Far Eastern University

Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

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MODULE 2. ARCHITECTURE OF CENTRAL ASIA

Module Information

Module Overview

The module introduces the student to the region of Central Asia, the various influences on the architecture of the region,
and the notable architectural structures and landmarks of certain periods and the builders/architects behind them.

Module Coverage

The module will be covered for a duration of one (1) week with a work output to be submitted on the end of the module
(see course outline schedule). It is scheduled on Week 3 of the semester.

Module Objective

• The module aims to help familiarize the student with the Central Asian region.
• The module aims to aid the student in explaining and analyzing the geographical, geological, historical,
climatic, religious and social influences of the countries in the Central Asian region to Asian and international
architecture.
• The module aims to assist the student in classifying and categorizing the distinct architectural style of the
countries in the Central Asian region.

Module Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, the student should be able to:

• Classify the countries in Central Asia and the patterns of architectural thoughts and design thinking developed
in these countries
• Identify key structures, architectural landmarks and notable Asian architects in Central Asia
• Explain the contribution of the past architectural styles in the development of high-tech utilities and
construction systems and contemporary buildings and structures of the Central Asian countries

Module Interdependencies

This module will serve as the introductory lesson to Asian Architecture and will be succeeded and reinforced by Module
3: Architecture of East Asia.

Module Learning Materials

Under this module, the students are provided with the following materials:

• Lecture Note:
Title: Architecture of Central Asia
The lecture discusses the geographical, geological, historical, climatic, religious and social influences
of the countries in the Central Asian region. It discusses the architectural styles, notable buildings
and architects of the following Central Asian countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
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• PowerPoint Presentation:
Title: Architecture of Central Asia
The presentation provided in pdf file are the slides used for the presentation of the professor.

• Video Presentation:
Title: Architecture of Central Asia
The video presentation is a pre-recorded video of the lecture prepared by the professor.

All learning materials can be found in the Canvas > Modules > Week 3.

Additional Readings and Materials

Students may refer to the given lectures under this module. Nevertheless, should the student like to study beyond the
given materials, they may read the books listed in the References below.

Module Output-Based Work

To complete this module, the student shall submit Formative Assessment 1. The details of the assessment can be
found in Canvas > Assignments or Quizzes > Formative Assessment 1.

References

• Allworth, Edward. Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyrgyzstan.

• Allworth, Edward. Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan.
• Architecture of Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Uzbekistan.
• Central Asia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia.
• Central Asia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-Asia.
• Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan.
• Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan.
• Landmarks of Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://www.wondermondo.com/wonders-of-Kyrgyzstan.
• Sinor, Denis. Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan.
• Smith, David Roger. Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan.
• Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan.
• Imshenetsky, Aleksandr Ilyich. Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Tajikistan.
• The 10 Best Kazakhstan Architectural Buildings. Retrieved from https://www.tripadvisor.com.ph/Attractions-
g293943-Activities-c47-t3-Kazakhstan.html.
• Top 5 coolest buildings in Turkmenistan. Retrieved from https://www.youngpioneertours.com/top-5-coolest-
buildings-in-Turkmenistan.
• Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan.
 Far Eastern University
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

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WEEK 3.
ARCHITECTURE OF CENTRAL ASIA

INFLUENCES

Geographical

Central Asia is a region which stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China and Mongolia in the east, and
from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north.

The region consists of the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Uzbekistan. All the countries end with the suffix “-stan” meaning “land of”. The composition of Central Asia was
determined in 1991 by leaders of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics after the Soviet Union was dissolved
in 1991.

Geological

Central Asia’s landscape can be divided into the vast grassy steppes of Kazakhstan in the north and the Aral Sea
drainage basin in the south. About 60 percent of the region consists of desert land (Karakum and Kysylkum). It is
an extremely large area of mountains, vast deserts, and grassy steppes.

Most of the desert areas are unsuitable for agricultural use except along the margins of the Amu Darya and Syr
Darya river systems. Those two major rivers drain into the Aral Sea and provide most of the region’s water
resources.

On the east and south. Central Asia is bounded by the western Altai and other high mountain ranges extending
into Iran, Afghanistan, and western China.

Climatic

Temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months.

In most areas the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional
snowfall. Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid. In lower elevations, summers are
hot with blazing sunshine.

Winters feature occasional rain and/or snow from low-pressure systems that cross the area from the Mediterranean
Sea.

