without affecting the data required by
users and program. This feature was not available in file oriented
approach. There are two types of data independence and they
are:

1. Physical data independence

2. Logical data independence
 Data Independence The ability to modify schema definition in
on level without affecting schema definition in the next higher
level is called data independence. There are two levels of data
independence:

1. Physical data independence is the ability to modify the

physical schema without causing application programs to be
rewritten. Modifications at the physical level are occasionally
necessary to improve performance. It means we change the
physical storage/level without affecting the conceptual or
external view of the data. The new changes are absorbed by
mapping techniques.

2. Logical data independence in the ability to modify the

logical schema without causing application program to be
rewritten. Modifications at the logical level are necessary
whenever the logical structure of the database is altered (for
example, when money-market accounts are added to banking
system).

Logical Data independence means if we add some new

columns or remove some columns from table then the user view
and programs should not changes. It is called the logical
independence. For example: consider two users A & B. Both are
selecting the empno and ename. If user B add a new column
salary in his view/table then it will not effect the external view
user; user A, but internal view of database has been changed for
both users A & B. Now user A can also print the salary.
 7.Data Models:
A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database
and defines how data will be stored, accessed and updated in a database
management system. While the Relational Model is the most widely
used database model, there are other models too:

 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Entity-relationship Model
 Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a
single root, to which all the other data is linked. The heirarchy starts
from the Root data, and expands like a tree, adding child nodes to the
parent nodes.
In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like
index of a book, recipes etc.
In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one
one-to-many relationship between two different types of data, for
example, one department can have many courses, many professors and
of-course many students.
Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is
organised more like a graph, and are allowed to have more than one
parent node.
In this database model data is more related as more relationships are
established in this database model. Also, as the data is more related,
hence accessing the data is also easier and fast. This database model was
used to map many-to-many data relationships.
This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model
was introduced.
Entity-relationship Model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of
interest into entity and its characteristics into attributes.
Different entities are related using relationships.
E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form
to make it easier for different stakeholders to understand.
This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into
tables in relational model(explained below).
Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database,
then Student will be an entity with attributes name, age, address etc.
As Address is generally complex, it can be
another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and there
will be a relationship between them.
Relational Model
In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the
relationship is maintained by storing a common field.
This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has
been the most widely used database model, infact, we can say the only
database model used around the world.
The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the
information related to a particular type is stored in rows of that table.
Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.
In the coming tutorials we will learn how to design tables, normalize
them to reduce data redundancy and how to use Structured Query
language to access data from tables.
8. All Database languages:
Data Definition Language (DDL):
statements are used to classify the database structure or schema. It is a
type of language that allows the DBA or user to depict and name those
entities, attributes, and relationships that are required for the application
along with any associated integrity and security constraints. Here are the
lists of tasks that come under DDL:
• CREATE - used to create objects in the database.
• ALTER - used to alters the structure of the database.
• DROP - used to delete objects from the database.
• TRUNCATE - used to remove all records from a table, including all
spaces allocated for the records are removed.
• COMMENT - used to add comments to the data dictionary •
RENAME - used to rename an object.
Data Manipulation Language:
A language that offers a set of operations to support the fundamental
data manipulation operations on the data held in the database. Data
Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used to manage data
within schema objects. Here are the lists of tasks that come under DML:
• SELECT - It retrieves data from a database.
• INSERT - It inserts data into a table.
• UPDATE - It updates existing data within a table.
• DELETE - It deletes all records from a table, the space for the records
remain.
• MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update).
• CALL - It calls a PL/SQL or Java subprogram.
• EXPLAIN PLAN - It explains access path to data.
• LOCK TABLE - It controls concurrency.
Data Control Language:
There are another two forms of database sub-languages. The Data
Control Language (DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To
perform any operation in the database, such as for creating tables,
sequences or views we need privileges. Privileges are of two types,
• System - creating a session, table, etc. are all types of system privilege.
• Object - any command or query to work on tables comes under object
privilege. DCL is used to define two commands. These are:
• Grant - It gives user access privileges to a database.
• Revoke - It takes back permissions from the user.
Transaction Control Language (TCL):
Transaction Control statements are used to run the changes made by
DML statements. It allows statements to be grouped into logical
transactions.
• COMMIT - It saves the work done.
• SAVEPOINT - It identifies a point in a transaction to which you can
later roll back.
• ROLLBACK - It restores the database to original since the last
COMMIT.
• SET TRANSACTION - It changes the transaction options like
isolation level and what rollback segment to use.

9.Data Modeling using the Entity Relationship Model:

Entity-Relationship Model:
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world
entities and relationships among them. While formulating real-world
scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates entity set,
relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −
 Entities and their attributes.
 Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.
  Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having
properties called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of
values called domain. For example, in a school database, a student
is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name,
age, class, etc.
 Relationship − The logical association among entities is
called relationship. Relationships are mapped with entities in
various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities −
o one to one
o one to many
o many to one
o many to many
Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is
more scientific a model than others. This model is based on first-order
predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.
The main highlights of this model are −
 Data is stored in tables called relations.
 Relations can be normalized.
 In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
 Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
 Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

10.ER model concepts:

