1

CHAPTER O NE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The word education comes from the Latin word e-ducere, which means “to lead out”. It is indeed
difficult to define education. To the human being we educate and to the animal we train. Education in
the broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or
physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is a process by which society
deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.
Education is the basis for development and empowerment for every nation. It plays a vital role in
understanding and participating in day to day activities of today’s world. It builds one’s character and
plays a significant role in transmitting one’s culture, belief and values to others in the society. It helps
in creating innovations and meeting the growing needs of every nation. The development of a nation is
not measured through the buildings it has built, the roads it has laid down, bridges it has constructed
but by the human resources, the nation has developed through a well-defined system of education.
Although the physical facilities are usually important they are perishable and valuable. In the absence
of proper education, the nation can hardly develop these and maintain them. It is a process for the
individual to attain knowledge and understanding of the higher specific objectives (Big Indonesian
dictionary, 2012)

Education is a purposive, conscious or unconscious, psychological, sociological, scientific and

philosophical process, which brings about the development of the individual to the fullest extent and
also the maximum development of society in such a way that both enjoy maximum happiness and
prosperity. It is the development of individual according to his needs and demands of society, of which
he is an integral part. The above remarks of different educators highlight the following special features
of education: (Mill, 2012).

Adeniyi (2014) stated that education is a method of leading people out of ignorance through the
socialization of human beings and constant training of the child to adjust to the changing world. The
definitions of education above have several things in common, one of these is that, education is a
process, which starts at birth and continues for as long as the individual lives. Secondly, the individual
education enables developmental potentials that give service not only to individual but also to the
community at large, Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, therefore is an educational
programme or scheme fashioned out in such a way that the beneficiaries will live up to the
expectations of the society.
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In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal
education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically
compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary,
"postsecondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on
the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools,
gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of
these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary
education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the
seventh to the tenth year of schooling. It is an established fact that education is the gateway to the
development of any society. It is a basic need that leads to the development of all other sectors. In this
case, no society can afford to down grade its educational system as it has direct link with the overall
advancement of society most especially in secondary school level (Thomson, 2011). Education is
therefore more crucial factor not only to equip the new generations with skills so essential for earning
a livelihood but also, to create among them an awareness to social and environmental realities and
inculcate in them scientific temper, independence of mind and spirit which are of paramount
importance for them to become responsible citizens. In relation to educational research, academic
performance of a student can be regarded as the observable and measurable behaviour of a student in a
particular situation.

Samsonowa (2012) Argues that all the different definitions reviewed, in the performance measurement
literature, have one common characteristic; they all are related to two terms: effectiveness and
efficiency; effectiveness as an indicator of the degree of a goal attainment, and efficiency as an
indicator of the resources that were consumed to reach the level of achievement. performance is
regarded as the level/degree of goal achievement of an organization/department rather than of
individuals. According to Krause (2005) Performance refers to the degree of the achievement of
objectives or the potentially possible accomplishment regarding the important characteristics of an
organization for the relevant stakeholders. Performance is therefore principally specified through a
multidimensional set of criteria. The source of the performance is the actions of players in the business
processes. According to Jam (2009) Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts
and being able to communicate your knowledge verbally or on paper. In other words, academic
performance and interest refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or
accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers. Academic performance and interest
generally refers to how well a student is willing to accomplish his or her tasks or studies. Academic
performance generally refers to how well a student is accomplishing his or her tasks or studies. There
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are quite a number of factors that determine the level and quality of students’ academic performance
(Scottk, 2002). Education is a monumental tool for economic, social and political development of any
given country. However, the cost of education in Nigeria is now a growing concern. Various scholars
have been warning about the potent dangers of denying our children and youths the opportunities to
acquire education due to rising cost of education. Education is considered throughout the world to be
key to both individual and societal aspirations. Education beyond the secondary level is assumed to be
the way to social esteem, better paying jobs, expand life options, intellectual stimulation and so forth.
For societies, education is assumed to be the key to technology, productivity, and the ingredients of
international competitiveness and economic growth. It is believed to be a major engine of social
justice, equal opportunity and democracy. In spite of the importance of education, education in Nigeria
is increasingly troubled by cost that are high and rapidly rising and this seems to be out running
available state revenues. Many scholars have been warning about the potent dangers of denying our
youths the opportunities to acquire higher education in Nigeria. Even our erudite professor of
Economics, and former Governor of central Bank of Nigeria, Soludo (2016) while addressing
progressive Governors Forum in Kaduna, said that Nigeria is fast building dynasty of illiterates
because of the high cost of Education in the country. He advocated that for Nigeria to join the
committee of developed nations education must be cheap, available accessible and qualitative.

Although, public secondary schools at the state and federal level struggle to still maintain a
“low school fees policy, private secondary schools charge school fees which have increased
tremendously in recent times. Due to limited available capacity and resources as well as facilities at
the disposal of the institutions and government, the federal and state secondary schools have not been
able to admit all qualified students. A substantial percentage of these students are admitted into the
state and private secondary schools which charge tuition fees and other charges has now rise far above
household income. The rising cost of education in Nigeria has affected the societal values and ethics.
Since societal values are better reemphasized and understood in educational settings. (Akinyemi &
Adebisi, 2012).
The consequences of the higher cost had affected the number of enrolment and quality expected for
social transition of Nigeria social values. Whereas, governments are cutting outlays to secondary
schools and other institutions with consequent loss of staff, deterioration of plant and equipment’s,
erosion of salaries and loss of capacity to expand to meet students demands especially the demands in
public schools in Nigeria, where costs are passed on to students and parents debt levels are increasing
and access being threatened, if not out rightly curtailed. Exacerbating the political tensions of the cost
revenue squeeze charges of education is inefficiency and lack of cost benefit accountability. Indeed
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there is a financial crisis in the educational system in Nigeria. This crisis is much deeper than macro
statistics reveal, and it is not going to disappear soon, especially in Nigeria, if new solution and
remedy are not found. Countries world over, are not only searching for alternative ways of financing
education, but are also paying closer attention to reducing unit costs by enhancing efficiency because
of the increasing financial constraints facing educational investment. Since educational investment
involves both social and private opportunity costs, government decisions need to take into account
fiscal costs as well as the wider social costs. The great interest by the World Bank and UNESCO to
develop methodological guidelines for the estimation and analysis of costs has increased interest in
cost analysis and the need to clarify methods of defining and measuring costs.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Despite the importance of education, the educational sectors in Nigeria has a relatively unimpressive
allocation in the annual budget of the country and this has joined forces with the poverty level in the
country to further depress the level of students’ educational performances in the various levels of
education in the country. With the rising cost of education and the level of secondary school students’
performance and interest in school subjects, poor performance of students has been attributed to a high
cost of education. Students who cannot afford these high costs of education are subjected to staying at
home while the school is in session thereby missing out on relevant knowledge which now reflects
itself in the result of tests and examinations.
Much difficulty lies in the fact that the educational sector is not adequately funded. This results
in shortages of material and human resources for education: lack of qualified teachers; a brain
drain from the public sector; few instructional inputs, shortage of classrooms, and a host of other
problems. These difficulties have been most pronounced at the foundation levels of education.
Both primary and secondary school levels have been negatively affected. In 1997 the Federal
Minister of Education, following a nation-wide tour of the schools, stated that the basic
infrastructure in schools such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, sporting facilities,
equipment, libraries were in a state of total decay. The physical condition of most schools was
reported to be pathetic.
Over the past decade, Nigeria has been plagued by frequent economic crisis, this economic
crisis has generated negative effects on the educational system. Although education had been in
crisis for many years, the situation has recently been made worse by frequent strikes staged by
teachers’ labour unions.
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It is on this backdrop that the researcher is compelled to carry out a study as well as provide possible
solutions on the influence of cost of education on students’ academic performance in secondary
schools in Jos North local Government Area of Plateau State.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of the study is to investigate the influence of cost of education on students’
academic performance in secondary schools Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
The specific objective of the study includes:
1. To investigate the influence of cost of education on rate of dropout amongst secondary school
students in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
2. To examine the effects of cost of education on secondary school students’ academic
performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
3. To examine the extent to which socio-economic background influences secondary school
students’ academic performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
4. To determine how cost of education militate against secondary school students’ academic
performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the influence of cost of education on rate of dropout amongst secondary school students’
in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State?
2. What are the effects of cost of education on secondary school students’ academic performance in
Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State?
3. What the extent to which socio-economic background influences secondary school students’
academic performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State?
4. How do cost of education militate against secondary school students’ academic performance in
Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study shall be significant to policy makers, educational administrators, the government,
teachers, students and researchers.
Policy makers, through this study will be guided in the policy making process to understand and
draft policies that will favour the majority of the country’s population as it pertains to educational
affairs.
The study will be beneficial to educational administrators as it will enable them design the
curriculum to suit the needs of the students so as to enhance their academic performance.
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The findings of this work shall enable the government understand their role in financing and
subsidizing the cost of education to the low-income earning class of the society. They will also realize
the facts that some basic infrastructures are needed in schools (especially public schools) so as to
facilitate learning.
Through this study, Teachers will be guided to understand their roles in motivating the students to
perform better and achieve the best, and to also realize that they are key players in the learners’
performance and interest in school subjects.
This study will motivate student to aim higher and give in their best since performance and interest is
used to measure their level of success.
This study will guide researchers who wish to research further on this topic. It will serve as a basis
for their works and they will investigate those areas that have not been researched or covered by this
study.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses has been formulated to guide this study.
HO1: There is no significant relationship between the influence of cost of education and rate of
dropout amongst secondary school students’ in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
HO2: There is no significant relationship between the effects of cost of education and secondary
school students’ academic performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State? Area
of Plateau State?
HO3: There is no significant relationship between the extent to which socio-economic background
influences secondary school students’ and their academic performance in Jos North Local
Government Area of Plateau State?
HO4: There is no significant relationship between the cost of education and secondary school
students’ academic performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State?