Average monthly precipitation is extremely low from July to September, rising in autumn (October and November)
and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June.
Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the dry season in September
and October.
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Historical

Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a
crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia.
The Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, South Asia, and East Asia. This crossroads
position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization.
Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, populated by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians,
Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae, before the Christian era.

In the 6th century CE the first Turkic people established an empire that lasted for two centuries and greatly
influenced the region’s subsequent ethnic character. After expansion by Turkic peoples, Central Asia also became
the homeland for the Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Tatars, Turkmen, Kyrgyz and Uyghurs; Turkic languages largely replaced
the Iranian languages spoken in the area.

The region was gradually Islamized beginning in the 11th–12th century, a process that was virtually complete by
the 15th century.

The Mongols took over almost all of Central Asia in the 13th century, and their rule in the form of various
independent khanates lasted until the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) about 1400. The age of the Timurid
Renaissance began from today's Uzbekistan.

From the mid-19th century until almost the end of the 20th century, most of Central Asia was part of the Russian
Empire and later the Soviet Union, both Slavic-majority countries and the five former Soviet "-stans" are still home
to about 7 million ethnic Russians and 500,000 Ukrainians. Stalinist-era forced deportation policies also mean that
over 300,000 Koreans and 170,000 ethnic Germans continue to reside in the region.

For its citizens, contemporary Central Asia is a land of great promise and peril. The end of Soviet rule has opened
new opportunities for social mobility and cultural expression, but political and economic dynamics have also
imposed hardships. This is a challenge that these states have to face in these times.

Religious

Buddhism and Zoroastrianism were the major faiths in Central Asia prior to the arrival of Islam. The transmission
of Buddhism along the Silk Road eventually brought the religion to China. Contact and migration with Han people
from China has brought Confucianism, Daoism, Mahayana Buddhism, and other Chinese folk beliefs into the
region. Amongst the Turkic peoples, Tengrism was the leading religious form before the onslaught of Islam
Islam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan, Xinjiang and the peripheral
western regions, such as Bashkortostan. Most Central Asian Muslims are Sunni, although there are sizable Shia
minorities in Afghanistan and Tajikistan.

The form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries was Nestorianism, but now the largest
denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan, where about 25% of the
population of 19 million identify as Christian, 17% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Kyrgyzstan.

The Bukharan Jews were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated
since the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

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NOTABLE EXAMPLES

KAZAKHSTAN

Kazakhstan is the world's largest landlocked country, and the ninth-largest country in the world, with an area of
2,724,900 square kilometres. Since 1997, the capital is Nur-Sultan, formerly known as Astana.

Kazakhstan is the most dominant nation of Central Asia economically, generating 60% of the region's GDP,
primarily through its oil and gas industry. It also has vast mineral resources.

th
Around the early 11 century, the Cuman entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan, where they later joined
with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata)
and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road, true political consolidation
began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire, the largest in world history,
administrative districts were established. These eventually came under the rule of the emergent Kazakh Khanate
(Kazakhstan).

By the 16th century, the Kazakh emerged as a distinct group, divided into three jüz (ancestor branches occupying
specific territories). The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-
19th century, they nominally ruled all of Kazakhstan as part of the Russian Empire.
It gained independence from the Russians in 1991.

Notable Facts

Climate – Kazakhstan has an "extreme" continental climate, with warm summers and very cold winters. Indeed,
Nursultan is the second coldest capital city in the world after Ulaanbaatar. Precipitation varies between arid and
semi-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.

Demographics - Its current population is estimated at 18,711,200 (2020). According to the 2009 census,
Kazakhstan's 131 ethnicities include Kazakhs (65.5% of the population), Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Germans,
Tatars, and Uyghurs.

Religion - Per 2009 census, Islam is the religion of about 70% of the population, with Christianity practiced by 26%.
Kazakhstan officially allows freedom of religion, but religious leaders who oppose the government are suppressed.
 Far Eastern University
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

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ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
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ARCHITECT
Andrei Pavlovich Zenkov (1863 - 1936) was a military engineer-builder and architect. He moved on Almaty from
Tobolskyi province. He designed the Ascension Cathedral in Almaty, (54 m. high) which is considered one of the
eight most unique wooden buildings in the world. Of special interest is the fact that it survived the 1911 earthquake
with a magnitude of 10 on the Richter scale. It was used as a museum of local lore, history, and economy during
the Soviet period. In May 1995, the Cathedral has been returned to the Russian Orthodox Church and restored.
Since 1997, Orthodox services have been carried out there.

