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Cell Physiology
Overview
Materials move in and out of the cell by the following processes: osmosis, diffusion, active transport,
phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Some of these processes require energy while others do not. The
materials include water, gases, enzymes, hormones, antibodies and solutes

General objectives
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to
(i) Explain the physiological process by which materials move in and out of cells
(ii) Explain the role of these processes in the life of organism

Specific objectives
The learner should be able to
a. Describe osmosis, diffusion, active transport, phagocytosis and pinocytosis
b. State the factors that affect the process of diffusion
c. Describe the process of osmosis
d. Explain the significance of diffusion and osmosis in organisms
e. Explain how solvents and solutes are exchanged in animal and plant tissue or cell across the
cell membrane in relation to tis structure.
f. Describe how unicellular organisms obtain water and food.
g. Explain the relationship between structure and function of cell membranes
Practical
a. Identify habitats with suitable media for organism’s survival.
b. Demonstrate use of salt in food preservation.
c. Demonstrate use of visking tubing, glass column, and microscope in diffusion and osmosis
experiments.
d. Demonstrate conditions affecting the rate of diffusion
e. Demonstrate effects of osmosis on the cell or tissue
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This refers to the processes by which material get in and out of the cell. These processes include:-
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Phagocytosis
4. Pinocytosis
5. Active transport

Diffusion
It is the movement of particles (molecules or ions) from a region where they are comparatively
concentrated to a region where they are at lower concentration. The difference in the concentration
between two regions is called concentration gradient or diffusion gradient. Diffusion will always take
place whenever such a gradient exist; and it will continue until eventually the particles are uniformly
distributed throughout the system.

It is a passive process which takes place by random thermal motion.

Functions of diffusion
1. Gaseous exchange at the lungs
2. Absorption of glucose and amino acids from intestine
3. Absorption of water from colon
4. Uptake of glucose by cells from blood: Glucose does not diffuse freely through the cell
membrane because it is insoluble in lipids. It passes through the cell membrane is facilitated
by proteins. Therefore, diffusion of glucose through the cell membrane is called facilitated
diffusion.
5. Gaseous exchange for photosynthesis
6. Loss of water during transpiration
7. Diffusion of flower scent to attract insect pollinators.
8. Absorption of ions from the soil

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

1. Distance over which diffusion occurs: the bigger the distance the lower the rate of diffusion
2. Temperature: the higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion because particles have
nigh kinetic energy.
3. Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more
rapid the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower
the rate of diffusion becomes.
4. Mass of the molecules diffusing: Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they
diffuse more slowly. The reverse is true for lighter molecules.
5. Solvent density: As the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The
molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser
medium. If the medium is less dense, diffusion increases. Because cells primarily use
diffusion to move materials within the cytoplasm, any increase in the cytoplasm’s density will
inhibit the movement of the materials. An example of this is a person experiencing
dehydration. As the body’s cells lose water, the rate of diffusion decreases in the cytoplasm,
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 and the cells’ functions deteriorate. Neurons tend to be very sensitive to this effect.
Dehydration frequently leads to unconsciousness and possibly coma because of the decrease
in diffusion rate within the cells.
6. Solubility: As discussed earlier, nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma
membranes more easily than polar materials, allowing a faster rate of diffusion.
7. Surface area and thickness of the plasma membrane: Increased surface area increases the rate
of diffusion, whereas a thicker membrane reduces it.

Osmosis
This is the passage of solvent molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of their
low concentration through a partially permeable membrane. The solvent in biological system is
water.

Simple demonstration of osmosis

Osmometer

Sucrose (solute) solution

Pure water (solvent)

Partially permeable
Membrane (ellophane)

The solid arrows indicate the net flow of water (solvent) into the solution. The membrane being
partially permeable, allows water molecules to pass into the thistle funnel from the beaker. As a result
of net flow of water into the funnel, the solution rises up the tube as indicated by the arrow.

