Mobile Computing Unit 3

Unit 3 Wireless Transmission – II

Structure:
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Modulation
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
3.3 Spread Spectrum Technology
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
3.4 Cellular Systems for Mobile Communications
3.5 Summary
3.6 Terminal Questions
3.7 Answers

3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about the range of frequencies used for
communication and the need to regulate the use of frequencies. You learnt
what a signal is and how can it be transmitted through wireless media using
different types of antenna. You also studied about the effects of signal
propagation and the effects of mobility of mobile devices. In unit 2, you
learnt about multiplexing scheme – FDM, TDM, SDM, CDMA and OFDM
used in communication system.

In this unit, you will study about the various digital and analog Modulation
schemes used to transmit digital and analog data in to the space. You will
study how signals can be spread using spread spectrum technology such as
Direct Spread Spectrum System (DSSS) and Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) technique. You will also study about the Cell structure
and the necessity of frequency planning for cellular communication.

Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the need of modulation for wireless communication
 list the different types of modulation scheme
 write what is spread spectrum technique

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 explain the DSSS and FHSS techniques

 explain the cellular structure used for mobile communication
 justify why frequency planning is needed
 describe what cell breathing is.

3.2 Modulation
You can enable your voice to be heard far away by screaming. But if you
want your voice to be heard still farther, then screaming would not be the
best way as you cannot scream more loudly than your limit. To
communicate your voice to other person in a distant place, you can either
have a wired medium or the wireless medium through which voice can be
transmitted. But to transmit voice through such medium, you need the voice
to be converted into electrical or electromagnetic signal which is capable of
travelling through such a medium. Your voice is converted into electrical
signal either in the form of analog data or digital data. This analog or digital
data is again transformed into a special signal so that it can travel to a
farther distance either by wire or wireless (air or vacuum) media. This
special signal is called modulated signal (or modulated data) and the
technique used to convert original signal (viz. voice) into modulated signal is
called modulation.
Hence you can say that modulation is a technique of facilitating the transfer
of information over a medium. The technique of converting information
(voice in this case) into a signal which is capable for transmission through a
medium (wire or air or vacuum) is called modulation. Here we have taken
voice as an example for information. There can be other types of
information such as audio, video, texts etc. which again can be in the form
of analog data or digital data.
Since the information can be in the form of analog data and digital data,
modulation can be classified as (i) Analog modulation and (ii) Digital
modulation.
3.2.1 Analog modulation
In Analog modulation, the information carrying base band signal typically
called the message or information signal m(t) varies either the amplitude or
the angle of the carrier signal (or radio carrier). The carrier signal has a
higher frequency which shifts the center frequency of the baseband signal

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up to the radio carrier. It is the radio carrier which is capable of transmitting

through wireless media and hence, it enables the message signal to
transmit through wireless media.
Hence, there are two different basic schemes known for analog modulation.
They are (i) amplitude modulation (AM) and (ii) Angle Modulation. The
change in angle of a carrier signal can be varied either in the change of the
frequency or in the phase. So angle modulation can again be of two types.
They are: (a) Frequency modulation (FM), and (b) Phase modulation (PM).
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In amplitude modulation, the message or information signal m(t) varies the
amplitude of the carrier sine wave. Here, Information signal is the
modulating signal. The instantaneous value of the amplitude of the carrier
signal changes in accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations
of the Information signal. The carrier frequency remains constant during the
modulation process, but its amplitude varies in accordance with the
modulating signal. An increase or a decrease in the amplitude of the
modulating signal causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the
positive and the negative peaks of the carrier amplitude.
The AM wave is the product of the carrier and modulating signals. The
circuit used for producing AM signal is called a modulator. At the receiver
side, a circuit used to recover the original signal from an AM wave is known
as a detector or demodulator.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
In frequency modulation, the message signal m(t), varies the frequency of a
carrier wave. The basic principle behind FM is that the amplitude of an
analog baseband signal can be represented by a slightly different frequency
of the carrier. FM is a variation of angle modulation where the frequency of
the carrier signal is varied in response to the message signal. The variation
in frequency of the modulated waveform from the carrier frequency is called
the frequency deviation.
Phase modulation (PM)
In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier waveform is varied according
to the message signal. PM is also a variation of angle modulation. The
variation in phase of the modulated waveform from the carrier waveform is
called the phase deviation, which can vary from 0 to 360 degree.