The ER model defines the conceptual view of a database. It works
around real-world entities and the associations among them. At view
level, the ER model is considered a good option for designing databases.
Entity:
An entity can be a real-world object, either animate or inanimate, that
can be easily identifiable. For example, in a school database, students,
teachers, classes, and courses offered can be considered as entities. All
these entities have some attributes or properties that give them their
identity.
An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An entity set may
contain entities with attribute sharing similar values. For example, a
Students set may contain all the students of a school; likewise a
Teachers set may contain all the teachers of a school from all faculties.
Entity sets need not be disjoint.
Attributes:
Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes.
All attributes have values. For example, a student entity may have name,
class, and age as attributes.
There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to
attributes. For example, a student's name cannot be a numeric value. It
has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be negative, etc.
Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which
cannot be divided further. For example, a student's phone number
is an atomic value of 10 digits.
 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more
than one simple attribute. For example, a student's complete name
may have first_name and last_name.
 Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do
not exist in the physical database, but their values are derived from
other attributes present in the database. For example,
average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in the
database, instead it can be derived. For another example, age can
be derived from data_of_birth.
 Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single
value. For example − Social_Security_Number.
  Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more
than one values. For example, a person can have more than one
phone number, email_address, etc.
These attribute types can come together in a way like −
 simple single-valued attributes
 simple multi-valued attributes
 composite single-valued attributes
 composite multi-valued attributes
Entity-Set and Keys:
Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies an
entity among entity set.
For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her identifiable
among students.
 Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively
identifies an entity in an entity set.
 Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a candidate key.
An entity set may have more than one candidate key.
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen
by the database designer to uniquely identify the entity set.
Relationship:
The association among entities is called a relationship. For example, an
employee works_at a department, a student enrolls in a course. Here,
Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.
Relationship Set:
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like
entities, a relationship too can have attributes. These attributes are
called descriptive attributes.
Degree of Relationship:
The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the degree
of the relationship.
 Binary = degree 2
 Ternary = degree 3
 n-ary = degree
Mapping Cardinalities:
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be
associated with the number of entities of other set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with
at most one entity of entity set B and vice versa.

 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated

with more than one entities of entity set B however an entity from
entity set B, can be associated with at most one entity.
 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be
associated with at most one entity of entity set B, however an
entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one entity
from entity set A.

 Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more

than one entity from B and vice versa.
11.ER Diagram Representation:
Any object, for example, entities, attributes of an entity, relationship
sets, and attributes of relationship sets, can be represented with the help
of an ER diagram.
Entity
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named
with the entity set they represent.

Attributes
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented by
means of ellipses. Every ellipse represents one attribute and is directly
connected to its entity (rectangle).
If the attributes are composite, they are further divided in a tree like
structure. Every node is then connected to its attribute. That is,
composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are connected with
an ellipse.

Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.

Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.

Relationship:
Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of the
relationship is written inside the diamond-box. All the entities
(rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected to it by a line.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality:
A relationship where two entities are participating is called a binary
relationship. Cardinality is the number of instance of an entity from a
relation that can be associated with the relation.
 One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is associated
with the relationship, it is marked as '1:1'. The following image
reflects that only one instance of each entity should be associated
with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.
 One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is
associated with a relationship, it is marked as '1:N'. The following
image reflects that only one instance of entity on the left and more
than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with
the relationship. It depicts one-to-many relationship.

 Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is

associated with the relationship, it is marked as 'N:1'. The
following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be
associated with the relationship. It depicts many-to-one
relationship.

 Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one

instance of an entity on the left and more than one instance of an
entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It depicts
many-to-many relationship.
Participation Constraints:
 Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship.
Total participation is represented by double lines.
 Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the
relationship. Partial participation is represented by single lines.

12.Generalization,Specialization & Aggregration:

Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation in ER model are

used for data abstraction in which abstraction mechanism is used
to hide details of a set of objects.
Generalization –
Generalization is the process of extracting common properties
from a set of entities and create a generalized entity from it. It is a
bottom-up approach in which two or more entities can be
generalized to a higher level entity if they have some attributes in
common. For Example, STUDENT and FACULTY can be generalized
to a higher level entity called PERSON as shown in Figure . In this
case, common attributes like P_NAME, P_ADD become part of
higher entity (PERSON) and specialized attributes like S_FEE
become part of specialized entity (STUDENT).

Specialization –
In specialization, an entity is divided into sub-entities based on
their characteristics. It is a top-down approach where higher level
entity is specialized into two or more lower level entities. For
Example, EMPLOYEE entity in an Employee management system
can be specialized into DEVELOPER, TESTER etc. as shown in
Figure . In this case, common attributes like E_NAME, E_SAL etc.
become part of higher entity (EMPLOYEE) and specialized
attributes like TES_TYPE become part of specialized entity
(TESTER).

Aggregation –
An ER diagram is not capable of representing relationship
between an entity and a relationship which may be required in
some scenarios. In those cases, a relationship with its
corresponding entities is aggregated into a higher level entity. For
Example, Employee working for a project may require some
machinery. So, REQUIRE relationship is needed between
relationship WORKS_FOR and entity MACHINERY. Using
aggregation, WORKS_FOR relationship with its entities EMPLOYEE
and PROJECT is aggregated into single entity and relationship
REQUIRE is created between aggregated entity and MACHINERY.

13.Examples of ER Daigram:
1.Hospital Management System:
2.Bank Management System:
3.Library Management System:
THANK YOU