Water potential, Ψ (Psi)

This is the capacity of the system to lose water. At standard temperature and pressure pure water is
given a water potential of Zero. Adding a solute to water lowers the water potential, making it
negative. This is because, the presence of solute molecules lowers the concentration of the of water
molecules, thus, reducing the number of water molecules that can diffuse out of it. Further adding of
a solute lowers the water potential, making it more negative.

When this happens, water moves to equilibrate, moving from the system or compartment with a
higher water potential to the system or compartment with a lower water potential.

Osmotic pressure
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This is the pressure which is required to prevent the net movement of pure water into an aqueous
solution through the differentially permeable membrane. The osmotic pressure increases as the
concentration of the solute increases. In other words, osmotic pressure is inversely proportional to
water potential.

Osmosis and cells

Cell membranes are differentially permeable. If a cell is surrounded by pure water or a solution
whose solute concentration is lower than that of a cell content, the water molecules will pass into the
cell by osmosis. The volume of the cell increases and the cell swell up; in this case the water potential
of the external solution is higher and the osmotic potential lower than that inside the cell. The
external solution is said to be hypotonic.

If the cell is surrounded by a solution whose solute concentration exceeds that of the cell, water
passes out of the cell and the volume reduces and consequently shrinks. The external solution is
hypertonic.

If the solute concentration of the solution and the concentration of the cell constituent are equal,
osmosis does not occur, the solution is isotonic.

Effects of osmosis on animal cell e.g. Red blood cell

A solution of 0.9% sodium chloride is isotonic with human cells, and if red blood cells are immersed
in isotonic solution, they will neither swell nor shrink. When placed in hypotonic solution, red blood
cells swell and burst or hemolyze or undergo hemolysis.

On the other hand, a red blood cell immersed in a hypertonic solution will shrink and plasma
membrane crinkles. This is known as crenation.

It follows that if a cell is to maintain its normal size and shape, it must exist permanently in an
isotonic solution or failing that, it must have special mechanism enabling it to survive in a hypertonic
or isotonic solution. This special mechanism is called osmoregulation. For example, fresh water
Amoeba would undoubtedly swell up and burst, just like a red blood cell in water were it not for a
contractile vacuole that expels excess water from the body.

Effects of osmosis on plant cell

When the plant cell is surrounded by a hypotonic solution, water enters the vacuole by osmosis, the
cell swells as the volume increases. However, it does not burst. This is because the cellulose cell wall
stretches and develops tension, resisting further expansion of the cell.

As water flow into the vacuole by osmosis, the tension developed by the cell wall causes an internal
hydrostatic pressure to develop. This is called pressure potential and it opposed the continued uptake
of water into the cell by osmosis. The pressure potential reaches a maximum when the cell wall is
stretched as much as possible and can stretch no more. At this point the cell is said to be fully turgid
or maximum turgor is reached.

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Turgidity in the cell provides support and maintain shape and form of plant parts.

Summary of the events that ensure if a partially turgid cell is placed in (A) a solution of eak solute
concentration (B) a solution of strong concentration.

Water enters
Full turgor
by osmosis

Partially
turgid

Water leaves Incipient

by osmosis plasmolysis Full
plasmolysis

When plant cells are immersed in a hypertonic solution, water is drawn out of the cell. This leads to a
decrease in the volume of the cell. In a few minutes, the protoplast shrinks to such an extent that it
pulls away from the cell wall leaving a gap between the cell wall and plasma membrane. The
shrinkage of protoplast from the cell wall is called plasmolysis. Plasmolysis sometimes happen to the
plants exposed to extreme salty water but otherwise it rarely occurs in nature.

Measuring water potential

1. cut living tissue of equal mass or volume and measure them.
2. Place the tissues in a series of solutions of different solute concentration
3. Allow the tissues to stay in the solution for a certain period of time
4. Remove the tissues from the solution and measure the second time

Wilting
When the cell in the stem and leaves of a plant lose more water by evaporation than they can absorb,
turgor is reduced and the plant visibly droops. This phenomenon is called wilting.it can often be
observed on hot, dry and windy days. The plant recovers at night as evaporation is reduced and
stomata closed; but if the water supply to the root is inadequate, the plant dies.