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Self Assessment Questions

1. The technique of facilitating the transfer of information over a medium
is called _______________.
2. In AM, the carrier _______________ remains constant during the
modulation process, but its _______________ varies in accordance
with the modulating signal.
3. FM is a variation of angle modulation where the frequency of the
___________ signal is varied in response to the message signal.

3.2.2 Digital modulation

Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a
medium that only allows transmission of analog data. Digital transmission is
used in wired local area networks or within a computer. But in wireless
networks, digital transmission cannot be used. In wireless networks, only
analog signal can be transmitted. So the digital data that needs to be
transmitted has to be translated into an analog signal.
Digital modulation is a technique of translating digital data (0 and 1) into an
analog signal. This analog signal is known as baseband signal. This analog
signal represents the digital data which can be transmitted in wireless
media. There are three basic methods of digital modulation. They are
(i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) (ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and
(iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
Apart from translating digital data into analog signals, this analog data
(baseband data) needs additional modulation for wireless transmission. This
additional modulation is an analog modulation that shifts the centre
frequency of the baseband signal up to the radio carrier. For example,
digital modulation translates a 1 Mbit/s bit-streamin to a baseband signal
with a bandwidth of 1 MHz.
Figure 3.1 shows a simplified block diagram of a radio transmitter for digital
data. The first step is the digital modulation of data into the analog
baseband Signal according to ASK or FSK or PSK technique. Again, the
centre frequency of this analog baseband signal is shifted up to the radio
carrier by additional analog modulation technique. This shifted signal of
frequency equal to radio carrier is then transmitted via the antenna into the
wireless media i.e. air.

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Figure 3.1: Radio Transmitter for Digital Data.

The receiver on the receiving end receives the analog radio signal via its
antenna and demodulates the signal into the analog baseband signal with
the help of the known radio carrier. Figure 3.2 shows the radio receiver
which demodulates the received analog signal and reconstructs digital data
in a receiver.

Figure 3.2: Demodulation and Data Reconstruction in a Receiver

The demodulated analog baseband signal again needs to be translated into

the original digital data. To get the original digital data, the receiver must
synchronize with the sender to detect its Bits or frames. It depends
upon digital modulation scheme to achieve synchronization. After
synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents a
digital 1 or a 0. Then the original data which is sent by sender is
reconstructed.
Let us now discuss how digital modulation is performed.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In Amplitude Shift Keying, the two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency. In other words, one binary digit
is represented by the presence of carrier amplitude and the other by the

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absence of the carrier amplitude (refer figure 3.3(a)). In other words, carrier
signal will be transmitted for binary 1 and will not be transmitted for binary 0.
The ASK signal can be represented by s(t) and is given as:

…………… (3.1)
Where the carrier signal is A cos (2πfct). Amplitude of signal is A with carrier
frequency fc.

Figure 3.3(a): Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In FSK, The frequency of a sine wave carrier is shifted up or down to
represent either a single binary value or a specific bit pattern. The simplest
form of frequency shift keying is called binary frequency shift keying (BFSK),
in which the binary logic values one (logic 1) and zero (logic 0) are
represented by the carrier frequency being shifted above or below the
center frequency. In conventional BFSK systems, the higher frequency
represents a logic high (one) and the lower frequency represents a logic
low (zero). That is, binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one frequency f1 to the
binary 1 and another frequency f2 to the binary 0.

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The BFSK signal can be represented by s(t) and is given as:

………………….. (3.2)
Where f1 and f2 are typically offset from the carrier frequency f c by equal but
opposite amounts and A is the amplitude of the signal.

