Biotechnology Notes

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MERRYLAND INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
GRADE 9 – BIOTECHNOLOGY NOTES

Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing and


service industries.
Both biotechnology and genetic modification often makes use of bacteria because:
o of their ability to make complex molecules (proteins for example) and their rapid reproduction rate
o they can be grown and manipulated without raising ethical concerns
o they have a genetic code that is the same as all other organisms, so genes from other animals or
plants can be successfully transferred into bacterial DNA.

BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

1. BIOFUELS
Micro-organisms that bring about fermentation are using the chemical reaction to produce energy,
which they need for their living processes. The micro-organisms are encouraged to grow and
multiply by providing nutrients such as glucose, with added salts and, possibly, vitamins. Ethanol
(alcohol) can be produced from fermented sugar or spare grain. This could replace or at least
supplement, petrol.
Being a renewable resource, ethanol produces less pollution than petrol.
biofuels are not yet economical to produce. For example, the energy used to grow, fertilise and
harvest sugar-cane, plus the cost of extracting the sugar and converting it to ethanol, uses more
energy than the ethanol releases when burned. Forests are being destroyed to plant soy beans or oil
palms, removing the habitats of thousands of organisms, some of which, such as the orang-utan,
are on the verge of extinction. Another biofuel, oil from rapeseed or sunflower seed, can with
suitable treatment replace diesel fuel. It is less polluting than diesel but more expensive to produce.

2. BREAD MAKING
Yeast is the micro-organism used in bread-making but the only fermentation product needed is carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes bubbles in the bread dough. These bubbles make the bread ‘light’ in
texture. Flour, water, salt, oil and yeast are mixed to make a dough. Yeast has no enzymes for
digesting the starch in flour but the addition of water activates the amylases already present in flour and
these digest some of the starch to sugar. With highly refined white flour, it may be necessary to add
sugar to the dough. The yeast then ferments the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. A protein called
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gluten gives the dough a sticky, plastic texture, which holds the bubbles of gas
Procedure: The dough is repeatedly folded and stretched (‘kneaded’) either by hand, in the home, or
mechanically in the bakery. The dough is then left for an hour or two at a temperature of about 27°C
while the yeast does its work. The accumulating carbon dioxide bubbles make the dough rise to about
double its volume. The dough may then be kneaded again or put straight into baking tins and into an
oven at about 200°C. This temperature makes the bubbles expand more, kills the yeast and evaporates
the small quantities of alcohol before the dough turns into bread.

3. FRUIT-JUICE PRODUCTION
Pectinases are enzymes used to separate the juices from fruit like apples. The enzymes can be
extracted from fungi (Aspergillus niger). They work by breaking down pectin, the jelly-like substance
that sticks plant cell walls to each other. The enzymes can also be used to make fruit juice more
transparent. During the break down process several different polysaccharides are released, which
make the juice cloudy. Pectinase breaks these down to make juice clearer. The sugars also make the
juice sweeter.

4. BIOLOGICAL WASHING POWDER


The majority of commercial enzyme production involves protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and
fat- digesting enzymes (lipases) for use in the food and textile industries. When combined in washing
powders theyare effective in removing stains in clothes caused by proteins, e.g. blood, egg and
gravy, and fats, e.g. grease. Protein and fat molecules tend to be large and insoluble. When they
have been digested the products are small, soluble molecules, which can pass out of the cloth.
Biological washing powders save energy because they can be used to wash clothes at lower
temperatures, so there is no need to boil water. However, if they areput in water at higher
temperatures the enzymes become denatured and they lose their effectiveness.

5. LACTOSE FREE MILK


Lactose is a type of disaccharide sugar found in milk and dairy products. Some people suffer from
lactose intolerance, a digestive problem where the body does not produce enough of the enzyme
lactase. As a result, the lactose remains in the gut, where it is fermented by bacteria, causing symptoms
such as flatulence (wind), diarrhoea and stomach pains..
 However, lactose-free milk is now produced using the enzyme lactase.
 The lactase can be produced on a large scale by fermenting yeasts such as Kluyveromyces fragilis
or fungi such as Aspergillus niger.
 A simple way to make lactose-free milk is to add lactase to milk. The enzyme breaks down lactose
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sugar into two monosaccharide sugars: glucose and galactose. Both can be absorbed by the
intestine.
 An alternative, large-scale method is to immobilize lactase on the surface of beads. The milk is then
passed over the beads and the lactose sugar is effectively removed. This method avoids having the
enzyme molecules in the milk because they remain on the beads. The food industry uses lactase in
the production of milk products such as yoghurt: it speeds up the process and makes the yoghurt
taste sweeter.