1.7 THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.7.1 Theoretical framework

Behaviourist Theory

Behaviourist viewed that the transmission of information from teacher to learner is essentially the
transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimuli. Thus, the point of education is to present
student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioural responses to specific stimuli and to reinforce
those responses through an effective reinforcement schedule. An effective reinforcement schedule
requires consistent repetition of the material, small, progressive sequences of tasks, and continuous
 7

positive reinforcement. Without positive reinforcement learned responses will quickly become extinct.
This is because learners receive some positive reinforcement.

Behaviourist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called skill and drill exercises provide by the
consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns.

Cognitive constructivist Theory

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge and enabling them to make to the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual
framework to accommodate that information. They viewed that because knowledge is actively active
discovery. The role of the teacher is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent repetition
or to guide them into learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments, rather the role of
the teacher is to facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as
they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new.
Teachers must thus, take into account the knowledge that the learner currently possesses when
deciding how to construct the curriculum and to present sequence and structure new material.

The work of other cognitive theorists helps here. For example; research suggest that learners from a
very young age make sense of the world, actively creating meaning while reading text, interacting with
the environment, or talking with others. Even if students are quietly watching a teacher speak, they can
be actively engaged in a process of comprehension, or minds on work as many teachers describe it. It
is now known that young children are competent, active agents of their own conceptual development,
(Bransford, 2000).

Further more, the V-A-K learning style model highlights that students in a classroom could have
different learning styles- visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. A visual learner learns best by viewing
information in the form chart, diagrams, presentation, e t c. an auditory learner prefer to listen to the
content in order to better understand it since they have strong language skills. Kinaesthetic or tactile
learners learn by touching or moving. They are “doors” or hands on learners. According to VAK
model, most people possess a dominant or preferred learning style. However, some people have a
mixed and evenly balanced blend of the three styles. The fact that learners may have a preferred style
of learning imposes challenges on teachers to plan and structure their instructions so as to reach out to
every child in the classroom. It is possible that a student whose preferred learning style is Kinaesthetic
is bored in a classroom where teaching caters to only auditory learners (Ambika, 2010).

1.7.2 Conceptual framework

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Concept Of Education
Education and training can be reviewed as investment where individuals and society make deliberate
decisions to meet the total costs (direct and indirect) of education as a mechanism or tragedy of
harvesting a wide range of direct and indirect benefits in the future. These are classified into private
and social costs respectively (Woodhall, 2000). Education can be viewed as a private investment
where individuals and their families make efforts and commitment to purchase education for the
purpose of increasing benefits in return in the future. Private costs are further categorized into direct
costs such as school fees (levies), expenditure on books, school uniforms, feeding programmers
(lunch) transport costs, medical costs and indirect/opportunity earning foregone .The last refer to
productivity/earnings foregone. The assumption is that the child would have been productive and
hence contributes to the family substance had he/she have been in school. It is estimated that at least
45% of the costs of education are borne by parents .They include private costs where by the parents
are expected to buy school uniforms, pay school levies, cater for transport and lunch expenses for their
children as well as incur opportunity costs in order for their children to attend school (Republic of
Kenya, 2000).
Education has been recognized as a catalyst to any country’s in social and economic
development. It’s importance is reflected in the growing recognition since the early
1960s that investing in both formal and informal education and training provides and
enhances the skills, knowledge, attitudes and motivation necessary for economic and
social development (Psacharopoulos & Woodhall, 2004). The World Bank, which
provides financial and technical help for the development of poor countries, has long
recognized the importance of investment in education and has been active in this
field since 1962 (world bank, 2008).
Education is financed through budgetary allocation, both public and private, on a
rational basis to ensure equitable distribution of resources . Public
financing of education is growing more difficult as enrolments expand. In most
countries, both public primary and secondary education is free (World, Bank, 2008).
During the 1960s and 1970s most developing countries made an ideological
commitment to free education. The tuition fees in the public sector tend to be reduced
or even abolished. The rapid increase in government expenditure that followed
however, some developing countries began to consider reintroducing tuition fees,
while others introduced charges for boarding and lodging (Psacharopoulos &
Woodhall, 2005).
Concept Of Cost
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According to UNICEF (2003) costs still remain a major constraint to education despite the fact that it
is nominally free. Penrose (2004) notes that cost-sharing is a term which combines the concepts of
direct cost recovery and thus education pricing policies, and indirect contributions from the students,
their parents and sponsors, which may be voluntary, quasi compulsory or compulsory. According to
Rono (2000) educational policy of cost sharing is that parents and governments share educational
expenses of the students. Parents have to devote more of their income to the education of their
children. Apart from paying tuition fees, they also meet medical expenses, uniforms, lunch expenses
transport expenses and personal effects. Investment in a child's education is not just out-of-pocket
costs but also the foregone productive contribution the child would have made to family for example,
due to the high level of poverty in Africa, children are employed as house girls, coffee picker
and hawkers so as to augment family income. Therefore, if opportunity costs of sending a child to
school are high, demand for education at the household level will be lower. Children involved in child
labour do not attend formal classes frequently as organized work prevents many from benefiting from
education. At the same time admissions into secondary schools do not put into consideration
circumstances of the working children. That is, when selection is done to join secondary schools,
pupils who have been involved in child labour or household chores which contribute to poor
performance in national examination are not considered or given special attention considering their
lifestyle (Njeru & Orodho, 2000). Some poor families keep children at home so that they can generate
additional income to sustain the livelihood of those families. Children between five and six years make
important contribution to households through housework and childcare as productive
work. In this case, the opportunity cost take roots in such places at the expense of schooling. This
means that the value of earning foregone or unpaid work in the household accounts for education
among the poor. Psacharopoulos (2004) pointed out the girls are more affected than boys because they
are more involved in domestic activities and agriculture in rural areas. Many poor families regard the
education of girls as low priority, whereas of sons is considered as investment in security for old
age. On the other hand, the opportunity costs of child's time represent the value of foregone earnings
and home production associated with a child being in or traveling to and from school. This opportunity
cost is a functional not only of hours a childspends in traveling to and from school but also of labour
market and nature of home production (Mason & Rozelle, 2008).Using correlation analysis to
determine the degree of association among variables that determines the quality of children in a
household in rural indicated that there is a negative relationship between distance to the nearest school
and child quality. As the distance to the nearest decreases the quality of the children increases. (Mason
& Rozelle, 2008). Transport expenses are likely to make some children fail to attend educational trips.
Insituation where the trips are compulsory, children from poor families may not afford and hence miss
 10

such opportunities. If this is repeated severally with very many pupils, the performance will be
lowered. Indiscipline is also likely to occur with some pupils since they are exposed to different
environments. The opportunity costs of child’s time represent the value of forgone earnings and home
production associated with a child being in or travelling to and from school. This opportunity cost is a
function not only of hours a child spends in travelling to and from school but also of labour market and
nature of home production (Mason & Rozelle, 2008).
1.8 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study is confined to examine the influence of cost education on students’ academic
performance in secondary schools in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
Furthermore, the study will unravel: influence of cost of education on rate of dropout amongst
secondary school students, impact of cost of education on students’ academic performance,
effects of cost of education, extent to which socio-economic background influences secondary
school students’ performance and how cost of education militate against secondary school
students’ academic performance in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Influence: this is the effect or impact that an event and situation has on someone or something.
Cost: Refers to both the private and social expenses incurred in order to cater for educational needs
and demands by either individuals or government.
Secondary school: this is an educational institution where the second stage of the three schooling
periods, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specific age takes place.
Academic Performance: Refers to how well students are doing in their studies. It is measured by the
scores or grades the students get in an examination.
Education: is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical
ability of an individual.
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REFERENCE
Akinyemi. O., & Adebisi, I (2012). Funding university education in Nigeria:

Challenges and Prospects .Retrieved

fromhttps://eprints.covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Krause, G.A (2005). Institutional design vs reputational effects on bureaucratic performance:

Evidence from US government macroeconomic and fiscal projections. London: Gem.

Samsonowa, T. (2012). Industrial research performance panagement: key performance

indicators in the ICT industry. New York: Ivan press.

Soludo, c.c. (2016). The Nigeria education system. A paper presented at the progressive governors
forum in Kaduna.

Caulfield, J. (2006). Education and development Retrieved from

https://www.scribbr.com/big/indonasian/dictionar

Mills, J.S. (2012). Liberal thought on education and the dissemination of education enforcing right of
liberty. American Journal of Educational Research, 6(3), 30-34.

Adeniyi, L.O. (2014). Teachers quality factors as determinant of students’ achievement. Journal of
Education and Practice, 4(6), 16-20.

Jam, A.Y. (2009). Academic performance in schools. Journal of Psychology and Education,
58(5), 30-40.

Scottk, H. (2002). Strike actions and academic performance of students. International Journal of
Education, 3(6), 25-30.

Ambika, G, (2010). The right to education. Los Angelos: Sage publication.

Brandsford, J. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Washinton D.C:
National academy press.