KYRGYZSTAN

Kyrgyzstan is also a landlocked country with a

highly mountainous terrain. It is bounded by
Kazakhstan on the northwest and north, by China
on the east and south, and by Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan on the south and west. Most of
Kyrgyzstan’s borders run along mountain crests. It
has a total area of 199,951sq. Km. The capital is
Bishkek.

Kyrgyzstan's history spans a variety of cultures and

empires. The Silk Road and other commercial
routes ran through the country. Many of its tribes
and clans has periodically fallen under larger
domination. Between periods of self-government it
was ruled by Göktürks, the Uyghur Empire and the Khitan people, before being conquered by the Mongols in the
13th century; it regained independence but was invaded by Kalmyks, Manchus and Uzbeks.

In 1876, it became part of the Russian Empire, remaining in the USSR as the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic
after the Russian Revolution. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from Moscow and a
democratic government was established. The loss of the Soviet Market affected the once industrialized country’s
economy.

Notable Facts

Climate – Deserts and plains surround Kyrgyzstan on the north, west, and southeast, making the contrast with the
climate and landscape of its mountainous interior all the more striking. The lower parts of its fringing ranges lie in
belts of high temperature and receive hot, drying winds from the deserts beyond. The amount of precipitation the
country’s westward- and northward-facing slopes receive increases with their height. Unlike other Central Asian
countries, Kyrgyzstan does not suffer from a lack of water so irrigation canals have increased agricultural output
substantially.

Demographics – The 2020 population is estimated at 6,586,600. The population of Kyrgyzstan is young. Over half
the population is under age 30, while nearly one-third is under age 15. Nearly three-fourths of the population is
Kyrgyz, while about one-seventh is Uzbek. Other ethnic groups (Tatars, Kazakhs, Dungans, Uighurs, Tajiks) make
up the remaining one-eighth of the population.
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Religions – Islam is the dominant religion of Kyrgyzstan. The CIA World Factbook estimates that as of 2017, 90%
of the population is Muslim, with the majority being Sunni; 7% are Christian, including 3% Russian Orthodoxy, and
the remainder are other religions.

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

SOVIET ARCHITECTURE
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ARCHITECTS

S. Nurgaziyev, I. Ibrayev and R. Asylbekov. Completed: 1983

By the scale of services for readership the National Library is the largest facility in the Republic. Built of white
marble, It is considered to be the centre of the entire national intellectual life. Its reading halls that are differentiated
by fields of knowledge accommodate more than 700 customers at once. Daily attendance of the Library is about
1250 readers.

TAJIKISTAN

Tajikistan is a landlocked country in Central

Asia with an area of 143,100 km. It is bordered
by Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the
west, Kyrgyzstan to the north and China to the
east. More than nine-tenths of Tajikistan’s
territory is mountainous; about half lies 3,000
meters or more above sea level. Its capital city
is Dushanbe.

The area has been ruled by numerous empires

and dynasties, including the Achaemenid
Empire (500 BC) , Kushan Empire (1 CE),
th
Hephthalite Empire(8 CE), Samanid Empire(819-999 CE) and the Mongol Empire (13 CE). After being ruled by
th
the Timurid dynasty and the Khanate of Bukhara, the Timurid Renaissance flourished (14 CE).

th
The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union (19 CE). Within
the Soviet Union, the country's modern borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous
republic before becoming a full-fledged Soviet republic in 1929.

On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan became an independent sovereign nation when the Soviet Union disintegrated.
There was a civil war from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign
aid have allowed the country's economy to grow.

Notable Facts

Climate – The climate of Tajikistan is sharply continental and changes with altitude. In the warm-temperate valley
areas, summers are hot and dry. Annual precipitation is slight and ranges between 6 and 10 inches (150 and 250
millimetres). In the highlands, precipitation barely reaches 2 to 3 inches a year, most of it falling in summer.

Demographics - The traditional homelands of the Tajik people include present-day Tajikistan as well as parts of
Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. Tajiks mix with the Uzbeks and usually remain in intimate and friendly interrelation.
Tajikistan has an estimated population of 9,537,645 people.