Figure 3.3(b): Frequency shift keying

Figure 3.3(b) shows the binary FSK (BFSK), in which the two binary values
are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a method of modulating digital signals onto an
analog carrier wave in which the phase of the carrier wave is shifted
between two or more values, depending upon the logic state of the input bit
stream. The simplest method uses two phases - 0 degrees and 180 degrees.
Two-Level PSK is the simplest scheme that uses two phases to represent
the two binary digits (refer figure 3.3(c) and is known as binary phase shift
keying (BPSK).
The BPSK can be represented by s(t) and is given as:

…………….. (3.3)

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In the equation, 3.3, phase shift of 0 or 180° (or π) enables the changed
value of data.

Figure 3.3(c): Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

There are other types of digital modulation techniques which have

advantages and disadvantages of their own. For example, variants of FSK
is Multiple FSK (MFSK) which uses more than two frequencies if the signal
is bandwidth efficient. Similarly, variants of PSK is differential PSK (DPSK),
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) etc which changes the phase of
signal in a different way to represent digital data. Another modulation
technique is Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) technique.It is an
analog signaling technique and is a combination of ASK and PSK.
Depending upon the condition, data types and the purpose, different types
of modulation techniques are deployed.
Self Assessment Questions
4. Digital modulation is a technique of translating digital data (0 and 1) into
a/an _______________ signal.
5. In ASK, carrier will be transmitted for binary 1 and will not be
transmitted for binary 0. (True/False)
6. In this modulation scheme, the higher frequency represents a logic high
(one) and the lower frequency represents a logic low (zero).
(a) ASK
(b) BFSK
(c) PSK
(d) BPSK

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3.3 Spread Spectrum Technology

The main problem in transmitting radio signal is that the frequency
dependent fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the
interference. So to prevent this interference, we can spread the narrow band
signal into a broad band signal using a special code.
In a spread-spectrum system, signals are spread across a wide bandwidth
equivalent to noise like signals making them difficult to intercept,
demodulate, and intercept. Spread-spectrum signals are harder to jam
(interfere with) than narrow band signals. The advantages of spread
spectrum are low probability of intercept (LPI), anti-jam (AJ) and anti-
interference features. This technology is the key to Code Division
Multiplexing (CDM) technique for cellular communication.
Spread spectrum technology is the technique of spreading the bandwidth of
the signal in order to transmit data. The user signal or the message signal
which is a base band signal, are the narrow band signals which are spread
by this technique to form the wide band signal. Spreading the signal here
means converting the narrowband signal into a broadband signal.
The energy needed to transmit the signal is the same, but it is spread over a
larger frequency range. The power level of the spread signal can be much
lower than that of the original narrowband signal without losing data.
Depending on the generation and reception of the spread signal, the power
level of the user signal can even be as low as the background noise. This
makes it difficult to distinguish the user signal from the background noise
and thus hard to detect. Spread spectrum technique has the advantage over
other type of technology in terms of security as it has resistance to
narrowband interference.
In Figure 3.4, you can see an idealized narrowband signal from a sender of
user data in step (i). Here the signal is shown with respect to power density
(dP/df) versus frequency (f). The sender now spreads the signal in step (ii).
Spreading of a narrowband signal is achieved using a special code. When
this signal has to be transmitted, the narrowband and broadband
interference are being added to the signal as shown in step (iii).
In the receiver side, the sum of interference and user signal is received. The
receiver despreads the signal by converting the spread user signal into a

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narrowband signal again by spreading the narrowband interference and

leaving the broadband interference as shown in step (vi).
In step v) the receiver applies a band pass filter to cut off frequencies left
and right of the narrowband signal.