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Functions of osmosis
1. Absorption of water by the root hair
2. Absorption of water in the loop of Henle
3.

Active transport
It energy-consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane against a concentration
gradient. Substances usually transported across cell membrane by active transport include Na+, K+,
ureate ion and amino acids

The following observation suggest evidence to the use of energy in active transport.

(i) It is only found in living system which are continuously producing energy by respiration.
(ii) Increase in temperature and oxygen concentration increases the rate of active transport
(iii) When formation or use of ATP is inhibited by such agents as cyanide, active transport will
not take place
(iv) Cells that take part in active transport contain large number of mitochondria.

Functions of active transport

(i) Absorption of minerals in the stomach

(ii) Absorption of minerals in ascending loop of Henle
(iii) Absorption of mineral in the root hair from the soil
(iv) Entry of water into the guard cell leads to their opening

Endocytosis and exocytosis

These are process by which larger objects are taken into or expelled from the cells

Exocytosis

This provide a means by which enzymes, hormones, antibodies and cell wall precursors are
released from the cells. Here a vesicle containing the material moves towards the surface of the
cell and fuse with the plasma membrane. The vesicle the opens to the exterior and its contents
leave the cells

Endocytosis

This provide a means by which big objects are taken by the cell. First the plasma membrane
invaginates to form a flask-shaped depression which envelops the material. The neck of the flask
then closes, and the invagination becomes sealed off to form a vesicle which moves into the cell.
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 When a liquid like substance is taken in by the cell the process is referred to as pinocytosis. And
solid particles are taken in by phagocytosis.

Stages in endocytosis are shown in the diagram below

droplets

Plasma membrane

Exercise
1. Which of the following is correct about a plant cell when placed in a strong salt solution? It
becomes
A. Turgid because water moves into the cell
B. Flaccid because water moves out of the cell
C. Turgid because water moves out of the cell
D. Flaccid because water moves into the cell
2. Which of the following would happen to plasmolyzed cells of a plant tissue that has been
placed in water for some times?
A. The cell vacuole would shrink
B. They would not experience any change is size
C. They would increase in volume
D. They would become shorter
3. In plant tissue water moved from cell a to cell B. This indicates that
A. Cell A and cell B have the same osmotic potential
B. Cell A has a higher osmotic potential than cell B
C. Cell A has a lower osmotic potential than cell B
D. Cell A is older than cell B

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 4. What happens to a plant tissue in a strong sugar solution? It
A. Become longer and soft
B. Maintains original length and texture
C. Become shorter and soft
D. Become shorter and hard
5. Which one of the following would occur if a potato strip was placed in distilled water?
A. Increase in length
B. Strip would soften
C. Decrease in length
D. Remain unchanged.

6. In which of the following tissues does active transport not occur?

A. Kidney tubules
B. Phloem sieve tubes
C. Xylem vessels
D. Ileum villi
7. A mammalian embryo exchange materials with the mother by
A. Osmosis
B. Secretion
C. Circulation
D. Diffusion

8. A solution containing starch and glucose was put in a visking tube in the set up shown in the
figure below and left to stand for 30 minutes

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 After 30 minutes, samples were drawn from the contents of the visking tube and boiling tube,
then iodine and Benedict’s test carrier out on each of them.
(a) Describe what was observed with iodine test on
(i) Visking tube content ( ½ mark)
(ii) Boiling tube content ( ½ mark)
(b) Explain your answer in (a) (02marks)
(c) Describe what was observed with iodine test on
(i) Visking tube content (1mark)
(ii) Boiling tube content (1 mark)
(d) Explain your answer in (a) (03marks)
(e) Giving reasons, state the nature of the visking tube (02marks)

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Answer
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. D
8. (a) (i) starch present
(ii) starch absent
(b) starch molecules are to big to cross the visking tube
(c)(i) reducing sugar present
(ii) reducing sugar present
(d) glucose molecules crossed the visking tube to the test tube
(e) Visking tube is semi-permeable because it allowed glucose molecules to pass through and
retained starch.

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