Religion - The vast majority of Tajikistanis are Muslim, mostly of the Sunni Ḥanafī school. A small percentage of
Muslims are Ismaʿīlī Shiʿi, located primarily in the Pamirs. The Christian population has been predominantly
Russian, but most ethnic Russians have left since the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
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ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTS

Bahrom Yusupov, - President of Union of Architects of Tajikistan

Dzhamshed AKHMADZODA - Chairman of the Committee on Construction and Architecture
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TURKMENISTAN

At 488,100 km2 (188,500 sq mi),

Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-
largest country. It is slightly smaller than
Spain and somewhat larger than the US
state of California. It lies between
latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes
52° and 67° E.

Over 80% of the country is covered by

the Karakum Desert. The center of the
country is dominated by the Turan
Depression and the Karakum Desert.

Turkmenistan's GDP growth rate of 11%

in 2010 ranks 4th in the world, but these
figures are subject to wide margins of error.It possesses the world's fourth largest reserves of natural gas
resources. Although it is wealthy in natural resources in certain areas, most of the country is covered by the
Karakum (Black Sand) Desert.

The region's written history begins with its conquest by the Achaemenid Empire of ancient Persia, as the region
was divided between the satrapies of Margiana, Khorezm and Parthia. Alexander the Great conquered the territory
in the 4th century BC on his way to Central Asia. Approximately 80 years later, Persia's Parthian Kingdom
established its capital in Nisa, now in the suburbs of the capital, Ashgabat. After replacement of the Parthian
empire by Persian Sassanids, the region remained territory of the Persian empire for several centuries.
In the 7th century AD, Arabs conquered this region, bringing with them Islam and incorporating the Turkmen into
the greater Middle Eastern culture. The Turkmenistan region soon came to be known as the capital of Greater
Khorasan, when the caliph Al-Ma'mun moved his capital to Merv.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Turkoman-ruled Seljuk Empire concentrated its strength in the territory of
modern Turkmenistan in an attempt to expand into Khorasan (modern Afghanistan). The empire broke down in
the second half of the 12th century, and the Turkmen lost their independence when Genghis Khan took control of
the eastern Caspian Sea region on his march west.

For the next seven centuries, the Turkmen people lived under various empires and fought constant inter-tribal
wars. Little is documented of Turkmen history prior to Russian engagement. However, from the 13th to the 16th
centuries, Turkmen formed a distinct ethnolinguistic group. As the Turkmen migrated from the area around the
Mangyshlak Peninsula in contemporary Kazakhstan toward the Iranian border region and the Amu Darya basin,
tribal Turkmen society further developed cultural traditions that became the foundation of Turkmen national
consciousness.

After 69 years as part of the Soviet Union (including 67 years as a union republic), Turkmenistan declared its
independence on October 27, 1991.

Notable Facts

Climate – The climate is mostly arid subtropical desert, with little rainfall. Winters are mild and dry, with most
precipitation falling between January and May. The area of the country with the heaviest precipitation is the Kopet
Dag Range.

Demographics - The population of the country is 6 million, the lowest of the Central Asian republics. Turkmenistan
is one of the most sparsely populated nations in Asia. Most of Turkmenistan's citizens are ethnic Turkmens with
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sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Smaller minorities include Kazakhs, Tatars, Ukrainians, Armenians,
Azeris, and Balochis.

Religion - Muslims constitute 89% of the population while 9% of the population are followers of the Eastern
Orthodox Church and the remaining 2% religion is reported as non-religious

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

MODERN ARCHITECTURE
 Far Eastern University
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

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ARCHITECTS

Only the tsar in Turkmenistan decides how the city looks. Architects are never named, as the architect is
secondary, and individuality in architecture is unacceptable. The stars of world architecture are not invited to
Turkmenistan like they are to the nations of Arabs, Kazakhs, and Chinese. Because, of course, there can only be
one star in Turkmenistan, and his name is the Sun: Berdimuhamedow, the Sun of the Turkmen people. And
Ashgabat is his city. Before him, Turkmenbashi was the main architect.

A school named after the “Ruhnama”, a holy book that Turkmenbashi wrote and made all Turkmens study like a
Bible. The school building is in the form of a book. The Ruhnama is a compilation of commandments and a guide
for the behavior of good law-abiding Turkmens.