Figure 3.4: Spread Spectrum: Spreading and Despreading

Since each channel used by the sender is allotted its own code, the
receivers also have to apply the same code to recover the signal. Without
knowing the code, the signal cannot be recovered and behaves like
background noise. This is the security effect of spread spectrum if a secret
code is used for spreading.
Finally, the receiver reconstructs the original data as the power level of the
user signal is high enough, i.e., the signal is much stronger than the
remaining interference.
Now let us discuss the techniques through which we can spread the signal
and similarly despread it. Spreading the spectrum can be achieved in two
different ways. They are: (i) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and
(ii) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
3.3.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) technique, the signal is
spread when a user bit stream perform a XOR operation with a sequence of
bits called chipping sequence. In Figure 3.5, you can see when the user
data (0, 1) and the chipping sequence (01101010110101) undergoes XOR
operation, you get the resulting signal (01101011001010).

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Figure 3.5: Spreading with DSSS

While each user bit has a duration tb the chipping sequence consists of
smaller pulses, called chips, with a duration tc. If the chipping sequence is
generated properly it appears as random noise and hence this sequence is
also sometimes called pseudo-noise sequence. The spreading factor is
given as s = tb/tc. This spreading factor determines the bandwidth of the
resulting spread signal. If the original signal needs a bandwidth w, the
resulting signal needs s·w after spreading. The spreading factor of the very
simple example is only 7, spreading factors for civil applications are in
between 10 and 100 whereas military applications use factors up to10,000.
Let us now look how these spread spectrum signal are transmitted through
wireless medium i.e. air. As shown in figure 3.6, the spread spectrum signal,
obtained after the user data and chipping sequence undergoes XOR
operation, is passed through the modulator. The modulator then modulates
the radio carrier to shift the spread spectrum signal to the carrier frequency
and is then transmitted to air.

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Figure 3.6: DSSS transmitter

On the receiver side, as shown in figure 3.7, the received signal is

demodulated by the demodulator using the same radio carrier as the
transmitter to reverse the modulation. The result is a signal with
approximately the same bandwidth as the original spread spectrum signal.
Additional filtering by low pass filter is also applied to generate the signal.
This signal is then passed through correlator which has XOR operator and
integrator. The correlator converts low pass filtered signal into the sampled
sums. The signal and the chipping sequence undergoes XOR operation in
correlator. The chipping sequence is same as that of the transmitting side.
Sequences at the sender and receiver have to be precisely synchronized
because the receiver calculates the product of a chip with the incoming
signal. A bit period is derived via synchronization and an integrator adds all
these products. Thus the correlator calculates the products of chips and
signal and adds the products in an integrator. Finally, in each bit period a
decision unit samples the sums generated by the integrator and decides if
this sum represents a binary 1 or 0 and the original data is gained.

Figure 3.7: DSSS receiver

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If transmitter and receiver are perfectly synchronized and the signal is not
too distorted by noise or multi-path propagation, DSSS works perfectly well
according to the simple scheme shown. However, in real life, the situation is
somewhat more complex. Due to multi-path propagation, several paths with
different delays exist between a transmitter and a receiver. In such a case, a
rake receivers is used which can take advantage of the multi-path
propagation by combining the different paths in a constructive way.
Self Assessment Questions
7. Spread spectrum technology is the technique of spreading the
_______________ of the signal needed to transmit data.
8. In DSSS, the _____________ sequence appears as random noise.
9. Correlator of DSSS receiver has ________________ operator and
_________________.

3.3.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) technique, the total
available bandwidth for communication is split into many channels of
smaller bandwidth. There are guard spaces between the channels.
Transmitter and receiver communicate through one of these channels for a
certain time and then hop to another channel in certain pattern. Hence this
system implements FDM and TDM. The pattern through which the
transmitter and receiver hops from one channel to another channel is called
the hopping sequence. This hopping sequence can appear to be a
pseudo-random number. The time spend on a channel with a certain
frequency is called the dwell time td. FHSS can be (i) slow hopping and
(ii) fast hopping. An example of an FHSS system is Bluetooth. Bluetooth
performs 1,600 hops per second and uses 79 hop carriers equally spaced
with 1 MHz in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
Figure 3.8 shows the slow and fast hopping sequence for the five user bits
with a bit period tb. You can see that in slow hopping sequence, transmitter
and receiver hops from one channel to another after the transmission of
3 bits. Performing slow hopping, the transmitter uses the frequency f 2 for
transmitting the first three bits during the dwell time td. Then, the transmitter
hops to the next frequency f3. Slow hopping systems are typically cheaper
and have relaxed tolerances. Slow frequency hopping is an option for GSM.

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In fast hopping systems, the transmitter changes the frequency several

times during the transmission of a single bit. Here the transmitter and
receiver hops to 3 different channels to receive a single bit. Fast hopping
sequence is better for overcoming the effects of narrowband interference
and frequency selective fading as they only stick to one frequency for a very
short time.

Figure 3.8: Slow and Fast Frequency Hopping

Let us discuss about the transmitter and receiver of FHSS system.

Figure 3.9 shows the simplified block diagrams of FHSS transmitter. The
first modulator of an FHSS transmitter modulates the user data according to
one of the digital-to-analog modulation schemes (ASK, FSK, PSK etc.). As a
result, FSK scheme (for example) is deployed, you obtain a narrow band
signal with a frequency f0to represent binary 0 and frequency of f1 to
represent binary 1.
This narrow band signal is then fed to the second modulator. This modulator
enables the frequency hopping based on a hopping sequence. That is,
second modulator uses the modulated narrowband signal and the carrier
frequency fi generated from frequency synthesizer to generate a new spread
signal. A carrier signal with frequency fi is generated by frequency
synthesizer when the hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer.
A second modulation generates a new spread signal with frequency of

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fi+f0 for 0 and fi+f1 for 1 respectively and is transmitted to air. There will be n
such transmitter which uses hopping pattern that never overlap. That is, if
two transmitters never use the same frequency fi at the same time, then
these two transmissions do not interfere with each other.

Figure 3.9: FHSS Transmitter

In the receiver, as shown in figure 3.10, the received data undergoes the
inverse operations of the modulation to reconstruct user data. The receiver
of an FHSS system needs to get synchronized with transmitter and has to
know the hopping sequence. Several filters are also needed here.
The first modulator of receiver receives the signal and demodulates it
according to the synchronized carrier signal generated by frequency
synthesizer when the hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer.
The output of the first demodulator is the narrowband signal which is again
demodulated by second demodulator to get the data.

Figure 3.10: FHSS Receiver

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Comparison of DSSS and FHSS

Both DSSS and FHSS systems are the technology that spreads the user
data to wide band. Both systems has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Let us compare DSSS and FHSS. Table 3.1 shows the
comparison of DSSS and FHSS.
Table 3.1: Comparison of DSSS and FHSS
DSSS FHSS
1. Spreading is complex compared to 1. Spreading is simpler.
FHSS.
2. DSSS systems always use the total 2. FHSS systems only use a portion
bandwidth available. of the total band at any time.
3. more resistant to fading and multi- 3. less resistant
path effects
4. DSSS signals are much harder to 4. Very few part of signals can be
detect copied.

In both the spread spectrum technique, a pseudo-random number sequence

is used to spread the signal. Since each sender has its own pseudo-random
number sequence for spreading the signal, you can say that the system
implements Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) scheme. In CDM, each
transmitter transmits the signal using its own code and the receiver
accordingly decodes it. CDM technology uses code for multiplexing scheme
with the same frequency. That is CDM scheme implements either the DSSS
scheme or the FHSS scheme for cellular communication. Although the
number sequence is said to be pseudo-random, in reality, it is not a random
sequence.
Self Assessment Questions
10. FHSS system implements FDM and TDM. (True/False)
11. In this systems, the transmitter changes the frequency several times
during the transmission of a single bit.
(a) DSSS
(b) slow hopping system
(c) Fast hopping system
(d) both (b) and (c)
12. In FHSS transmitter, a carrier signal with frequency f i is generated by
frequency _____________________.