FERMENTERS

Parts / steps Reason


Sterile conditions o avoid competition for expensive nutrients
o limit the danger of disease-causing organisms contaminating the product.

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Nutrient input the microorganisms require:
o an energy source – usually carbohydrate
o growth materials – amino acids (or ammonium salts which can be converted
to amino acids) for protein synthesis.
Water jacket the temperature is controlled so that it is high enough to promote enzyme
activity but not so high that enzymes and other proteins in the microbes are
denatured.
Probes Probes monitor conditions such as pH, temperature and oxygen concentration.
Information is sent to computer control systems which correct any changes to
maintain the optimum conditions for fermentation
Gas outlet Gas may be evolved during fermentation. This must be released to avoid
pressure build-up, and may be a valuable by-product, e.g. carbon dioxide is
collected and sold for use in fizzy drinks.
Paddle stirrers Paddle stirrers continuously mix the contents of the bioreactor:
o ensures microorganisms are always in contact with nutrients
o ensures an even temperature throughout the fermentation mixture
o for aerobic (oxygen-requiring) fermentations the mixing may be carried
out by an airstream.

LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION OF PENICILLIN, MYCOPROTEIN AND INSULIN

A. ANTIBIOTICS [Penicillin]

When micro-organisms are used for the production of antibiotics, it is not their fermentation products
that are wanted, but complex organic compounds, called antibiotics, that they synthesise.
One of the most prolific sources of antibiotics is Actinomycetes. These are filamentous bacteria that
resemble microscopic mould fungi. The actinomycete Streptomyces produces the antibiotic
streptomycin. The best known antibiotic is penicillin, which is produced by the fungus Penicillium and
was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.
Antibiotics attack bacteria in a variety of ways. Some of them disrupt the production of the cell wall
and so prevent the bacteria from reproducing, or even cause them to burst open; some interfere with
protein synthesis and thus arrest bacterial growth. Those that stop bacteria from reproducing are
said to be bacteriostatic; those that kill the bacteria are bacteriocidal.
Animal cells do not have cell walls, and the cell structures involved in protein production are different.
Consequently, antibiotics do not damage human cells although they may produce some side-effects
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such as allergic reactions.
Commercial production of penicillin
Antibiotics are produced in giant fermenting tanks, up to 100000 litres in capacity. The tanks are filled
with a nutrient solution. For penicillin production, the carbohydrate source is sugar, mainly lactose or
‘corn-steep liquor’ – a by-product of the manufacture of cornflour and maize starch; it contains amino
acids as well as sugars. Mineral salts are added, the pH is adjusted to between 5 and 6, the
temperature is maintained at about 26°C, air is blown through the liquid and it is stirred. The nutrient
liquid is seeded with a culture of the appropriate micro-organism, which is allowed to grow for a day
or two. Sterile conditions are essential. If ‘foreign’ bacteria or fungi get into the system they can
completely disrupt the process. As the nutrient supply diminishes, the micro-organisms begin to
secrete their antibiotics into the medium. The nutrient fluid containing the antibiotic is filtered off and
the antibiotic extracted by crystallisation or other methods.
B. INSULIN
Insulin can be produced in large quantities using fermenters. Bacteria are genetically modified to
carry the human insulin gene (insulin is a protein).
Bacteria respire aerobically, so air is pumped into the fermenter. Other conditions such as nutrient
levels, temperature, pH and moisture are maintained at optimum levels so that the bacteria grow and
reproduce rapidly. The nutrients are then reduced, and the bacteria begin to produce the insulin.

C. MYCOPROTEIN
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich meat substitute extracted from fungi. The filamentous fungus, Fusarium
venenatum, is found in soil. Mycoprotein is becoming more popular because it contains no
cholesterol and is lower in saturated fats than protein in meat products. It is suitable as part of a
vegan diet (which contains no animal products), partly because of its high protein content.
Its manufacture has been developed so it can be made commercially. It is fermented in a similar way
to antibiotics and enzymes, using glucose and salts as the feedstock. One mycoprotein product is
called Quorn
Conditions that need to be controlled in a fermenter

Condition Details
Temperature Maintained at around 26°C. Heat is generated during fermentation, so the mixture
needs to be cooled

pH Slightly acidic -5 to 6

Oxygen Sterilized air is blown into the mixture through air pipes and the mixture is stirred to
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aerate it.

Nutrient supply Depends on what is being manufactured, but for penicillin the feedstock is molasses
or corn-steep liquor

Waste products Depends on what is being manufactured, but for penicillin they are the waste nutrient
fluid with bacterial residue. These are quite hazardous because of the presence of
traces of antibiotic. Gases given off may include carbon dioxide.

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