UZBEKISTAN

Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square

kilometres. Nearly four-fifths of Uzbekistan’s
territory, the sun-dried western area, has the
appearance of a wasteland. Uzbekistan is a
secular, unitary constitutional republic. It
comprises 12 provinces (vilayats) and one
autonomous republic, Karakalpakstan. The
capital and largest city of Uzbekistan is
Tashkent.

In ancient times, Uzbekistan was part of the

Iranian-speaking region of Transoxiana and
Turan. The first recorded settlers were the Scythians, who founded kingdoms in Khwarazm (8th–6th centuries
BC), Bactria (8th–6th centuries BCE), Sogdia (8th–6th centuries BCE), Fergana (3rd century BCE – 6th century
CE), and Margiana (3rd century BCE – 6th century CE). The area was incorporated into the Iranian Achaemenid
Empire and, after a period of Macedonian Greek rule, was ruled by the Iranian Parthian Empire and later by the
Sasanian Empire, until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century. The Early Muslim conquests
converted most of the people, including the local ruling classes, into adherents of Islam.

During this period, cities such as Samarkand, Khiva and Bukhara began to grow rich from the Silk Road. The local
Khwarazmian dynasty, and Central Asia as a whole, were decimated by the Mongol invasion in the 13th century.
After the region became dominated by Turkic peoples. The city of Shahrisabz was the birthplace of the Turco-
Mongol conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who in the 14th century established the Timurid Empire. The territories of
the Timurid dynasty were conquered by Uzbek Shaybanids in the 16th century, moving the centre of power to
Bukhara. The region was split into three states: the Khanate of Khiva, Khanate of Kokand and Emirate of Bukhara.
Conquests by Emperor Babur towards the east led the foundation of India's proto-industrialised Mughal Empire.

With its incorporation into the Russian Empire during the 19th century, Tashkent became the political center of
Russian Turkestan. In 1924, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created. Following the dissolution of the
Soviet Union, it declared independence as the Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991.
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Notable Facts

Climate – Marked aridity and much sunshine characterize the region, with rainfall averaging only 8 inches (200
mm) annually. Most rain falls in winter and spring, with higher levels in the mountains and minimal amounts over
deserts.

Demographics - As of 2019, Uzbekistan has the largest population out of all the countries in Central Asia, and is
the second-largest (if Kazakhstan is excluded). Its 32,768,725 citizens comprise nearly half the region's total
population. The population of Uzbekistan is very young. According to official sources, Uzbeks comprise a majority
(80%) of the total population. Other ethnic groups include Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Tatars.

Religions - Uzbekistan is a secular country and Article 61 of its constitution states that religious organizations and
associations shall be separated from the state and equal before law. The state shall not interfere in the activity of
religious associations. Islam is the dominant religion in Uzbekistan, although Soviet power (1924–1991)
discouraged the expression of religious belief, and it was repressed during its existence as a Soviet Republic. The
CIA Factbook estimate that Muslims constitute 88% of the population (mostly Sunni) while 9% of the population
follow Russian Orthodox Christianity, 4% other religious and non-religious.

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE
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MODERN ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECT

Ulughbek – During his reign, the a city-building culture that lasted for almost another hundred years began.
Ulughbek was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical
geometry, as well as his general interests in the arts and intellectual activities. He built a great observatory and a
madrasah.

Architects of the time paid a great deal of attention to the art of gardening and horticulture with greenery going in
harmony with water and architecture.

REFERENCES:
• Allworth, Edward. Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyrgyzstan.
• Allworth, Edward. Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan.
• Architecture of Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Uzbekistan.
• Central Asia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia.
• Central Asia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-Asia.
• Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan.
• Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan.
• Landmarks of Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from https://www.wondermondo.com/wonders-of-Kyrgyzstan.
• Sinor, Denis. Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan.
• Smith, David Roger. Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan.
• Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan.
• Imshenetsky, Aleksandr Ilyich. Tajikistan. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Tajikistan.
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• The 10 Best Kazakhstan Architectural Buildings. Retrieved from https://www.tripadvisor.com.ph/Attractions-

g293943-Activities-c47-t3-Kazakhstan.html.
• Top 5 coolest buildings in Turkmenistan. Retrieved from https://www.youngpioneertours.com/top-5-coolest-
buildings-in-Turkmenistan.
• Uzbekistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan.