USER GUIDEBOOK

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 CONTENTS

Contents

INTRODUCTION 4
2.1 EXTRACTS FROM ACT 304 .........................................5

Part V – Health and Safety ...................................................6

Part VI – Disposal of Radioactive Waste ..............................7

The appropriate authority may, if it fit to do so, consult the

Director General of Environmental Quality appointed under
subsection 3 (1) Environmental Quality Act 1974 on any matter. ..............

2. 2 EXTRACTS FROM BSRP 2010.......................................................

3.1 Radiation .............................................................................................

3.2 Types of exposure to ionizing radiation ..............................................

3.3 Radiation Quantities and Units ...........................................................

3.4 What are the effects of ionizing radiation on the

body? 30

3.5 Protection against exposure to radiation .................................

3.6 Radiation Protection .................................................................

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4.1 Introduction to PUSPATI TRIGA Reactor .....................................

4.2 Reactor Management ................................................................

4.3 Experimental Facilities ...............................................................

4.4 Reactor Utilization......................................................................

4.5 Category of Experiment ..............................................................

Nuclear Malaysia Waste Zones ..............................................74

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 1 INTRODUCTION

The activities carried out at PUSPATI TRIGA REACTOR present a

wide variety of risks. In particular, you may be required to work in
conditions involving a risk of exposure to ionizing radiation. The
aim of this booklet is to familiarize you with:
a) National and Internal Regulations dealing with
radiation protection, which are applicable to anyone
working at or visiting RTP, general information on
radiation and more detailed explanations of the points
outlined in the National and Internal Regulations,
b) information specific to PUSPATI TRIGA Reactor,
c) Procedures in the event of an incident or accident.

This booklet is a revised and expanded version of the previous

user guide, “Panduan Pengguna Reaktor Triga PUSPATI” that has
been published in December, 1982. It does not claim to be
complete. Please do not hesitate to contact the Pusat Teknologi
Reaktor (PTR) should you require further information or advice on
a specific problem relating to radiological safety.

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 2 LAWS AND REGULATIONS
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The use of ionizing radiation is controlled by the National Law on
the Atomic Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304). The aim of Act 304 is to
provide the regulation and control of atomic energy; for the
establishment of standards on liability for nuclear damage; and for
matters connected therewith or related thereto.

Subsidiary to the Act 304, there are few regulations which

discussed in detailed provisions entrusted by the Act included the
Atomic Energy Licensing (Basic Safety Radiation Protection)
Regulations 2010 (BSRP 2010) [P.U. (A) 46], which widely applied
in our facility that related to ionizing radiation. BSRP 2010 is a
replacement of the previous subsidiary legislation known as
Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations, 1988.

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2.1 EXTRACTS FROM ACT 304

The contents of the Act 304 consist of 71 sections which are

divided into ten parts. The following extracts from Act 304 are
related to health and safety, and disposal of radioactive waste.

 Part V: Health and Safety

Section 25
Deal with protection of the health and for the safety of workers
and all other persons from ionizing radiation, including directives
of matters pertaining to:

a) Conditions of exposure;
b) Dose limitation;
c) Occupational exposure;
d) Medical exposure;
e) Exposure of members of the public and persons other
than workers, excluding medical exposure;
f) Accidental exposure;
g) Emergency exposure; and
h) Exposure other than any of those specified in (a) to (g).

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 Part VI: Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Section 26
No person shall dispose of or cause to be disposed any radioactive
waste without prior authorization in writing of the appropriate
authority.

Section 27
No person shall accumulate or cause to be accumulated any
radioactive waste on any premises without prior authorization in
writing of the appropriate authority.

Section 30
No person shall transport any radioactive waste without the prior
authorization in writing of the appropriate authority.

Section 31
The appropriate authority may, if it fit to do so, consult the
Director General of Environmental Quality appointed under
subsection 3 (1) Environmental Quality Act 1974 on any matter.

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2. 2 EXTRACTS FROM BSRP 2010

BSRP 2010 was formed under the powers conferred by Section 25

(6) and Section 68 of the Act 304. The regulation shall be applied
to all activities involving ionizing radiation. Based on this
regulation, the registrant and licensees are required to foster and
maintain safety culture. The regulations are categorized into 10
parts which in total includes 80 provisions. The following extracts
are related to system of radiological protection, occupational,
public and potential exposure, and intervention during
emergency.

 Part II: System of Radiological Protection

The provision of the regulations included the justification of

practice (JOP); Optimization of protection and safety (OPS); Dose
constraint (DS); and Dose limit (DL) for workers, members of
public, apprentices and students, and special circumstances.

 Part III: Occupational Exposure

The provision of the regulations encompassed the responsibilities

of licensee and employer; employment of RPO and qualified
expert; classification of working areas and administrative

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procedures; monitoring of work place, personnel monitoring and
records; investigation of over exposure and notification and report
accidental and emergency exposure; medical surveillance and
responsibilities of worker.

 Part V: Public Exposure

The provision of the regulations incorporated the protection of

exposure to the public; control of visitor; control of radiation
source in respect of public; control and monitoring of radioactive
discharge; monitoring of public exposure; and release of
radioactive material, nuclear material and prescribed substance.

 Part VI: Potential Exposure and Safety of Radiation

Sources

The provision of the regulations considered safety procedure for

potential exposure; requirements for radiation source; prevention
of accident; emergency plan; accountability for radiation source;
security and protection of radiation source; and notification of
theft, loss or sabotage.

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 Part VII: Intervention

The provision of the regulations explained the requirements for

intervention; intervention in emergency situation; discontinuous
protection action after accident; assessment and monitoring after
accident; and protection for workers undertaking an intervention.

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 3 RESPONSIBILITIES

In line with the enforcement of the Act 304, the radiation

protection program [SHE/R/05] that has been established in
Nuclear Malaysia since 1978 went through its first revision to
cater the requirement of the regulations as well as requirements
of safety according to IAEA safety series No.115, entitled
International Basic Safety Standard for protection against ionizing
Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources.

The content of the radiation protection program is divided into

eight parts including the organization structure; responsibilities;
training program for workers; operational limit; maintenance,
operation and keeping of records; operational procedures;
abnormal operational procedures; and references. The following
extracts of the document highlighting the responsibilities of
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO), Radiation Protection
Supervisor (RPS), Operator (Radiation Worker).

In order to control and regulate all practices involving nuclear and

radiation activities compliances with Nuklear Malaysia internal
procedure under the radiation protection program, a Safety,
Health and Environmental (SHE) committee was established as the
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highest authority. Reactor Facility subcommittee (JKKR) has been
formed with specific term of reference for supervising and
improving safety of the RTP operation.

To ensure the safety, security and quality of the PUSPATI TRIGA

Reactor operation, utilization and modification activities, an
Integrated Management System (IMS) program has been
established. The program is set in accordance to the general
requirements of the IAEA Safety of Research Reactor [Safety Series
No.NS-R-4 (2005)]. The following responsibilities and authorities
are extracted from these internal programs.

3.1 Responsibilities of Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)

RPO is qualified personnel that have attended the Radiation

Protection course which include topics on nuclear research
reactors such as RTP and passed the Radiation Protection
examination conducted by the Atomic Energy Licensing Board
(AELB). The responsibilities of RPO are:

a) to prepare and update radiation protection programme

whenever required or instructed by AELB.

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 b) to provide training and information on radiation
protection for radiation workers.
c) to identify and analyse radiological hazards in
workplace and their surrounding
d) to ensure the maintenance record, import/export and
disposal of radioactive materials are kept and updated
e) to ensure the arrangement for medical surveillance of
radiation workers.
f) to classify and label working areas in accordance with
BSRP 2010.
g) to ensure that radiation protection devices are in good
condition and are always being used by workers.
h) to ensure that engagement, termination and
retirement of radiation workers follow procedures set
by AELB.

3.2 Responsibilities of Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS)

RPS enquired the same qualification as the RPO which is to sit the
Radiation Protection course and passed the examination
conducted by AELB. The responsibilities of RPS are:

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 a) to take over the tasks and responsibilities of the RPO in
his absence and report all matters to him as soon as he
returns.
b) to assist the RPO in implementing radiation protection
activities in compliance with the Act 304 and subsidiary
legislation made there under based on LEM/TEK/45
Sem. 1.

3.3 Responsibilities of Radiation Worker / Operator

The radiation workers are required to register themselves to AELB

database and show up at the medical surveillance appointment
arranged by the Health Physics Group. A reactor operator should
be registered as a radiation worker with the minimum academic
requirement is diploma in engineering discipline. In addition, all
the reactor operators should undergo an intensive training in
reactor operation, attending formal lectures including the plant
walk around session and pass the written and practical
examination conducted by AELB to be a licensed reactor operator.

The responsibilities of the radiation workers and reactor operators

are:

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 a) Follow all instructions, rules and procedures and
refrain from careless practices that could result in
unnecessary exposure.
b) Use, as instructed, all facilities, devices and PPE.
c) Use approved personnel monitoring devices.
d) Not interfere with, remove or alter any safety
equipment.
e) Take all reasonable precautions to prevent damage to
such equipment and immediate report any damage or
malfunction of any equipment to his supervisor or RPO.
f) Immediately report all accidental exposures or any
suspected exposures to his supervisor or RPO
g) Report pregnancy or suspected pregnancy to approved
medical practitioner in the case of female worker

3.4 Responsibilities of Facility Users

The facility users are required to attend a comprehensive and

dedicated safety briefing provided by the Health Physics Group
prior to using the experimental facilities. The records of
attendance should be informed to the RPS. The users are
responsible for utilising the reactor in a safe manner to ensure
safety to other users, environment and to the reactor itself.

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 4 INFORMATION ON RADIATION

The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving

subatomic particles through space or through a material medium
is known as radiation. Radiation is often categorized as either
ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated
particles. Figure 3.1 illustrated the common sources of ionizing
and non-ionizing radiations with respect to their wavelengths and
frequencies.

Figure 4.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

(Source: https://www.mirion.com/)

Compare to non-ionizing radiation, the ionizing radiation could be

harmful and potentially lethal to living beings but have health
benefits at the same time, such as in radiation therapy for the

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treatment of cancer. The nuclear research reactor practically
emits a lot of ionizing radiations. Therefore, the non-ionizing
radiation will not be emphasized in this guidebook.

4.1 Atomic Structure

Neutral atoms of each element contain an equal number of

proton and electrons. The number of protons determines the
atomic number of the element which differentiates one element
from another.

Figure 4.2 Atomic structure

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The number of neutrons is variable that distinguish the isotopes of
the same atom. The total number of protons and neutrons
determine the mass number of the atom. The atomic mass of an
element with isotopes is calculated by taking the mean of the
mass numbers for its isotopes. On the basis of different
proportions of neutrons and protons in the nuclei, atoms can be
classified into different categories such as in Table 3.1.

Table 4.1: Classification of atoms based on the proportion of

neutrons and protons in the nuclei.

4.2 Radioactivity

Radioactivity is a phenomenon whereby an unstable nucleus emits

ionising radiation to achieve stability through a process known as
decay. The emitted ionising radiation is including alpha, beta,
gamma and neutron.

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 Alpha (α) particles

Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei expelled from unstable

proton-rich nuclei, with the nuclei losing four mass units and
decreasing in atomic number by two. There is no change in mass
and atomic number.

Alpha particles are characterized by very high energy (typically 4-5

MeV) and low penetrating power (microns). These properties can
result in intense short-range materials damage including
thousands of atomic ionizations and lattice dislocations, and high
toxicity when ingested into an organism.

The particles are commonly emitted by heavy radioactive nuclei

occurring in the nature (uranium, thorium or radium), as well as
the transuranic elements (neptunium, plutonium or americium). In
nuclear reactors, the alpha decay of heavy nuclei is produced in
the fuel. An example of alpha decay is the spontaneous decay of
plutonium-239 to uranium-235:

94 92
Pu 239 → U 235 + He 2 + (4.9 MeV)

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 Beta (β) particles

In beta decay, an electron is expelled from a neutron-rich nucleus,

with an increase in atomic number by one but negligible change in
mass.

Beta particles have much lower energy (typically 100-200 KeV)

than alpha but greater penetrating power (millimeters). An
example is the spontaneous decay of plutonium-241 to
americium-241.

94 95
Pu 241 → Am 241 + e- (21 KeV)

Common feature of the fission products in the nuclear reactor is

an excess of neutrons. An unstable fission fragment with the
excess of neutrons undergoes β− decay, where the neutron is
converted into a proton, an electron, and an electron
antineutrino.

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 Gamma (γ) Particles

Gamma radiation is highly ionizing electromagnetic radiation with

high penetration power, leaving trails of ionization as they pass
through matter. Highly lethal gamma radiation levels and wide
ranges of photon energies (KeV to MeV) result during nuclear
fission as unstable nuclei relax to lower energy. Gamma rays are
not charged particles like α and β.

 Neutron (n) particles

Neutrons are high-speed nuclear particles that have an

exceptional ability to penetrate other materials. Free neutrons can
be classified according to their kinetic energy. This energy is
usually given in electron volts (eV). The term temperature can also
describe this energy representing thermal equilibrium between a
neutron and a medium with a certain temperature.

a) Thermal
- Neutrons in thermal equilibrium with their
surroundings

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 - Most probable energy at 20 degrees (C) - 0.025
eV; Maxwellian distribution of 20 degrees(C)
extends to about 0.2 eV.
b) Epithermal
- Neutrons of energy greater than thermal
- Smaller nuclear cross sections than thermal
neutrons.
- Energies between 1 eV and 10 keV
c) Slow
- Neutrons of energy slightly greater than thermal
- Less than 1 to 10 eV (sometimes up to 1 keV)
d) Intermediate
- Neutrons that are between slow and fast
- Few hundred eV to 0.5 MeV
e) Fast
- Greater than 0.5 MeV
f) Fission
- Neutrons formed during fission
- 100 keV to 15 MeV (Most probable: 0.8 MeV;
Average: 2.0 MeV)

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 Figure 4.3: Neutron chain reaction in research reactor (Source: https://mnr.mcmaster.ca/)

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 Figure 4.4 Distribution of kinetic energies of neutrons in the
thermal reactor. (Source: serc.carleton.edu)

The fission neutrons (fast flux) are immediately slowed down to

the thermal energies through a process called neutron
moderation.

4.3 Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

There are two potential primary exposure types connected with

work involving ionizing radiation which are external and internal
exposure to radiation. Each must be carefully evaluated prior to
working with radioactive materials, and precautions must be
taken to prevent these exposures.

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 External exposure

External hazards arise when radiation from a source external to

the body penetrates the body and causes a dose of ionizing
radiation. These exposures can be from gamma or x-rays,
neutrons, alpha particles or beta particles; they are dependent
upon both the type and energy of the radiation.

Figure 4.5: Penetrating power of Ionizing radiation

 Internal exposure

Radioactive materials may be internally deposited in the body

when an uptake occurs through one of the three routes of entry:
inhalation, ingestion and skin contact. These exposures can occur
when radioactive material is airborne; is inhaled and absorbed by

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the lungs and deposited in the body; is present in contaminated
food, drink or other consumable items and is ingested; or is spilled
or aerosolizes onto the skin and absorbed or enters through cuts
or scratches. Internal deposition may also result from
contaminated hands, with subsequent eating or rubbing of eyes.

4.4 Radiation Quantities and Units

Ionizing radiation is not detectable by one's senses and cannot be

seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or felt. That is the reason many types
of instruments to detect and identify radioactive materials and
ionizing radiation have been developed to measure different
physical quantities that can be used to express the amount of
radiation delivered to a human body and environment.

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 Activity (A)

Activity represents the number of atomic nuclei that disintegrate

per unit of time. The unit of activity is Becquerel [S.I unit] and
Curie:

1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps (disintegration per second)

1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

 Exposure (X)

Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the

air. One exposure unit (X unit) is the quantity of x-rays or gamma
radiation that ionizes 1 Coulomb of total charge in a kilogram of
air. The more commonly used exposure unit is the roentgen (R),
defined to ionize one state coulomb of total charge in a cubic
centimeter of standard air. Many radiation monitors measure
exposure. The units for exposure are the roentgen (R) and
Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg) [S.I unit]:

1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg;
87.8 ergs/g (air);
96 ergs/g (tissue)

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 Absorbed dose (D)

Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an

object, person or environment or the amount of energy per unit
mass of that radioactive sources deposit in materials through
which they pass. The units for absorbed dose are the radiation
absorbed dose (rad) and gray (Gy) [S.I unit]:

1 Gy = 1 J/kg (Should specify the medium).

1 Gy = 100 rad; 1 rad = 100 ergs/g

 Equivalent dose (H)

Equivalent dose combines the amount of radiation absorbed and

the medical effects of that type of radiation. For beta and gamma
radiation, the equivalent dose is the same as the absorbed dose.
By contrast, the equivalent dose is larger than the absorbed dose
for alpha and neutron radiation, because these types of radiation
are more damaging to the human body. Thus, equivalent dose
normalizes each types of radiation to its propensity to cause
biological damage or its relative biological effectiveness (RBE).
Equivalent dose (H) = Absorbed dose (D) x Radiation weighting
factor (WR)

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Units for dose equivalent are the roentgen equivalent man (rem)
and Sievert (Sv) [S.I unit], and biological dose equivalents are
commonly measured in 1/1000th of a rem (known as a millirem or
mrem)
Sievert (Sv), 1 Sv = 1 J/kg
1 Sv = 100 rem

Table 4.2 Radiation weighting factor (WR)

 Effective dose (HE)

Effective dose accounts for the non-uniform sensitivity of different

parts of the body by including a tissue or risk weighting factor
according to Table 4.2.
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Effective dose (HE) = Summation of Equivalent dose (H) x Tissue
weighting factor (WT) = ΣH WT

The total effective dose is the weighted sum of local doses. When
the entire body uniformly receives the same dose, the total
effective dose reduces to the dose to each area of the body. Units
for effective dose are same with units for equivalent dose.

4.5 Effects of ionizing radiation on the body

Radiation effects on the body depend on:

a) Total dosage and exposure rate

- More dosage, more severe
- Acute / Chronic exposure rate
b) Extent and part of body exposed
- Different organ response differently
c) Age of the individual exposed
- Children suffer more severe effect compare to
adult if given same dose of radiation

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Possible effects of radiation on cells:

a) Cells are undamaged by the dose (no impact) -> no

impact
b) Cells are damaged, repair the damage and operate
normally -> ok
c) Cells are damaged, repair the image and operate
abnormally -> cancer/genetic effect
d) Cells die as a result of damage – depend on how
sensitive the cells to radiation -> die

Body respond to radiation:

a) The effects of radiation on the human body can be

classify as either chronic or acute
b) Chronic effects occur some years after exposure such
as cancer and genetic defects
c) Acute effects occur within hours after exposure due to
the radiation’s direct physical damage to tissue

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The health effects of radiation are divided into two categories:

a) Threshold or Deterministic effects

- Threshold dose exists (500mSv), severity is
proportional to dose after exceeding threshold
especially in short term (acute) exposure

b) Stochastic effect
- Probability, no threshold, long term
(chronic/delayed effects such as cancer, cataract,
leukemia, carcinogenesis

4.6 Protection against exposure to radiation

Installations in which radioactive material or radiation generating

devices are used and designed to:

a) Prevent the dispersion of radioactive material in the

surrounding environment (by means of containment
devices and ventilation and filtrations systems)
b) Exclude, or reduce to very low levels, any external
exposure (using lead, concrete or water shielding)

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Protection against external exposure

a) Keep the activity of sources such as the quantity of

radioactive material handled, to a minimum
b) Reduce the exposure time by planning the handling
sequences carefully
c) Work at a sufficient distance from the source by using
equipment such as remote handling tongs
d) Use the appropriate shielding for the level of activity of
the source and the type and energy of the radiation
involved

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Protection against internal exposure

a) Reduce the amount of radioactive material to be

handled, to an absolute minimum
b) Isolate radioactive material from the surrounding area
by:
- Handling operations in suitable enclosures
(ventilation hood, glove box, housing for use with
remote manipulator arms
- Ensuring the ventilation systems are working
properly
- Storing unsealed sources in tightly closed
containers as soon as they are no longer required
- Ensuring that the work place is kept clean
c) Isolate the operator’s body, if necessary by:
- Using filter such as type mask or a separate fresh
air supply to protect the respiratory tract in the
event of atmospheric contamination
- Wearing the appropriate protective clothing
(overalls, gloves, etc)
- Never eat, drink, smoke in areas where there is
risk of contamination

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4.7 Radiation Protection

The objectives of radiation protection are to:

a) Ensure the effective control of external and internal

doses to the workers and public, and of releases to the
environment;
b) Ensure conformance with all regulatory requirements;
c) Enable further optimization of operational practices.

The basis of the operational radiation protection implementation

at the PUSPATI TRIGA Reactor (RTP) aimed to meet the
requirement of reactor licensing by Atomic Energy Licensing Board
(AELB) 1984 - Safety Radiation Protection 2010 (BSRP 2010) (Act
304).

 Principles of Radiation Protection

a) Protection of man and his environment from

unnecessary radiation exposure without eliminating
the beneficial application of radiation and radioactive
materials
b) Prevent deterministic effects and limit the probability
of stochastic effect to acceptable level
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 Categories of exposure

There are three (3) categories as spelled out in BSRP 2010:

a) Occupational exposure
- Exposure of workers incurred in the course of
their work.
b) Medical exposure
- Exposure incurred by patients as part of their
medical diagnostic or treatment procedures.
- Persons providing support and comfort of
patients.
- Volunteers in a medical research programme.
c) Public exposure
- Exposure incurred by members of the public from
radiation sources excluding occupational
exposure, medical exposure and natural
background.

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 Dose Limit

a) Used to apply controls on each individual’s

accumulation of dose
b) Not a line of demarcation between “safe” and
“dangerous”
- Account dose from occupational exposure only,
excluding dose received from natural radiation
and medical exposure
- Similar for men and women except pregnant
women
c) Annual Dose Limit (ADL). There are different categories
of dose limit for:
- Radiation workers:
Effective Dose:
20 mSv/yr for whole-body exposure
Equivalent Dose:
150 mSv/yr to the lens of the eye
500 mSv/yr to skin, hands, feet and other
organ or tissue
Operating Dose:
10mSv/yr for whole-body exposure

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*Operating dose limit is stipulated under BSRP Regulations 2010,
Act 304.

- Pregnant women
Fetal dose should be limited to less than 1mSv
- Members of the public
Application ADL
(mSv)
Dose limit for the whole bode exposure 1
Equivalent dose for lens of the eyes 15
Equivalent dose for the skin 50
Effective dose constraint for supporting <5
personnel
(during diagnostic examination or
treatment of the patient)
Effective dose constraint for visitor (< 16 <1
years old)
(of patient undergoing treatment or
diagnostic examination)

- Apprentices & Students

Apprentices and students in radiation work (in a
supervised or controlled area) must not be less
than 16 years old.

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 Application ADL
(mSv)
Dose limit for the whole body exposure 6
Equivalent dose for lens of the eyes 50
Equivalent dose for the skin 150

- Special planned exposures (with written approval

from the authority)
Extended period
Dose equivalent averaged over 10
consecutive years < 20 mSv/yr
< 50 mSv in one calendar
Review, when accumulated dose of 100 mSv
Change of ADL
Not more than 50 mSv per year for five
consecutive years
Voluntarily and temporary in nature
Should be review annually
No renewal
Specific working area and radiation worker
Not for pregnant women or student
- Derived and Authorized Limits (Special modeling
and special limit approved by AELB)

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4.8 Monitoring Equipment

Radiation protection surveillance carried out on

workers/users/visitor to ensure that the received dose does not
exceed the dose limit.

 Personnel Monitoring

a) Thermoluminescene Dosimeter (TLD) badge

b) Film Badge
c) TLD Ring
d) Optically Stimulated Dosimeter (OSLD)
e) Pocket Dosimeter
f) Hand and foot monitor

TLD Badge TLD Ring

(The label should be facing
the radiation source) 40
Pen Pocket Dosimeter Digital Pocket Dosimeter

Hand and foot monitor

41
 Area monitoring

Radiation protection surveillance carried out in a supervised area

or controlled area. RTP monitoring equipment is important to
ensure the environment of RTP is safe and secured.

a) Equipment for external radiation:

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Survey Meter

Film Dosimeter
43
 b) Equipment for contamination:

The detector used depends on type of radiation

involved in the contamination.
- Alpha contamination
Scintillation type (ZnS), proportional counter and
solid-state detector
- Beta-gamma contamination
G-M detector and scintillation detector

Scintillation counter for surface contamination and body part that

prone to contamination
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c) Area Radiation Monitoring System (ARMS)
- 8 area radiation monitors available to monitor the
radiation level inside the reactor hall:
 4 ARM are positioned at strategic location
on the wall, facing each beam port of the
reactor. Each of the ARM is set with the pre-
alarm and alarm setting at 5 µSv/hr and 10
µSv/hr, respectively.
 on the reactor top
 reactor basement
 pneumatic room (1)

ARMS at RTP

45
 M

d) Continuous Air Monitoring

e) Stack Monitor
- A stack monitor is installed to monitor the activity
level of the discharge air at the stack on the roof
of the reactor building and sounds an alarm when
the set point is exceeded.
- The system consists of four detectors that provide
the reading for background, particulate,
iodine, and noble gas.
- Stack discharge is sampled by pumps at a rate 3.0
m3/hr for particulate, 1.8 m3/hr for iodine and 0.1
m3/hr for noble gas.
- Alarm setting for stack monitor
 Background: 55 cps
 Particulate: 5000 Bq/m3
 Iodine: 5000 Bq/m3
 Noble gas: 650000 Bq/m3
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f) Radiation Portal Monitor (RPM)
- For physical security purpose
- Minimum setting limit : 0.01mSV/h
- The functions of RPM are:
 To detect and monitor the movement of
radioactive or nuclear materials generating
gamma rays and neutrons
 To monitor, filter and detect any possibility
of radioactive contamination on people and
goods or equipments entering or leaving the
reactor building.
 To support physical security systems at the
reactor by monitoring and tracking the
movement of radioactive or nuclear
materials by unauthorized person

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4.9 Restricted Access and Designated Work Areas

The radiation signage is posted where radioactive materials are

handled, or where radiation-producing equipment is used.
This sign is used as a warning to protect people from being
exposed to radioactivity. The radiation area is any area with dose
rates greater than 100 millirems (1 millisievert) in one hour 30
centimeters from the source or from any surface through which
the ionizing radiation penetrates. Areas at licensee facilities must
be posted as "high radiation areas" and access into these areas is
maintained under strict control.

Table 4.4: Safe exposure limit received by the worker for work
areas at RTP
Working area Average over Potential radiation
classification 2000h/year exposure level
received (mSv/year)

Controlled area >3 µSv/h >6

Supervised area 0.5-3 µSv/h 1-6
Clean area <0.5 µSv/h <1

48
 Controlled area
Area where the specific radiation and safety regulation are
required to control the normal exposure or to avoid the spread
contamination during normal working condition and to avoid or
limit the potential exposure.

 Supervised area
Area where the dose received by the worker is revised from time
to time even though the specific radiation protection and safety
procedure is sometimes unnecessary.

49
 Clean area
Area where the annual dose received by worker is not more than
the dose received by the member of the public

 Radiation Signage

50
4.10 Procedures

In order to ensure the safety, security and quality of the PUSPATI

TRIGA Reactor operation, utilization and modification activities, an
Integrated Management System (IMS) program has been
established. The program is set in accordance to the general
requirements of the IAEA Safety of Research Reactor [Safety Series
No.NS-R-4 (2005)]. Following is the procedure for entering and
leaving the RTP extracted from the IMS Procedure.

Procedures before entering to RTP

51
Procedures before leaving the RTP

52
 5 RTP INFORMATION

The PUSPATI TRIGA Reactor (RTP), located at the Malaysian

Nuclear Agency in Bangi, Malaysia, is a 1 MW TRIGA Mark II
research reactor. It was first commissioned on 28 June 1982 and is
utilized as a neutron irradiation facility and for beam line
applications.

The various facilities of the RTP such as the in-core pneumatic and
dry irradiation facilities, out-core irradiation facility, beamport
facilities and thermal column. These reactor facilities are also
made available as a service to the community e.g. for industrial

53
benefit and in particular to academic organizations as an
institutional benefit. RTP characteristics are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Summary descriptions of RTP characteristics.

Items Data
Type Pool type reactor
Maximum Thermal 1 MW (Steady-State & Square
Power Wave Mode)
Maximum Thermal 1 x 1013 n/cm2/s
Flux
Shape of Reactor Cylindrical
Core
Coolant & Moderator Demineralized Light Water
Core Cooling Natural Convection
Control Rod Boron Carbide (B4C)
Reflector Graphite
Shape of Fuel Rod Type
Fuel Uranium Zirconium Hydride
(U-ZrH1.6)
Fuel Clad Stainless Steel
Enrichment of U-235 19.99%
Fuel Element Weight 8.5wt%, 12wt% & 20wt%
Percent

54
5.1 Reactor Management

The RTP is placed under the responsibility of the Reactor

Technology Centre (PTR). Within PTR, there are four sections:
Reactor Operation & Maintenance (O&M), Reactor Physics (RXP),
Reactor Technology, Eng. & Safety (TES), Reactor Instrumentation
& Control (RIC), and Reactor Quality Management (RQM).
However, the operation and maintenance of RTP is mainly under
control of O&M Section. The main tasks of the Reactor O&M
Section are to conduct and ensure safe operation, maintenance of
the 1-MW RTP and all its related systems, to provide irradiation
services as well as to assist and coordinate the use of the reactor
experimental facilities.

5.2 Experimental Facilities

Experimental facilities available for the users to utilize are located

either in core, out of core or beamports.

 In core facilities
RTP has a hexagonal and two triangular in core facilities for
high flux irradiations. The sample dimension that can be
irradiated in the hexagonal facility reaches 11 cm in
diameter and 68 cm height. Each triangular irradiation
55
facilities can accommodates a sample of 6 cm in diameter
and 68 cm height. The use of both in core irradiations
facilities requires the transfer of RTP fuel element.
Replacement of the fuel element with samples would affect
major changes in the reactivity of the reactor. Therefore,
details assessment on the operations and safety of the
reactor needs to be done before the experiment can be
conducted.

Figure 5.1 shows RTP core layout for all in core facilities:
The hexagonal (A1, B1 to B6) and triangular (D5, E6, E7 and
D14, E18, E19), Dry Tube and Delayed Neutron Activation
(DNA) in core facilities.

A Central Thimble (CT) is a hollow aluminium tube diameter

of 3.38cm, shows in Figure 5.2. It is vertical from the central
part of the reactor core to the reactor pool top. A CT that
enters the centre of the core lattice makes possible the
extraction of a highly collimated beam of radiation or
insertion of small samples into the region of maximum flux.

56
 G9 G10 G11
G8 G12
G7 G13
F8 F9
F7 F10
G6 F11 G14 Dry tube
F6 DRY
Removable E7 E8
E6 G15
G5 F5 F12
Triangular E5 E9
plate D5 D6 E10 G16
G4 F4 E4 D7 F13
D4
C4 G17
F3 E3 D3 C5 D8 E11 F14
G3 C3

C2 C6 D9 G18
Removable G2 F2 E2 D2 B2 B3 E12 F15
Hexagonal Central
plate G1 E1 D1 C1 B1 A1 B4 C7 D10 E13 F16 G19 Thimble
F1
DNA
C12 B6 B5 C8 D11 E14 G20 Pneumatic
E24 D18 F17
Delayed G36 F30 PTS transfer
Neutron C11 C9
D12 E15 system
F29 E23 D17 C10 F18 G21
Analysis G35 DNA (PTS)
(DNA) D16 D13
E16
E22 D14 F19 G22
G34 F28 D15
E21 E17 F20
F27 G23
G33 E20 E19 E18
F26 F21 G24
G32 F25 F22
F24 F23
G31 G25
G30 G26
G29 G28 G27

Figure 5.1 RTP core layouts for all in core facilities

Figure 5.2 Central Thimble

57
Pneumatic Transfer System (PTS) is a pneumatically
operated “rabbit” transfer system, which enters the reactor
core lattice in position G-20, provides for production of very
short-lived radioisotopes for neutron activation analysis. It
is controlled by the difference in air pressure generated by
air suction. The pressure in the system is always at a lower
level than the surrounding air pressure.

In the event of a leak, it will not cause radioactive materials

released into the surroundings. Figure 5.32 shows the PTS
control station near the fume cupboard.

Figure 5.3 PTS station.

58
 The sample sender and receiver were placed in a fume
cupboard at the pneumatic room. Samples should first to
be placed into plastic vials. This container is sealed and put
into an irradiation tube (polyethylene container) special for
pneumatic systems. Figure 5.4 shows the TRIGA tube and
vial for PTS.

Figure 5.4 TRIGA tube and vial for PTS

 Out of core facilities

The Rotary Rack (RR) facility is used for activation analysis
and isotope production. The RR assembly consists of a ring-
shape, seal-welded aluminum housing containing an
aluminum rack mounted on special bearings. The rack

59
supports 40 evenly spaced tubular aluminum containers
that serve as receptacles for the specimen tube. The tube is
shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 TRIGA Tube and vial for RR

Each receptacle has an inside diameter of 3.17 cm and

height of 27.4 cm and can hold two irradiation containers,
with the exception of position number 1 which can only
hold one irradiation container. The rack can be rotated
manually or by the motorized drive that permits continuous
rotation at about one revolution per minute.

A standard fishing rod, specifically modified for this purpose

is used for transferring irradiation containers into and out

60
 of the rotary specimen rack. The irradiation container
consists of a cylindrical body and screw cap moulded from
polyethylene. The cap is formed to fit the pickup tool which
is used for unloading the containers from the RR as shown
in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Unloading irradiation containers from the RR.

 Beam port facilities

The beam ports provide tubular penetrations through the
high density concrete shield and the reactor tank water,
making beams of neutrons and gamma radiation available
for a variety of experiments. It also provides an irradiation

61
 facility for large (up to 15.2 cm diameter) specimens in a
region close to the core. There are three radial beam ports
and one tangential beam port at RTP. Figure 5.7 shows the
layout of the RTP beam ports.

Reactor tank
Reactor core

Radial beamport Radial beamport

Aluminium casing

Pgraphite reflector
Thermal column
door plug

Steel shadow
shield Graphite thermal column

Radial pearcing Tangential beamport

beamport

Figure 5.7 The RTP beamports

BP#1 and BP#2 are still vacant but studies for certain
applications are being carried out. BP#3 houses the neutron
radiography and imaging facility (NuR II) where film-based
and digital neutron radiography and 2D tomography can be
conducted. Both these techniques can be used for imaging
internal structure of various materials or components. The

62
neutron radiography system is equipped with an indicator
for image quality characterization while tomographic
projections are acquired using image acquisition system
coupled with linear and rotating stage.

The Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS) facility, located

at BP#4, is designed for studying the properties of materials
with equivalent scattering vector of around 1/5.4 Angstrom.
The system is equipped with two dimensional Position
Sensitive Detector (PSD), Histogramming Memory and in-
house software for data recording, viewing scattering
pattern and analysis. Beam conditioning is done using High
Ordered Pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG).

The thermal column is graphite blocks that have been

gathered in the exterior of the reactor tank. The graphite
block can be removed one by one. Samples may also be
disclosed in the neutron column by placing among the set
of graphite. The thermal column is closed by a concrete
door operated by an electric motor.

63
5.3 Reactor Utilization

RTP has been utilized for several irradiation and research

experiments. Training and education programs are actively
conducted to fulfill the increasing demand of the program locally
and internationally.

 Radioisotope production

Neutron Radioisotopes can be produced in reactors by

exposing suitable target materials to the intense reactor
neutron flux for an appropriate time. This is based on
neutron capture in a target material, either by activation or
generation of radioisotopes from fission of the target
material by bombardment with thermal neutrons.

Target materials to be irradiated are sealed in capsules,

loaded in RTP irradiation facilities such as Central Thimble
(CT), Pneumatic Transfer System (PTS), Dry Tube (DT),
Delayed Neutron Activation-Bare (DNA-Bare), Neutron
Activation-Cadmium (DNA-CD), Rotary Rack (RR), Beamport
1, 2, 3 and 4, and Thermal Column for irradiation. After
irradiation, the irradiated targets are loaded in appropriate

64
 shielding containers and can be collected by user for further
analysis or process.

In general, the new radioisotopes produced in Research

nuclear reactor can be used for diagnostics and therapy in
nuclear medicine, non-destructive testing and radiotracer
industrial applications, as well as for radiotracer studies in
scientific research. Several radioisotopes that can be
produced in RTP are listed in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Several Isotopes that can be produced in RTP

Isotope Half-life Isotope Half-life
Rubidium – 86
Yttrium – 90
Sodium – 24 15 hour 19.5 hour
Technetium –
Phosphorus – 32 14.3 day 63 hour
99m
Argon – 41 1.8 hour 6 hour
Indium – 116m
Potassium – 42 12.4 hour 54 hour
Iodine – 131
Scandium – 46 85 hour 8.1 day
Lanthanum -140
Chromium – 51 27.8 day 40 hour
Promethium –
Manganes – 56 2.58 hour 19.2 hour
142
Copper – 64 12.8 hour 18 hour
Gadolinium –
Galtium – 72 14.2 hour 74 day
159
Barium – 80 18 minute 2.7 Day
Iridium – 192
Barium – 82 35.9 hour 65 hour
Gold – 198
Mercury - 197

65
 Neutron activation analysis (NAA)

NAA is a nuclear process used for identification of elements

and determining the concentrations of elements in a vast
amount of materials. NAA relies on excitation by neutrons
so that the treated sample emits gamma-rays. It allows the
precise identification and quantification of the elements of
major, minor, and trace elements in samples based on the
delayed emitted gamma-rays energies.

NAA has applications in various research fields including

nutrition and health, medicine, chemistry, geology,
archaeology, environmental monitoring and even in the
forensic science. The sequence of events occurring during
the most common type of nuclear reaction used for NAA,
namely the neutron capture or (n, gamma) reaction, is
illustrated in Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Neutron capture by a target nucleus followed by

gamma ray emission
66
Detection of the specific gamma rays indicates presence of a
particular element. Suitable semiconductor detector may be used
for quantitative measurement. In general, Germanium detectors
combine high resolution with low background to an extent not
achievable with thallium activated sodium iodide (Nal) detectors
whereas the Nal detector has better efficiency. This detector
available for use in the room next to Pneumatic room in reactor
building under Application of Chemistry Analysis (ACA) group
jurisdiction and in nuclear and reactor physics laboratory in block
19 under Reactor and Nuclear Physics (RXP) Group authority.

 Training and Education

Besides facilitating research and development in nuclear and

related technologies, nuclear research reactors are also designed
to be used as a tool for training and education purposes. These
include reactor physics and engineering, reactor operation and
maintenance, reactor instrumentation and reactor utilization.

The PUSPATI TRIGA reactor has been used to provide hands-on

experience for undergraduate and postgraduate students from
local and international higher education institutions. Many have
successfully completed their projects and thesis. Reactor operator

67
trainees receive their basic training at RTP before advancing to a
higher and sophisticated level.

5.4 Category of Experiment

Experiments conducted at RTP are divided into three categories as

follows:

a) Type A
- Creation of minimal radioisotope/radionuclide
- Creation of minimal reactivity/activity
- Not require additional shielding

b) Type B
- Creation of excessive radioisotope/radionuclide
- Creation of excessive reactivity/activity
- Require additional shielding

c) Type C
- Irradiation of fissile materials
- Irradiation of potential explosive materials
- Changes in fuel elements

68
 Table 4.3 shows the personnel required to presence during the
experiments. Note that user’s attendance is compulsory for Type C
experiments.
Type Required Personnel
A Reactor operator
Senior Reactor operator
B Reactor operator
Senior Reactor operator
Health Physics representative
C Reactor operator
Senior Reactor operator
Health Physics representative
User

69
 6 WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCY?

6.1 What to do in the event of a radiation incident

There are devices for monitoring levels of radioactivity in place
throughout the reactor building. The readings from these devices
are not only relayed to the reactor control room but are displayed
by a system of colored lights on a panel next to each of the
devices. The lights indicate the following:

Flashing green light

Normal operations

Flashing yellow light

First threshold exceeded
No immediate danger.
This alarm is relayed to the reactor
control room and the Health Physics
Duty Officer gives any necessary
instruction

70
 Flashing red light + audible alarm
Second threshold exceeded
Danger.
Leave the reactor immediately by
the nearest air lock (“Sas”)

6.2 What to do in the event of a radiation accident

In the event of an accident, the alarm will be given

BY SIREN

LOUDSPEAKER
by the operator from the control room

71
The following steps should be taken:

a) The first person who sees any emergency involving

radiation exposure that requires evacuation shall
immediately trigger the emergency alarm and call Area
Supervisor (AS) or Emergency Call Centre (ECC).

b) Use internal landline and call ECC or AS via the

extension number below:

ECC’s extension number:

1999
03 – 8925 0579

AS extension number:

6144 / 6149

c) Next, extinguish fire if safe to do so (use fire

extinguisher or hose reel).

72
 d) The first person who sees any emergency that do not
require evacuation shall immediately call AS or ECC.

e) When the emergency siren is activated, immediately

stop work and evacuate through the nearest
emergency exits in an orderly manner.

Please proceed to the designated assembly point

located at the parking lot as showed in the diagram
below or the nearest assembly point.

Stay calm and wait for further instructions from the Area
Supervisor in charge.

73
 7 WASTE ZONING

The primary objective of waste zone is to ensure that any

radioactive waste generated from operation and use of the
RTP is disposed of in safe and proper manner so that it will not
pose any potential radiation hazard to man and environment.
Radioactive wastes are disposed of in accordance with IAEA
safety standards.

In order to meet the requirements of these

standards, various factors need to be carefully assessed in
designing a waste zoning. These factors include the types and
characteristics of the waste, suitability and cost of the
treatment process and the available options for waste disposal.
The signage of radioactive waste is shown in Figure 6.1.

Contact person for inquiry

i. RPO
ii. RPS
Nuclear Malaysia Waste Zones
Block 30 houses the Waste Management Centre while Block 31
sites the treatment plant. Processed wastes are stored in Block 33.

Classification of Radioactive Waste

74
 To allow for easy handling, transportation and enhancement of
safety while going through the process of waste management.

Radioactive waste is classified according to:

 Its physical form (solid, liquid and gaseous);

 Its activity (low, medium and high);
 Its half-life (short half-life, medium half-life and long
half-life); and
 Beta-gamma emitters and alpha emitters.

IAEA classification
 Exempted Waste-EW
 Low Level Waste & Intermediated-Short lived-LILW-
SL
 Low Level Waste & Intermediated-Long lived-LILW-
LL
 High Level Waste-HLW

Solid Waste
cover papers, gloves, empty vials and syringes. Radionuclide
generators. Items used by hospitalized patients after radionuclide
therapy. Sealed sources used for calibration of instruments. Animal
carcasses and other biological waste.

Liquid Waste
Residues of radionuclide, Patient excreta ,Liquid scintillation
solutions.

Gaseous Waste
Exhausted gas from patients in nuclear medicine.

Category of solid waste containing beta and gamma emitters

based on surface dose rate
75
Category Dose Rate, Note
D(mSv/hr)
1 D<5x10-4 Exempted waste

2 5x10-4<D<1.7 Low level radioactive

waste, shielding may
required
3 1.7<D<17.0 Medium level radioactive
waste, shielding required
4 D>17.0 High level radioactive
waste, shielding and
cooling required

Category of solid waste containing beta and gamma emitters

based on specific activity

Category Specific Activity, Note

A(kBq/kg)
1 A<0.4 Exempted waste

2 0.4<A<10 Very Low level radioactive

waste, shielding may
required
3 10<A<1x104 Low level radioactive
waste, treatment required
4 A>1x104 High level radioactive
waste, shielding and
cooling required

76
 Category of solid waste containing alpha emitters

Category Specific Activity, Note

A(kBq/kg)
1 A<0.4 Exempted waste

2 0.4<A<4x103 Low level radioactive

waste, treatment required
3 A>1x103 Medium and high level
radioactive waste,
treatment required

Category of solid waste containing alpha emitters

Category Specific Activity, Note

A(kBq/kg)
1 A<40 Exempted waste,
treatment not required
2 40<A<4x104 Very Low level
radioactive waste,
treatment required
shielding not required
3 4x104<A<4x1011 Low level radioactive
waste, treatment
required shielding may
required
4 4x106<A<4x106 Medium level radioactive
waste, treatment and
shielding required
5 A<4x1011 High level radioactive
waste, treatment,
shielding and cooling
required

77
 Category of liquid waste containing alpha emitters

Category Specific Activity, Note

A(kBq/kg)
1 A<1.5 Exempted waste, treatment
not required
2 A>1.5 radioactive waste,
treatment required

Category of gaseous radioactive waste

Category Specific Activity, Note

A(kBq/kg)
1 A<3.7 Exempted waste,
treatment not required
2 3.7<A<4x3.7x104 radioactive waste ,
treatment required by
filtration method
3 A>3.7x104 radioactive waste ,
treatment required by
special method

6.2 Solid Radioactive Waste

Solid waste generated from operation and use of the RTP is

classified as radioactive waste when they contain or are
contaminated with radioactive materials in solid form. They
include spent ion-exchange resins, air filters, contaminated

78
clothing, tissues, glassware, etc.

The dry solid wastes are separated at their origin by

the obligation of dropping wastes into suitable separate
containers. Separate bins are provided in each controlled
rooms of the reactor building for collecting radioactive and
ordinary wastes. For short-lived low level radioactive wastes,
they are kept in the area for a complete decay, which will then
be disposed as ordinary wastes. For other solid radioactive
wastes, they are contained in plastic bags and labelled by
user/waste producer, then will be verify by KFK and collected by
WasTeC for treatment and disposal purposes.

6.3 Liquid Waste

Radioactive liquid wastes may include discarded solution

containing radioactive substances or water used for washing
of contaminated apparatus, articles and clothing. Based on
its chemical nature, liquid waste is classified into organic and
aqueous waste. Radioactive waste is also categorized with
respect to its activity, namely low and medium/ high-level
waste. Transport, treatment and disposal of these wastes are
done by WasTeC. They are collected in a pit at the basement of
the reactor building and flow down through a pipe by gravity
into a collection tank at the Waste Technology Development
Centre. The process employed for treatment of liquid
waste is chosen based on the above classification as shown in
Figure 6.6

79
 Figure 6.5 Flowchart for Liquid Waste from reactor building

6.4 Gaseous Waste

Airborne waste includes radioactive gases, vapours and

particulates. This type of waste originates from volatile
radioactive substances, evaporation of radioactive liquids, and
production of radioactive gases from reactor operation and
from any other activities involving radioactive gases. N-16,
Ar-41 and radioiodine are treated before discharging.

6.5 Non radioactive waste

For non-radioactive wastes, they are collected and stored

in separate containers by WasTeC for disposal.

80
 Sewerage water system of RTP is divided into two systems and
identified based on their roles. First system collects possible
radioactive liquid waste, chemical liquid disposals such as acids
coming from the reactor building and all hot laboratories. The
second system collects the ordinary sewerage coming from
toilets and water sinks being free from radioactivity in excess of
the natural background.

The waste treatment building shown in Figure 6.8

houses the various laboratories and the radioactive waste
treatment plant are situated next to it.

Conclusion
The NUKLEAR MALAYSIA waste zone was established to cater for
any nuclear, radiological and conventional waste that might occur
in the Bangi Complex of NUKLEAR MALAYSIA and its branch
complex in Dengkil (Dengkil Complex). This waste zone is to
provide proper waste storage to protect workers, the general
public and the environment.

Rujukan

(NM.SP.W.03- Prosedur Pengurusan Sisa Radioaktif).

81