World Bank (2008). Combining poverty, challenge for all: Accelerating

development strategy. London: World bank press.
Republic of Kenya.(2000). Report of the national committee on educational:
Objectives and policies. Nairobi: Government printe
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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This study focused on literature review within the following sub headings; influence of cost of
education on students’ dropout, effect of cost of education on secondary school students, performance
and retention in secondary schools, influence of cost of education on students’, influence of socio-
economic background on students academic performance and factors militating against secondary
school students academic performance.
2.1 EFFECT OF COST OF EDUCATION ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
Davis (2012) noted that the high cost of secondary and higher Education has serious
implications for educational enterprises across the globe, especially in developing countries at the turn
of the 21stcentury. At independence in Nigeria the federal and state governments controlled
educational expenditure making the cost of funding in Nigeria minimal.
As rightly observed by Akinyemi (2012) in recent times, there is pressure on parent’s finances
with regards to the tuition fee and school charges especially for higher education amongst others. The
distributive effects and unintended consequences of such reforms on student’s enrolment have not
received sufficient attention. Governments of federal and states cannot only be left to bear the burden
of rising cost of education in Nigeria.
The Federal government scholarship policy is to make education more accessible to qualified
Nigerian students and assist indigent as well as persons with special needs to gain access to education
(FME, 2013). However, the ongoing Federal government scholarship and award for postgraduates,
undergraduates and special students in all public secondary schools, federal and state Universities,
polytechnics and colleges of Education are more on merit-based with little consideration for that it has
led to decrease in enrolment by low income households. And gender disparity in the enrolment of
more male than female students in some disciplines (Akinyemi, 2012).
The cost of education is comprised of real resources in terms of sacrifices made and money
paid to produce an educated person. Akangbou (2012) ,classified education cost into social and private
costs. In this case the social costs refers to the cost incurred by the government or society in order to
educate its citizens while the private cost of education represented the cost incurred by an individual in
the process of acquiring education. The social cost of education is comprised of direct and indirect cost
where the direct cost represented the cost directly attributed to the provision of education to its citizens
 13

while the social indirect cost is the forgone learning that is, what government is losing by providing
education to its citizens.
Psacharapoulos and Woodhall (2011) further categorized direct social cost of education as
Recurrent Social Cost (RSC) and Capital/development Social Cost (CSC), the two are added to form
Total Social Cost (TSC) of education, expressed as TSC=RSC+ CSC.
The recurrent social cost is also viewed as the costs that recurs regularly. It covers expenditures on
goods and services that bring immediate and short-lived benefits. Thus, expenditures on consumable
goods such as materials and personnel salaries, rent, interests and grants fall in this category.

As stated in the National policy on education Federal Republic of Nigeria( 2004) education is
an expensive social service that requires adequate financial provision from all tiers of government for
successful implementation of the educational programmes. The Nigeria educational funding policy has
governments’ ultimate goal to make education free at all levels with joint financial responsibility of
the Federal, State and local governments and the private sectors (local communities, individuals and
organizations). Charging of and increasing tuition fees are widely recognized as most sharing
reduction strategy for solving educational funding problems arising from increased educational and
faculty costs, Akinyemi (2007), Sanyal & Martains (2006), cost sharing in education they advocate
that cost of education be shared among government, tax payers, parents, students and institutional
donors organizations. The cost of secondary education presents three mega issues in virtually all
nations Johnstone (2007) states that first, how much of a nations’ total resources ought to be, or can be
devoted to higher education? The unit costs of higher education are elusive because of the multiple
and hard to measure outputs. At the most simplistic level, per students costs are a function of
workloads (class size, course loads, and so forth). Average staff salaries, richness of the libraries,
laboratories, and other resources of plant and equipment.
Again, the issue of efficiency or productivity, there is whether the inputs or products of
secondary education can be produced with proper inputs or whether a given monetary value of inputs
can have a greater volume of outputs. The research for greater efficiency leads to considerations of
better management, more effective incentive, consolidations and economics of scale and more
implications of technology. The third mega issue is how the costs of secondary education ought to be
shared among the citizens (tax payers, parents, philanthropists and donors). Whatever the costs, and in
whatever country, they must be borne by some combination of the following: all citizens through
taxes, parents –through payment of school fees, Philanthropists- through current gifts or the
investments return on past gifts. In order for secondary schools in Nigeria to meet up with the capacity
 14

building and needed for contemporary materials as discussed above certainly the most of receiving
education at the higher level must rise to balance cost- benefit.
However, the distribution of secondary schools in both urban and rural area (urban – rural
dichotomy) has serious implication on the private cost and academic performance of the students. For
instance, secondary schools should be planned such that students living in all parts of a state can have
cheap means of transport and easy access to them. In order to reduce the private cost, school size has
to be related to students’ potential population within different communities or zones. The provision of
nearby schools will undoubtedly help to increase enrolment rate and thus bridge the gap of educational
disparities within the State.

2.2 INFLUENCE OF COST OF EDUCATION ON STUDENTS’ DROPOUT

The United States Department of Education measurement, defines dropout rate as the
percentage of 16-24 year olds who are not enrolled in school and have not earned a high school
credential and defines a dropout as a person who has not graduated from high school and is not
currently enrolled in fulltime secondary education (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
2011). Failure to complete a basic cycle of secondary school not only limits future opportunities for
students but also represents a significant drain on the limited resources that countries have for the
provision of secondary education (Sabates, Akyeampong, Westbrook and Hunt, 2010). School
dropouts when compared to high school graduates are usually associated with lowered economic
gains, lack of access to education, reduced tax revenue, poor health outcomes, increased likelihood of
legal trouble (GlobalPost, 2014). Dropping out of school is the outcome of a process that begins before
high school and students exhibit identifiable warning signs at least one to three years before they
dropout (Allensworth, 2005).

Household income is found to be an important factor in determining access to education as

schooling potentially incurs a range of costs, both upfront and hidden. Upfront costs include school
fees, while the more hidden costs include uniforms, travel, equipment and the opportunity costs of
sending a child to school. Household income is linked to a range of factors: when children start school,
how often they attend, whether they have to temporarily withdraw and also when and if they drop out
(Croft, 2012).

Cardoso and Verner (2007), postulated that poverty is the most common primary and
contributory reason for students to be out of school. Dachi and Garrett (2013) asked a series of
questions to parents/guardians about the financial circumstances surrounding children school
 15

enrolment in some African countries, all households responding said the main barrier to sending
children to school was financial and their inability to pay fees. Both statistical data and empirical
research suggest that students from better off households are more likely to remain in school, whilst
those who are poorer are more likely never to have attended, or to drop out once they have enrolled.

Poor households tend to have lower demand for schooling than richer households: whatever the
benefits of schooling, the costs, for them, are more difficult to meet than is the case for richer
households (Colclough, 2012). For children from poorer backgrounds in particular, the pressure on
them to withdraw from school increases as they get older, particularly as the opportunity cost of their
time increases. Work patterns of household members influences whether income is coming in, and the
possible expenditures available. Chugh (2009) looking at patterns of access and non-access in slums in
Bangalore, India indicated that the income of the father was linked to the continuity or discontinuity of
the child in school; with the fathers of most drop outs not employed.

If income levels are low, children may be called on to supplement the household’s income,
either through wage-earning employment themselves or taking on additional tasks to free up other
household members for work. This is more apparent as children get older and the opportunity cost of
their time increases. How people regard schooling and the importance placed on it at times might
shape interactions between schooling, household income and dropping out.

At a time when a nation is experiencing budgetary shortfalls, especially, regarding fully

funding education programs, officials can benefit from the knowledge gained regarding ways of
curtailing unnecessary expenditures in other areas of the economy. As Lochner and Moretti (2010)
reported, programmes specifically developed to improve high school graduation rates have the
potential to lower the probability of additional expenditures for jail space, especially for the African
population, making available additional economic resources that could be channelled into different
community sectors, including education (Stephan, 2008). Little emphasis has been placed on gathering
information at the district level where disparities could occur due to factors such as different levels of
poverty, resource allocation, teacher quality, and disciplinary policies (Losen, 2012). According to the
National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (2013), the problems are serious
enough, should be viewed with laser-like focus and should be a priority for federal, state, and local
educational agencies.
The exact calculation of dropout/klenrolment rates has varied, ranging from the use of
enrolment data, dropout data, and, in some cases, census data to classify the number of dropouts.
However, increasing high school graduation rates have been a problem for states and many school
 16

districts for decades, indicating a continuing, substantial racial gap in high school graduation rates
(Bridgeland, 2006; Mishel and Roy, 2009).
The problem of high school dropouts has emerged as a major community crisis in modern times
(Koedel, 2008). The National Centre for Education Statistics (NCES) in 1990 defined a dropout as a
student, who was enrolled in school at some time during the previous school year, was not enrolled at
the beginning of the current school year, and has not graduated from high school or completed a state-
or district-approved educational program (Laird, Cataldi, Kewal-Ramani, & Chapman, 2008).
According to Koedel (2008), the high school dropout problem has become such a damaging public
concern that some urban schools are being tagged with the nickname-dropout factories because they
are graduating fewer than 50 % of their student. The attendant problem of dropout cannot be
overemphasized, dropping out of school has become societal or better still a worldwide problem:
dropout among secondary school students can lead to:
i. Early marriages
ii. Insecurity in the society, due to theft and robbery
iii. Unwanted pregnancy
iv. High rate of abortion
v. Human trafficking and drug trafficking
vi. Breakdown of rules and regulations and so on and so forth. (koedel, 2008).
Conclusively, the ill-fated dropout now takes it upon themselves to make life very difficult and
worthless for those who have toiled and made their way through to the last stage of their education by
disturbing their peaceful life with robbery and other unwarranted misbehaviours, the problems of
dropout has also ensured a lot of disunity among many families, also dropping out of school can lead
students to become delinquent. According to Stone (2014) delinquency is recognized as a pervasive
social problem, according to him delinquency behaviour patterns can be found in all part of the
American society the assertion is not different from that of Nigeria. Delinquency and unemployment
have led most Nigeria robbers and hired assassins, even majority of the students in school feel that you
can only be assured of adequate security.
2.3 INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENTS ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE
According to Parson, Stephanie and Deborah (2001) socio-economic status is an expression
which is used to differentiate between people‘s relative status in the community regarding family
income, political power, educational background and occupational status. The socio-economic status
of a child is usually determined by parental educational level, parental occupational status and income
level. The term "social class" originally referred to groups of people holding similar roles in the
 17

economic processes of production and exchange, such as landowners or tenants, employers or

employees. Such positions correspond to different levels of status, prestige, and access to political
power. However, social class eventually took on a more generic meaning and came to refer to all
aspects of a person's rank in the social hierarchy (Gale Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2002).

According to Oakes & Rossi (2003) A socio-economic status is a definite background variable
that represents a feature of the social structure in society. It is a fact that families where the parents are
privileged educationally, socially and economically promote a higher level of achievement in their
offspring. It is understood that low socio-economic status may negatively and depressingly affects
students‘ academic performanve because due to low socio-economic status, a student does not have
access to important resources and generates additional stress and tension at home . Heyneman (2005)
stated that students may not show effective performance in school whose parental socio-economic
status is low because they are not financially buoyant to afford some basic and fundamental resources
they need to attain better academic success and performance in school subjects. Saifi and Mehmood
(2011) stated that socio-economic status is a combined measure of economic and social position of an
individual or family relative to others on the basis of income, education and occupation. They
concluded that the higher level of socio-economic status is the best indicator which plays a
fundamental role in promoting quality of students’ achievement. In a nutshell, the influence of socio-
economic status of parents on their children‘s academic performance cannot be undermined. A number
of family characteristics have been found to be associated with the school dropout rates. The situation
is a complex one, however and it is unlikely that these characteristics are directly and casually related
to school withdrawal. Moreover many of these factors reflect more basically on the family that militate
against success and persistence in school. The most general family characteristics related to school
dropout is that of social economic status.

Sewell (2000) in a survey of socio economic background of children in selected schools, had
indications that the rate of dropout may be related to parents education occupation and number of
wives the father has, he postulated that the children from polygamous home seen to have higher
dropout rate than those from monogamous homes, children from less educated parents, also he argued
that the children of craftsmen and artisans seemed to have a higher dropout rate than other categories
of occupations.
The responsibility of training a child always lies in the hand of the parents. This is congruent
with the common assertion by sociologist, that education can be an instrument of cultural change
which is being taught from home. It is not out of place to imagine that parental socio-economic
background can have possible effects on the academic performance of children in school. Nonetheless,
 18

children physical environment affect their education or disposition to it. Parental status is one of such
variables, just like when a woman’s nutritional status improves, so does the nutrition of her young
children (Lisa, 2003).
Hill (2004) also argued that the financial status of parents do not only affect the academic
performance of the child, but also makes it impossible for the child to compete with his counterpart
from high financial status under the same academic environment.
Furthermore, Smith, Fagan and Ulvund (2002) asserted that significant predictor of intellectual
performance of a child at age of 8 years, included parental socio-economic status. Other researchers
had posited that parental financial status could affect schoolchildren as to bring about flexibility to
adjustment to the different school schedules. In another finding, Oni (2007) and Omoegun (2007) had
averred that there is significant difference between the rates of deviant behaviour among students from
high and low socio-economic status. Parental socioeconomic status could be observed to have a direct
effect on the child’s performance as it is easy to come across children being sent home for school fees
and other charges thereby missing out on assessments and other vital school activities whereas the
privileged children may have all the learning comfort without distractions which in turn enhances their
performances ahead of their counterparts maybe absent from or school or lack the basic learning
materials.
2.4 FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE

Undoubtedly, education is the key to economic and technological advancement, a means of alleviating
poverty among the populace as well as ameliorating their lifestyles. In recognition of this, the federal
Government of Nigeria has through its national Policy on Education in 1977, 1981, 1998 (and revised
in2004) spelt out how education can be utilized to bring about the necessary transformation.

Admittedly, secondary schools which is the foundation of the educational system is expected to
produce graduates who should be able to maintain high and sensitive position so that the laudable
objectives can be realized. Sadly enough, in recent time the products of this citadel of learning can no
longer compete favourable with their counterparts from other parts of the world. The reason for this is
not farfetched. It is simple that the quality of education has fallen. To explain this point, ( Esu & Mba,
2018). There is a near national outcry on the poor quality of Education in Nigeria. Also, commenting
on this, it is noted that the scripts of some students in external exams like WAEC were unreadable and
far beyond comprehension because some students find it difficult to take notes during teaching and
also many are unable to have a firm grasp of material taught even after repeated explanations by the
teacher. Efforts are being made by school administrators to improve the performance of Public
 19

secondary school students. The school environment, which include the classrooms, libraries, technical
workshops, laboratories, teachers’ quality, school management, teaching methods, peers, and so forth
are variables that affect students’ academic performance and interest in school subjucts. (Ajayi, and
Oluchukwu, in Mba 2018). Hence, the school environment remains an important area that has to
studied and well managed to enhance students’ academic performance and interest.

According to Jam (2009) Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts and being
able to communicate your knowledge verbally or on paper. In other words, academic performance and
interest refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different
tasks given to them by their teachers. Academic performance and interest generally refers to how well
a student is willing to accomplish his or her tasks or studies.

According to Hussain (2006) secondary school students in public schools often come from
economically poor and average income families. These families face various problems causing
emotional disturbance among their children. This singular factor has caused serious damage to the
academic performance and interest to secondary school students.

Although studies abound on the causative and predictive nature of factors of study habit on students
academic achievement, performance and interest. All factors or variables tend to focus on poor study
habit while the effects are yet to be fully accessed on the nations educational development. The issue
of poor academic performance and interest in school subjects of students in Nigeria has been of much
concern to the government, parents, teachers and even student themselves. The quality of education
not only depends on the teachers as reflected in the performance of their duties, but also in the
effective coordination of the school environment (Aja, 2001). The issue of poor academic performance
of students in Nigeria has been of much concern to all and sundry. The problem is so much that it has
led to the widely acclaimed fallen standard of education in Nigeria. The quality of education depends
on the teachers as reflected in the performance of their duties. Over time pupils’ academic
performance in both internal and external examinations had been used to determine excellence in
teachers and teaching (Ajao, 2001). Teachers have been shown to have an important influence on
students’ academic achievement and they also play a crucial role in educational attainment because the
teacher is ultimately responsible for translating policy into action and principles based on practice
during interaction with the students (Afe, 2001). Both teaching and learning depends on teachers, no
wonder an effective teacher has been conceptualized as one who produces desired results in the course
of his duty as a teacher. Considering governments’ huge investment in public education, its output in
 20

terms of quality of students has been observed to be unequal with government expenditure (uchefuna,
2001).

In Nigeria, there are so many factors influencing the ability of students to cultivate effective and
efficient study habit. Ozmert (2005) emphasized the importance of environmental influence as a major
factor in the development of students studying habits. The environment of most children is not
conducive for studying; it is in the light of this that made some parents to prefer their children to go to
boarding school for proper discipline and to inculcate better reading habit.

Poor academic performance of secondary school student has been on the increase in both internal and
external examination. Okeye (2009) defines poor academic performance of the individual or candidate
in a learning situation as one in which a candidate fails to attain a set standard of performance in a
given evaluation exercise such as test, examination or series of continuous assessment. Usually, that
standard is based on a number of stipulated objectives and other school activities. A candidate who
scores less or below the standard is regarded as showing a poor academic performance in school.
Some people blame students themselves and others blame government while, others blame teachers.
Nwana (2010) states that school leavers of nowadays are not able to speak correct and fluent English,
they cannot solve simple arithmetic problem and they do not know their basic time tables. For instance
teachers perceive the following as causes of poor performance and interest in school subjects; non use
of verbal reinforcement, poor attendance to lesson, poor method of teaching, teacher work load,
emotional problems, study habits, teachers consultation, poor interpersonal relationship, self esteem
and motivation orientation. While students perceive the following causes of poor performance and
interest; low motivation, students effort, abilities and traits and role perception. Parents perceived low
income, illiteracy, nutrition type of discipline at home, lack of role model, finance, poor parenting and
poor teaching as causes of poor performance. Finally, the ministry of education perceives the
following as a cause of poor performance; attitude of teachers to their work, poor methods of teaching,
poor attendance to lesson, performance failure to offer guidance and counselling to students poor
management. This became an issue of concern to the researcher and it prompted a research on factors
contributing to poor academic performance in government among senior secondary school in Nigeria.

Poor academic performance according to Aremu (2003) is a performance that is adjudged by the
examiner and some other significant as falling below an expected standard. Poor academic
performance has been observed in school subjects especially Mathematics, English language,
Economics among secondary school students. He stresses that academic failure is not only frustrating
to the pupils and the parents, its effects are equally grave on the society in terms of death of manpower
 21

in all spheres of the economy and politics. Education at secondary school level is supposed to be the
bedrock and the foundation towards higher knowledge in tertiary institutions. It is an investment as
well as an instrument that can be used to achieve a more rapid economic, social, political,
technological, scientific and cultural development in the country. The National Policy on Education
(2004) stipulated that education is an instrument for national development that fosters the worth and
development of the individual for further education and development, general development of the
society and equality of educational opportunities to all Nigerian children irrespective of any real or
marginal disabilities.

Morakinyo (2009) believe that the falling level of academic achievement, performance and interest is
attributable to teacher’s non-use of verbal reinforcement strategy. The attitude of some teachers to
their job is reflected in their poor attendance to lessons, lateness to school, unsavoury comments about
students performance that could damage their ego, poor method of teaching and the likes affect
students academic performance and interest in school subjects.The content of Nigeria education does
not reflect the past present and future of the dynamics of Nigeria society in terms of the roles the
individual is expected to play in the resent modernization process.

The Nigeria formal education system is not organize, and structured aspect of the education which
takes place within the four walls of the school. It however has to be noted that, all emphasis in terms
of government budgetary allocation and general planning, is usually not placed on formal education.
Hence, a discussion of Nigeria’s educational system is almost synonymous with a discussion of the
formal educational system. As has been pointed earlier, the formal education system comprises
interrelated sub-system or levels. The major levels of the Nigerian educational system are primary,
secondary, (post primary), and tertiary Post Secondary (Mkpa, 2012).
EMPIRICAL REVIEW
The empirical studies is organised around the following themes: the rising cost of education in
Secondary schools, the influence of education costs on students’ academic performance in secondary
schools, the rising cost of education and its implications on the youth, the relationship between private
cost in education and student academic performance in secondary schools and the influence on hidden
costs of education on students academic performance in public schools.
John Adams (2013) accessed the rising cost of education in Secondary schools in Kano State. The
purpose of the study was to investigate the Rising cost of Education and its implication on the youth in
Public Secondary schools in Ungogo L.G.A, Kano State, Nigeria. Five research questions were raised,
 22

the methodology was survey design. Four hundred and ten teachers were use as sample out of 820 that
forms the population of the study. Questionnaire and observation checklist were used to collect data.
Tables and simple percentage was used for data analysis.
It was found that student’s socio-economic background, environment, teachers non-use of verbal
reinforcement strategy and poor funding from government were among the factors affecting student
academic performance in secondary schools.
He recommended that the government should be committed to the adequate funding of secondary
education through appropriate budgetary allocation for the sustenance of secondary education in the
country. The government should consider an upward review of the educational budget to meet up with
the 26% allocation recommended by UNESCO and above. The study highlighted some of the factors
affecting student’s academic performance in secondary schools and the present study will seek
solutions to those problems.

Samwel and Stephen (2014) investigated the influence of education costs on students’ academic
performance in secondary schools in Kenya. The purpose of the study was to determine the
influence of education costs on student academic performance in Bungona District secondary
schools. Four research questions guided the study. Methodology was descriptive survey
research design. The population of the study was eighty class teachers drowned from twenty
secondary schools. Questionnaire was used to collect data and simple percentage was use for
data analysis.

It was found that there were disparities in cost of education both within and between the two
categories of county and district schools, schools strive to invest in areas and activities that can
help them attract the best students, attract donations and ultimately boost their ranking in
performance, no government subsidy in education and teachers are not well motivated in
public secondary schools.

They recommended that all public schools should embrace activity-based management principles, by
which they will be require to tie all expenditure to targeted outcome within their expenditure.
Also, government should subsidies in public secondary schools as this will enhance student
academic performance in school subjects.

The research study by samwel and Stephen is related to the present study in the sense that it dwells on
the influence of costs of education on secondary school students academic performance.
 23

John (2011) conducted a study on the rising cost of education and its implications on the youth. The
purpose of the study was to investigate the rising cost of education and its implication on the
youth in public secondary schools in Ungogo L.G.A. five research questions guided the study.
Survey research design was used. The sample size of the study was 28 principals, 196 teachers
and 370 students drowned from all the public secondary schools in Ungogo. The methodology
of the study was survey research design. Questionnaire was use to collect data. Simple
percentage was use for data analysis.

It was observed that teachers attitude, lack of infrastructural facilities, government lack of interest,
socio economic background of students, lack of motivation are some of the challenges of cost of
education on the youth.

He recommended that the government at all levels should prioritize education to enable students that
are not financially buoyant to be able to afford education.

Oyegoke(2012) conducted a study on the relationship between private costs in education and students
academic performance in secondary schools. The purpose of the study was to investigate the
relationship between private costs in education and students academic performance in secondary
schools in Ekiti state. Four research questions guided the study. Survey research design was used. The
sample size was of the study was 1,000 students and 50 principals from some selected secondary
schools in Ekiti state. Questionnaire was used to collect data and mean score was used for data
analysis.

The study revealed that poor performance of students in their public examination is real and the
reported level of students’ performance may not be a good reflection of the private cost.

He recommended that there is need to increase budgetary allocation for secondary education in the
state, material resources in schools should be adequately provided in all secondary schools in the zone
and education canters should be established in all the local government area headquarters by the state
government and teachers participation should in staff development programmes such as competency
test, exchange teaching and professional writing must be given prominent attention in secondary
schools in the state.

This study is related to the present day study because it emphasizes on secondary school students
academic performance as well as cost of education.
 24

Simon Njau (2012) conducted a study on the influence of hidden cost in education on students
academic performance in public schools. The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of
hidden cost in education on students academic performance in public schools in Gatanga district. Five
research objectives/questions guided the study. Descriptive survey research design was used. The
sample size was of the study was 120 head teachers students from Kariara, Gatanga and Kihumbu
public schools. Questionnaire was used to collect data and simple percentage was used for data
analysis.

The findings revealed that hidden cost in education drastically affect students academic performance
as most parents can not adequately provide as well as support their wards educational needs.

He recommended that the level of financing of education by the government and other stakeholders
should be increased in order to carter for some hidden cost.

The study by Simon Njau is relevant to this present study because it dwells on cost in education and
students academic performance,

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW.

Education in the 21st century is no doubt a basic need as its need is fused into the entire existence and
needs of society so that even to navigate through the world of a technologically advanced world and a
global one at that, one need not only basic education but a significant level of it.
This chapter has reviewed literatures relating to the influence of cost of education on student’s
academic performance in secondary schools. It has analysed literatures relevant to the research
objectives/questions. Issues such as influence of cost of education on students’ dropout, effect of cost
of education on secondary school students’, influence of socio-economic background on students’
 25

academic performance, factors militating against secondary school students’ academic performance
and empirical studies were all elaborated on. The review nevertheless seems to indicate that influence
of cost of education on students’ academic performance in secondary schools in Jos North local
Government Area of Plateau State was not covered. This creates a gap which this present day study
intends to fill.

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 30

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter explains the research design used in carrying out this study. The chapter contains
the following sections; research design, population and sample, sampling technique, instruments of
data collection, validity and reliability of the instruments, procedure for data collection and method of
data analysis.
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a process of creating an empirical test to support or refute a knowledge

claim (Borg & Gall 1989). This study used co-relational design. According to Orodho (2003) co-
relational design analyses the relationship between variables with the aim of establishing the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables. In this case, this study sought to
establish whether there is any relationship between the high cost of education and students’
performance as well as retention in selected secondary schools in Jos-North Local Government Area
of Plateau State.
3.2 Population and Sample
3.2.1 Population
According to Creswell (2012), population is a group of individuals or entities with some
common characteristic that the researcher plans to study with the aim of generalizing the findings
about the population. Borg and Gall, (2007), was also of the view that population comprises of all the
members of a factual or hypothetical group of people or events to which a researcher wish to
generalize the results of their study. The population comprises of students and teachers of secondary
schools in Jos-North Local Government Area.
The population includes 7088 students and 506 teachers of the 22 secondary schools in the area of
study.
3.2.2 Sample
A sample is a smaller group attained from the accessible population (Mugenda & Mugenda 2003). To
get the teachers and students sample, the researcher used the simple random sampling, 50 teachers
were drawn from the population of teachers and 700 students were sampled from the population of
students. From the sample, two hundred (200) students and fifty (50) teachers were selected from the
school, which gave a total of two hundred and fifty (250) respondents.
 31

TABLE 1: Sample Frame

Respondents Population size Sample size Percentage %

Students 7088 200 80

Teachers 506 50 20
Total 7594 250 100
 32

3.3 Sampling Technique

Sampling is a process of selecting a sub-set of cases in order to draw conclusion about the
entire set. Stratified sampling design was employed to select schools while teachers and students were
selected using simple random sampling. This involved dividing all public secondary schools in Jos-
North into two homogenous subgroups (the above average and below average schools) and then taking
a random sample from every category in their proportion. This ensured that the homogenous subgroup
in the population was represented in the study in their proportion.
Any statement made about the sample should also be true of the population (Orodho 2002).
Gay (1992) ascertains that for a survey design, a sample of 10% is justifiable and can be less or more
depending on the target population.
3.4 Instrument for data collection
The researcher used the questionnaires to collect data. Questionnaires were preferred because
of their ability to ensure confidentiality of responses from the respondents (Saunders, 2003).Two sets
of questionnaires were prepared consisting of both open ended and closed ended questions and they
were administered to teachers and students. Questionnaires are considered to be the most suitable
instrument of descriptive research for they would require less time, are less expensive and permit
collection of data from a wide geographical area (Orodho,2005).
3.4.1 Description of the Instrument

Both questionnaires (teaches' and students’) are going to comprise of three sections: A, B, C.
Section A of the questionnaire contain an introductory letter to the respondents, while section B
contain the descriptive part which include personal information about the respondents. Section C is the
 33

analytical part which contain questions prepared for teachers and students to respond, in which the
data generated shall be used for analysis and interpretation in chapter four of this project.

The researcher considered the use of rating scale in judging certain characteristics about the
respondents, which provides an opportunity for describing the degree to which such characteristic is
present.

3.4.2 Procedure for Instrument Development

The aim of the questionnaire is to investigate the influence of high cost of education on
students’ performance and retention in Secondary schools. In this regards, the researcher intends to
develop the questionnaire based on the research topic to elicit relevant response on how the high cost
of education influence students’ academic performance.

The instrument used for data collection for this study is questionnaire. The questionnaire has
two parts: the first part is for personal data, while the second part contains sections with questions
relating to cost of education, students’ performance, drop out and retention.

3.5 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments

3.5.1 Validity
Validity is the degree to which represents the phenomenon under investigation (Orodho,2009).
The procedure in assessing content validity is to use professional or expert in this field (Mugenda &
Mugenda,2003).
The questionnaire was vetted by the supervisor. Corrections and suggestion were made and
incorporated into the instrument before it was approved for use in the field.

3.5.2 Reliability

Reliability is a measure if the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or
data after repeated trials (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). The researcher used test-retest technique of
testing reliability of the instrument. This is a technique of administering the same instrument twice in
the same group of subjects. The questionnaires were then administered to the same selected sample
again after one week.
3.6 Procedure for data collection
For easy administering of the research instrument, the researcher will personally visit the
selected schools, this is necessary in order to create familiarity with the members of staff, particularly
teachers and the students. The questionnaire would be administered personally by the researcher and
 34

will be completed on the spot and return back to the researcher. The face to face encounter will ensure
accurate sampling and respond rate

3.7Method of Data analysis

Data analysis refer to the examining of what has been collected in a survey experiment in
making deduction and inferences, that is, it is a process of inspecting, clearing, transforming and
modelling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggestion conclusions and supporting
decision making (Kombo & Tromp, 2006). The data to be collected will be both qualitative and
quantitative.
The qualitative data will be classified and coded into themes and concepts for analysis based
on objectives of the study. The data collected will then be analyzed using Chi-square test of
independence. The computed data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics. The statistics
calculated included frequencies and percentages. The qualitative data generated will then be
categorized into themes in accordance with research objectives and reported in narrative form along
with quantitative presentation. Interpretation of data will be done within the framework of reference of
research problem and conclusion drawn.
The chi-square test of independence is considered for this research. The use of chi-square test
of independence is necessary for the study because it is used in testing the null hypothesis (Ho)
involving two independent variables of classification. SPSS version 25 will be used for the analysis.
 35

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter covered areas such as data presentation, results of research questions, hypothesis
testing and discussion of results respectively.

4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

The results of the analyzed data have been classified into two parts namely; the analysis of research
questions using descriptive statistics and the results of the hypothesis tested using inferential statistics
respectively.

4.1.1 Demographic information of the sampled Students and Teachers

This research made efforts to obtain data on demographic characteristics of the respondents in the
study area. Data were obtained from a sample size of 241 respondents and their gender. Table 1 shows
the distribution of students by their gender.

Table 2: Distribution of Students by their Gender.

Frequency Percent

MALE125 65.4

FEMALE66 34.6

TOTAL 191 100.0

 36

Table 2 reveals that 65.4 percent of the sampled students were male while 34.6 percent were females.
This suggests that majority of the students who responded to the questionnaire in the area were males.

Also, information was collected from the sampled teachers for this study. Table 3 shows the
distribution of teachers by their gender.
 37

Table 3: Distribution of Teachers by their Gender

Frequency Percent

MALE36 72

FEMALE14 28

TOTAL 50 100.0
 38

Table 3 revealed that 72 percent of the sampled teachers were males, while 28 percent of the sampled
teachers were females.

Demographic characteristics of the respondents based on class. Data were obtained from respondents
and their class. Table 4 shows the distribution of the respondents by their class.
 39

Table 4: Distribution of Students by Class

Frequency Percent

Valid .00 33 17.3

SS1 43 22.5

SS2 43 22.5

SS3 72 37.7

TOTAL191 100

Demographic characteristics of the respondents based on educational status. Data were obtained from
the respondents based on their educational status. Table 5 shows the distribution of teachers by their
educational status.
 40

Table 5: Distribution of Teachers by their Educational Status.

Frequency Percent

Valid NCE 20 40.0

B.SC 27 54.0

M.SC 3 6.0

TOTAL 50 100.0
 41

4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

4.2.1 Research Question One: To what extent does cost of education lead to students’ dropout? Table
6 shows the results of student’s response on the influence of high cost of education and students
dropout.
 42

Table 6: Summary of Results of Student’s Questionnaire on the influence of the high cost of
education on student’s dropout.

Question Mean Std. DeviationDecision

1. My parents pay my school fees on time and regularly. 3.6806 .56902 Agree

2. Apart from tuition, we pay other charges during the term 3.5183 .57895 Agree

3. My parents cannot pay my school fee, they usually ask

me to stay at home. 1.4241 .57422 Disagree

4. I have all the necessary learning materials. 3.0000 .81435 Agree

5. Every session our school usually increases our school

fees. 3.1099 .93102 Agree

 43

The results in table 6 showed mean scores and standard deviations of items constructed to
answer research question 1. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
response of the students were 3.68, 3.52, 1.42, 3.00 and 3.12 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.57, 0.58, 0.57, 0.81and 0.93.

Also, information was collected from the sampled teachers for this study. Table 7 shows the
response of teachers on the influence of high cost of education on students’ dropout.
 44

Table 7. Summary of Results of Teachers Questionnaire on the influence of high cost of

education on students’ dropout

Question Mean Std. Deviation Decision

1. Parents pay students school fees on time and regularly. 3.3800 .85452 Agree

2. Apart from tuition, we pay other charges during the term 3.4000 .49487 Agree

3. If parents cannot pay school fee, they usually ask students

to stay at home 2.1400 .60643 Disagree

4. I provide all the necessary learning materials. 2.7000 .46291 Agree

5. Every session our school usually increases our school

fees. 3.6000 .49487 Agree

The results in table 7 showed mean scores and standard deviations of items constructed to
answer research question 1. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
response of the teachers were 3.38, 3.40, 2.14, 2.70 and 3.60 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviations of 0.85, 0.49, 0.61, 0.46 and 0.49.
 45

4.2.2 Research Question Two: What are the effects of high educational cost on student’s
performance?Table 8 shows the results of students’ responses on the influence of the high cost of
education on students’ performances.

Table 8: Summary of Results of Students’ Questionnaire on the influence of high cost of

education on students’ performances.

Question MeanStd. Deviation Decision

6. I purchase all the required learning materials every term. 2.8063.49115 Agree

7. Every term I am sent home for school fees. 1.8429 .97140 Disagree

8. Our teachers use instructional materials and other

educational materials in teaching. 2.8691 .96171 Agree

9. Every term my school usually organizes competition for us.3.1099 .67548 Agree

10. Sending me home for school fees affects my performance.2.7696 1.12826 Agree
 46

The results in table 8showed mean scores and standard deviations of items constructed to answer
research question 2. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the response
of the students were 2.81, 1.84, 2.87, 3.10 and2.77 respectively with the corresponding standard
deviation of 0.49, 0.97, 0.96, 0.68 and 1.13. The mean ratings of item 1, 3, 4 and 5 were above the cut-
off point of 2.50n while only item 2 is below the mean rating of 2.50.

Information was also collected from the sampled teachers for this study. Table 9 shows the responses
of the teachers on the influence of the high cost of education on students’ performances.
 47

Table 9: Summary of Results of Teachers’ Questionnaire on the high cost of education on

students’ performances.

Question Mean Std. Deviation Decision

6. My students purchase all the required learning materials every term.3.0600 .42426 Agree

7. Every term students are sent home for school fees. 3.2600 .89921 Agree

8. I use instructional materials and other educational materials in

teaching. 2.7200 .45356 Agree

9. Every term the school usually organizes competition for us. 2.8400 .37033 Agree

10. Sending my students home for school fees affects their performance.4.0000 .00000 Agree
 48

The results in table 9 showed mean scores and standard deviation s of items constructed to
answer research question 2. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
responses of students were 3.06, 3.26, 3.72, 3.84 and 4.00 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.42, 0.89, 0.45, 0.37 and 0.00. All the mean ratings of items were above the cut-
off point of 2.50

4.2.3 Research Question Three: How does grade retention influence students’ performance?Table 10
shows the result of students’ response on the influence of grade retention and student’s performance.

Table 10: Summary of Students’ Questionnaire on the influence of grade retention on student’s
performances.

Question Mean Std. Dev Decision

 49

11. Some of my mates repeat classes because they cannot pay school fees. 3.2880 .72243 Agree

12. Students’ performance is affected by constant school fees drive. 2.7330 .83156 Agree

13. My parents always ask me to repeat a class because of my

performance. 2.0105 .82072 Disagree

14. My schools’ policy on repeating is too strict. 2.9529 .74895 Agree

15.My Parents will react fiercely when I repeat. 2.5602 1.12169 Agree

The results in table 10 showed mean scores and standard deviation s of items constructed to
answer research question 2. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
responses of students were 3.89, 2.73, 2.01, 2.95 and 2.56 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.72, 0.83, 0.82, 0.75 and 1.12.

Also, information was collected from the sampled teachers for this study. Table 11 shows the response
of teachers on the influence of grade retention on students’ performance.
 50

Table 11: Summary of Results of Teachers Questionnaire on the influence of grade retention on
students’ performance.

Question Mean Std. DeviationDecision

11. Students repeat classes because they cannot pay school fees. 3.8000 .40406 Agree

12. Students’ performance is affected by constant school fees drive. 4.0000 .00000 Agree

13. Parents ask their wards to repeat a class because of their

performance. 2.4800 .70682 Disagree

14. My schools’ policy on repeating is too strict. 3.2600 .44309 Agree

15. Parents react fiercely when their wards repeat. 3.2600 .59966 Agree
 51

The results in table 11 showed mean scores and standard deviation s of items constructed to
answer research question 2. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
responses of students were 3.80, 4.00, 2.48, 3.26 and 3.26 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.40, 0.00, 0.71, 0.44 and 0.59. Almost all the mean rating of items were above
the cut-off point of 2.50 except item 3.

4.2.4 Research Question Four: To what extent does socio-economic background affects students’
retention in schools? Table 12 shows the results of students’ response on the influence of parental
socio-economic background on students’ retention in secondary schools.
 52

Table 12: Summary of Results of Students’ Questionnaire on parental socio-economic

background and students retention I schools.

Question Mean Std. Deviation Decision

16. After school hours I often go to learn work. 2.6283 .86035 Agree

17. I pay my school fees by myself. 1.8010 .72707 Disagree

18. I always come to school late. 1.6963 .76222 Disagree

19. My parents always pay my school fees on time. 2.9686 .99422 Agree

20. My parents create enough time for me when faced

with difficult challenges in school. 2.8377 .64059 Agree

 53

The results in table 12 showed mean scores and standard deviation s of items constructed to
answer research question 3. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
responses of students were 2.62, 1.80, 1.69, 2.97 and 2.83 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.86, 0.73, 0.76, 0.99 and 0.64. The mean rating of items 1, 4 and 5 were above
the cut-off point of 2.50 while item 2 and 3 are below the mean rating of 2.50.

Also, information was collected from the sampled teachers for this study. Table 13 shows the response
of teachers on the influence of parents’ socio-economic background on students’ retention.

Table 13: Summary of Results of Teachers Questionnaire on the influence of parents’ socio-
economic background on students’ retention in schools.

Question Mean Std. Deviation Decision

16. After school hours students often go to learn work. 1.4000 .80812 Disagree

17. My Students pay their school fees by themselves. 1.0000 .00000 Disagree
 54

18. My students always come to school late. 1.7400 .44309 Disagree

19. Parents always pay school fees on time. 3.4200 .85928 Agree

20. Parents create enough time for my students when

faced with difficult challenges in school. 2.6200 .63535 Agree

The results in table 13 showed mean scores and standard deviation s of items constructed to
answer research question 4. From the results presented, it was observed that the mean ratings of the
responses of students were 1.40, 1.00, 1.74, 3.42 and 2.62 respectively with the corresponding
standard deviation of 0.81, 0.00, 0.44, 0.86 and 0.64.

4.3 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

4.3.1 Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between high cost of education and
student’s dropout.Table 14 shows the result of the chi-square.

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

Chi-square 144.827ᵃ 80.555ᵃ 95.068ᵃ .042ᵃ 63.429ᵇ

 55

Df 2 2 2 2 2

Asymp. Sig .000 .000 .000 .979 .000

The data in table 14 showed chi-square and the output indicates that there is a significant relationship
between high costs of education and students’ dropout. The null hypothesis was then rejected since the
p-value is less than the level of significance 0.05.

4.3.2 Hypothesis Two: There is no significant relationship between high cost of education and
students’ performance. Table 15 shows the result of the chi-square.

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

Chi-square 140.932ᵃ 90.152ᵇ 41.356ᵇ 38.084ᵃ 66.670 ͨ

Df 2 3 3 2 4

Asymp. Sig .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

 56

The data in table 15 showed chi-square and the output indicates that there is a significant
relationship between high costs of education and students’ performances. The null hypothesis was then
rejected since the p-value is less than the level of significance 0.05.

4.3.3 Hypothesis Three: There is no significant relationship between grade retention and students’
performances. Table 16 shows the results of the chi-square.

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

Chi-square 27.340ᵃ 59.492ᵇ 268.921ͨ 120.476ᵇ 67.927 ͨ

Df 2 3 4 3 4

Asymp. Sig .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

 57

The data in table 16 showed chi-square and the output indicates that there is a significant
relationship between grade retention and students’ performances. The null hypothesis was then
rejected since the p-value is less than the level of significance 0.05.

4.3.4 Hypothesis Four: There is no significant relationship between student’s socio-economic

background and retention. Table 17 shows the result of the chi-square.

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5

Chi-square 126.984ᵃ 246.932ᵃ 205.047ᵃ 158.084ᵃ 211.995ᵇ

Df 4 4 4 4 4

Asymp. Sig .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

The data in table 17 showed chi-square and the output indicates that there is a significant
relationship between students’ socio-economic background and retention. The null hypothesis was
then rejected since the p-value is less than the level of significance 0.05.

4.4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

 58

The result of analysis for research question one which sought to examine the influence of high cost of
education on students’ dropout. On students’ responses it was revealed that the average mean of items
that students’ agreed was 2.88 which is above the criterion mean of 2.5. From teachers response it was
revealed that the average mean of items that teachers agreed was 3.58which is above the criterion of
2.5. From the results above, it may be concluded that both respondents agreed that high cost of
education has an influence on and can lead to students’ dropout in secondary school s.

This is in agreement with Cardoso and Verner (2007) who revealed that poverty is the most common
primary and contributory reason for students to be out of school.

The results of analysis for research question two which sought to examine the effects of high cost of
education on students’ performances. On students’ responses it was revealed that the average mean of
items that students’ agreed was 2.89 which is above the criterion mean of 2.5. From teachers response
it was revealed that the average mean of items that teachers agreed was 3.58 which is above the
criterion of 2.5. From the results above, it may be concluded that both respondents agreed that high
cost of education affects students’ performances in secondary schools.

This is in agreement with Njeru and Orodho, (1999) who revealed that when selection is done to join
secondary schools, pupils who have been involved in child labour or household chores which
contribute to poor performance in national examination are not considered or given special attention
considering their lifestyle.

The results of analysis for research question three which sought to examine howgrade retention affects
students’ performances.On students’ responses it was revealed that the average mean of items that
students’ agreed was 2.89 which is above the criterion mean of 2.5. From teachers response it was
revealed that the average mean of items that teachers agreed was 3.58 which is above the criterion of
2.5. From the results above, it may be concluded that both students’ and teachers agr eed that grade
retention affects students’ performances.

This in agreement with Jimerson (1999) who conducted a study on two groups and compared the
outcomes of retained students with a group of low-achieving but promoted students on achievement
test scores. The retained students had lower achievement scores than the equally low but promoted
group.

The results of analysis for research question four which sought to examine the extent to which socio-
economic background of students’ influences retention.On students’ responses it was revealed that the
average mean of items that students’ agreed was 2.89 which is above the criterion mean of 2.5. From
 59

teachers response it was revealed that the average mean of items that teachers agreed was 3.58 which
is above the criterion of 2.5. From the results above, it may be concluded that both respondents agreed
that students’ socio-economic background influences students’ retention in secondary schools.

This in agreement with Eamon, (2005) who revealed that low socio-economic status may
negatively and depressingly affects students’ academic achievement because due to low socio-
economic status, a student does not have access to important resources and generates additional stress
and tension at home. Also, Heyneman (2005) noted that students may not show effective performance
in school whose parental socio-economic status is low.

Findings from analysis of the research hypothesis one which sought to find out if there is no
significant relationship between high cost of education and students’ dropout. Data revealed that the p-
value of 0.00 is less than the level of significance of 0.05. Thereby, the null hypothesis (Ho) is
therefore rejected and it is concluded that there is a significant relationship between high cost of
education and students’ dropout in secondary schools.

Findings from analysis of the research hypothesis two which sought to find out if there is no
significant relationship between high cost of education and students’ performances. Data revealed that
the p-value of 0.00 is less than the level of significance of 0.05. Thereby, the null hypothesis (Ho) is
therefore rejected and it is concluded that there is a significant relationship between high cost of
education and students’ performances in secondary schools.

Findings from analysis of the research hypothesis three which sought to find out if there is no
significant relationship between grade retention and students’ performances. Data revealed that the p-
value of 0.00 is less than the level of significance of 0.05. Thereby, the null hypothesis (Ho) is
therefore rejected and it is concluded that there is a significant relationship between grade retention
and students’ performances.

Findings from analysis of the research hypothesis four which sought to find out if there is no
significant relationship between socio-economic background and students’ retention. Data revealed
that the p-value of 0.00 is less than the level of significance of 0.05. Thereby, the null hypothesis (Ho)
is therefore rejected and it is concluded that there is a significant relationship between students’ socio-
economic background and students’ retention in secondary schools.
 60

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summary of the study findings, conclusions, recommendations, and
suggestions for further studies.

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The purpose of the study was to study the influence of high cost of education on students’
performance and retention in secondary schools in Jos-North Local Government area of Plateau State.
The findings were presented in terms of frequency tables and percentages.

The objectives of the study were to determine how high cost of education leads to students’ dropout, to
examine the high cost of education on secondary schools students’ performances, to examine how
grade retention affects students’ performances and to examine the extent to which students’ socio-
economic background influences students’ retention in secondary schools.

The finding with respect to the first objective has it that when the cost of education is high,
students’ are likely to drop out of school due to inability to afford certain school charges and purchase
the required learning materials for effective learning which over time leads to loss of interest to learn
by the affected student’s and consequently leading to drop out of school.

The second objective sought to examine the influence of high cost of education on students’
performances. The finding reveals that both teachers and students agree to the fact that high
educational cost limits the availability of adequate and necessary learning and instructional materials
which provides the student with little resources to consult and study with. The long run effect of this is
that the student may not cope with the lessons being taught and hence a poor performance due to
insufficient knowledge and understanding.

The third objective sought to examine the effects of grade retention on students’ performance.
Findings with respect to the above reveals that students do not really perform better when retained in a
particular grade but rather retaining a student may lessen his/her self-esteem and lead to inferiority by
 61

the student while Parents also tend to react fiercely when their child is asked to repeat a class.
Retaining students’ may lead to drop out so as to avoid the psychological impacts it may pose on the
child.

The finding of the study with respect to the fourth objective reveals that the socio-economic
background of parents affects the students’ performance. This is evident in the fact that well to do
parents or families provide the necessary learning materials needed by their children while the low
class seem to be limited by finance to provide the essential learning materials for their children.

5.2. CONCLUSION

Higher education is indispensable in the political and socio-economic life of Nigeria.

Therefore, stake holders and their likes need to adopt measures as to reduce the cost of higher
education, in order to avoid total collapse of the educational sector especially at the higher level and to
avoid producing dynasty of illiterates in Nigeria.

The study also concludes that, to improve academic performance, low performing schools can
adopt the strategies being employed by effective schools. School principals from low performing
schools should improve on their instructional supervision. Low performing schools can also improve
by observing prudent time utilization and syllabus coverage. Provision of adequate teaching and
learning and involvement of parents in students’ discipline are also strategies that low performing
schools need to adopt to improve academic performance.

Apparently there is no specific cause of student dropout behavior rather it occurs for a wide
range of reasons that interact with one another in a complex fashion. The implication of the rate of
dropout among secondary school students is that it would severely affects educational development of
the nation, limits the chances of future success for far too many children and continues to deep the
cycle of illiteracy and poverty into future generations.

Part of the major reasons for dropout as analysed by this and other reviewed studies is weak
financial and economic position of families and inability to afford educational expenditures, lack of
basic facilities in schools like computer lab, science laboratory, library, electricity and furniture. Low
financial position is reported as major cause of students’ dropouts. Households’ income does influence
dropout among students in public secondary schools. The attachment to low household income is
compounded by involvement in income generating activities, inability to afford basic needs, looking
after young siblings and inability to pay fees.
 62

However, despite the overwhelming data in the literature against the use of grade retention, it
continues to be used as an intervention for low-performing students. In fact, many educators and
parents encourage the use of grade retention when students lag behind their peers academically and/or
socially. In addition, the push for higher academic standards and more accountability has put a
tremendous amount of pressure on school systems, administrators, and teachers to ensure their
students perform well on state mandated achievement tests in order to make adequate yearly progress.
As a result of this pressure, many educators turn to grade retention instead of socially promoting
students that are not academically prepared for the next grade. Whether it is because they are not
familiar with the current research on grade retention, whether they believe retention works based on
past experiences, or simply because they think they have no other choice, educators should avoid the
use of retention and look for other methods of intervention to improve students’ academic
performance.

The high cost influenced the quality and availability (quantity) of facilities in schools such that
if it is high in relation to the fees collected the schools cannot buy or maintain the facilities. This in
turn negatively impacts on students’ academic performance since adequacy of required facilities in
good condition is a prerequisite for better performance in secondary schools. The level of funds
available to a large extent determines the quantity and quality of school objectives that will be
achieved. This is because funding is important in the acquisition of basic human, financial and
material resources needed to transform the objectives of the school into reality. It therefore means that
the unavailability of funds can limit if not totally jeopardize the objectives of the secondary level of
education from being achieved.

Finally, the high cost of education can be made manageable within certain limits since if it
increases beyond ability of schools to meet through fees payable, schools will still sneak in extraneous
levies to cover some key items which they cannot directly increase due to statutory restrictions. This
will in turn increase the actual fees paid thereby locking out those students who cannot afford to pay.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and observations made from this study, the following recommendations
are made by the researchers:
1. The government should be committed to the adequate funding of secondary education through
appropriate budgetary allocation for the sustenance of secondary education in the country. The
government should consider an upward review of the educational budget to meet up with the
26% allocation recommended by UNESCO and above.
 63

2. The private sector should cooperate with the government and other educational stakeholders in
supporting the education system through financial and material assistance. This should serve as
part of its cooperate social responsibility since the education sector also contribute to the
provision of quality manpower for this economic sector of the economy. The costs
sharing/costs reduction strategy for solving educational funding problems arising from
increased educational and facility costs that will involve the entire stakeholder in educational
sector should be adopted.
3. Over the past decade, there has been public and political pressure to improve the quality of
education. Schools are encouraged to adopt grade retention policies to help children who are
not achieving satisfactorily. Given the large number of students that will be affected by this
educational intervention, a study of the effectiveness of retention is worthy of educational
research.Government should eliminate or minimize through provision of infrastructural
facilities that can aid effective teaching, learning and to enhance retention of students in
school.
4. Social and economic policies should be put in place by government to enable children from
parents of low economic status to have equal opportunity of advancing the cause of education
of their children.
5. Parents should strive to provide the needs for their children especially when in school. It is
important to educate them always about the benefits of education and the repercussion of
dropping out of school when he/she becomes an adult.

It is hoped that if the above recommendations are thoroughly and effectively considered,
students’ performance in secondary schools in both internal and external examinations would
improve. Also, the problems of quality of the secondary school product and standard of education
would also be addressed.

5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Having carried out this study, the researcher experienced the following limitations:

Coverage: the researcher would have loved to cover the whole of Plateau State but was limited
to Jos-North Local Government due to certain factors that were considered.

Also, the unavailability of adequate and complete educational data from the Local Government
office was a limitation to the study.

5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

 64

Having carried out this study successfully, the researcher is suggesting that further studies should be
carried out on the following topics in the study area:

1. Influence of socio-economic status of parents and gender difference on students’ performance

in secondary schools.
2. Causes and effect of dropout among secondary schools students’ in Jos-North Local
Government.
3. A comparative study on factors that motivate student’s performance in secondary schools.
4. A study needs to be done to examine school based factors influencing students’ drop out in
secondary schools.
5. A study to establish the inherent factors leading to variations in the cost of education among
secondary schools of the same category.

REFERENCES

ActionAid Nigeria (2012). Education and Promoting the Rights in Schools. Kogi state:

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 76

APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

Department of Social Science Education,
Economics Education Unit
Faculty of Education,
University of Jos.
Plateau State.
07/February/2020.
Dear respondent,

REQUEST FOR INFORMATION

I am a final year student of the above named institution carrying out a research study on the topic;
Influence of high cost of education on students’ performance and retention in selected secondary
schools in Jos-North Local Government Area of Plateau State. This is in partial fulfillment for the
award of a B. Sc. Ed. In Economics education.

I therefore solicit for your cooperation in providing the relevant information to facilitate the
completion of this study. All information provided will be used strictly for this purpose and
confidentially treated.

Attached to this request is a copy of a questionnaire for you to respond by ticking correctly from the
options provided.

Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours Faithfully

Taukek Joseph.
 77

SECTION A
PERSONAL INFORMATION
INSTRUCTION: Please fill in the information appropriately
1. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
2. Educational status: Secondary ( ) Diploma ( ) Degree ( ) others specify
………………………………………
3. Class: SS1 ( ) SS2 ( ) SS3 ( )
SECTION B
GENERAL INFORMATION
INSRUCTION: Please tick( ) in the appropriate box
Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree(D), Strongly Disagree (SD),
P a r t A Influence of high cost of education and students dropou t SA A D SD

1 . My parents pay my school fees on time and regularly.

2 . Apart from tuition, we pay other charges during the term .

3 . My parents cannot pay my school fee, they usually ask me to stay at home.

4 . I have all the necessary learning materials.

5 . Every session our school usually increases our school fees .

P a r t B Influence of High cost of education on students’ performanc e SA A D SD

6 . I purchase all the required learning materials every term .

7 . Every term I am sent home for school fees.

8 . Our teachers use instructional materials and other educational materials in teaching.
9 . Every term my school usually organizes competition for us .

1 0 . Sending me home for school fees affects my performance .

P a r t C I n f l u e n c e o f g r a d e r e t e n t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ’ p e r f o r m a n c e SA A D SD

1 1 . Some of my mates repeat classes because they cannot pay school fees .
1 2 . Students’ performance is affected by constant school fees drive .

1 3 . My parents always ask me to repeat a class because of my performance.

 78

1 4 . My schools’ policy on repeating is too strict.

1 5 . My Parents will react fiercely when I repeat.

P a r t D Parents socio-economic background and students’ performanc e SA A D SD

1 6 . After school hours I often go to learn work.

1 7 . I p a y m y s c h o o l f e e s b y m y s e l f .
1 8 . I a l w a y s c o m e t o s c h o o l l a t e .

1 9 . My parents always pay my school fees on time.

2 0 . My parents create enough time for me when faced with difficult challenges in school.
 79

APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
Department of Social Science Education,
Economics Education Unit
Faculty of Education,
University of Jos.
Plateau State.
07/February/2020.
Dear respondent,

REQUEST FOR INFORMATION

I am a final year student of the above named institution carrying out a research study on the topic;
Influence of high cost of education on students’ performance and retention in selected secondary
schools in Jos-North Local Government Area of Plateau State. This is in partial fulfillment for the
award of a B. Sc. Ed. in Economics education.

I therefore solicit for your cooperation in providing the relevant information to facilitate the
completion of this study. All information provided will be used strictly for this purpose and
confidentially treated.

Attached to this request is a copy of a questionnaire for you to respond by ticking correctly from the
options provided.

Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours Faithfully

Taukek Joseph.
 80

SECTION A
PERSONAL INFORMATION
INSTRUCTION: Please fill in the information appropriately
1. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
2. Educational status: N.C.E ( ) B.sc ( ) M.sc ( ) others specify
………………………………………
3. Religion: Christian ( ) Islam ( ) others specify……………………
SECTION B
GENERAL INFORMATION
INSRUCTION: Please tick( ) in the appropriate box
Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree(D),Strongly Disagree (SD)
P a r t A Influence of high cost of education and students dropou t SA A D SD

1 . Parents pay students school fees on time and regularly .

2 . Apart from tuition, we pay other charges during the term .

3 . If parents cannot pay school fee, they usually ask students to stay at home.

4 . I provide all the necessary learning materials.

5 . Every session our school usually increases our school fees .

P a r t B Influence of High cost of education on students’ performanc e SA A D SD

6 . My students purchase all the required learning materials every

term.
7 . Every term students are sent home for school fees.
8 . I use instructional materials and other educational materials in teaching.
9 . Every term the school usually organizes competition for us .

1 0 . Sending my students home for school fees affects their performance.

P a r t C I n f l u e n c e o f g r a d e r e t e n t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ’ p e r f o r m a n c e SA A D SD

1 1 . Some of my students repeat classes because they cannot pay school fees.
1 2 . Students’ performance is affected by constant school fees drive .

1 3 . Parents ask their wards to repeat a class because of their

performance.
 81

1 4 . My schools’ policy on repeating is too strict.

1 5 . Parents react fiercely when their wards repeat.

P a r t D Parents socio-economic background and students’ performanc e SA A D SD

1 6 . After school hours students often go to learn work.

1 7 . My Students pay their school fees by themselves.

1 8 . My students always come to school late .

1 9 . Parents always pay school fees on time .

2 0 . Parents create enough time for my students when faced with difficult challenges in school.