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3.4 Cellular Systems for Mobile Communications

You are already introduced with the Space division multiplexing (SDM) in
unit 2. In SDM, the spaces are subdivided into smaller spaces. Cellular
systems for mobile communications implement SDM. That is, the entire
area of communication is subdivided into the smaller area called Cell. There
is a transmitter allocated in every Cell to cover that entire area. This
transmitter is called base station. These base stations not only transmit the
signals to mobile stations but also receive the signals from the mobile
stations. Mobile station within the cell around a base station communicates
with this base station and vice versa.
The radius of the Cell can vary from tens of meters in buildings, and
hundreds of meters in cities, up to tens of kilometers in the countryside.
Although the shape of cells are shown as a circles or hexagons in figures
(see figure 3.11), they are never a perfect circles or hexagons. Shape of
Cell depend on the environment (buildings, mountains, valleys etc.), on
weather conditions, and sometimes even on system load. In real-life
transmission, the pattern will look somewhat different. The hexagonal
pattern is chosen as a simple way of illustrating the model.
You might ask a question that why do we need to divide the entire area into
smaller area as Cells and install several thousands of base stations which
are so expensive. Why not install a powerful and huge transmitters to cover
the entire area as we do for radio stations? The entire area of
communication is divided into the smaller cell because of several reasons.
We have both the advantages and disadvantages in having smaller cells.
Let us discuss to get the answer of questions asked above.
In figure 3.11, you can see the cellular system with 3 and 7 cell cluster.
Cells are combined in clusters: on the left side three cells form a cluster, on
the right side seven cells form a cluster. All cells within a cluster used is
jointed sets of frequencies, i.e., the frequencies used in each cell within the
cluster are different to each other. On the left side, one cell in the cluster
uses a set of frequency f1, another cell f2, and the third cell f3. Similarly on
the right side you can see seven cells using frequency set of f 1, f2………..f7.

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Figure 3.11: Cellular system with three and seven cell clusters

You can see that the sets of frequencies are reused in other cells which are
far away from it. The transmitter deployed is small and emits power only to
cover its cell. So the transmission power of a sender has to be limited within
its cell of its cluster otherwise the signals of the same sets of frequencies
would interfere with the same sets of frequencies of other cells resulting in
the loss of data.
In this type of cellular system, different transmitters, which are Omni-
directional, use FDM scheme to avoid interference within each other’s
interference range. If FDM is combined with TDM then the hopping pattern
has to be coordinated. The general goal is never to use the same frequency
at the same time within the interference range.
Instead of omni directional antenna, Sectorized antennas are used to further
reduce interference. Sectorized antennas are to some extent directional.
Use of sectorized antenna has benefits in terms of traffic usage and total
numbers of users within cell. Figure 3.12 shows the use of three sectors per
cell in a cluster with three cells. Typically, it makes sense to use sectorized
antennas instead of Omni-directional antennas for larger cell radius.

Figure 3.12: Cellular system with three cell clusters and three sectors per cell

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There are two ways of assigning the frequencies to the cell clusters. The
first way is to fix the assignment of frequencies to cell clusters and cells
respectively. The second way is to dynamically allot the frequencies to the
cell clusters and cells respectively. But the fixed assignment of frequencies
to cell clusters and cells, is not very efficient if traffic load varies. For
example, if the load increases and exceeds the capacity of frequency used
in one cell then how would the cell handle such a large load? Similarly, Cell
with less load would not use the allotted frequency to it. So it makes sense
to borrow the frequencies from other cell, when the traffic load varies.
The scheme which fixes the assignment of frequencies to cell clusters and
cells is called Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA). FCA is used in the GSM
system as it is much simpler to use, but it requires careful traffic analysis
before installation.
The frequencies can also be allotted to cells with more traffic. The scheme
of dynamically allotting more frequencies to the Cells with more traffic is
known as Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA). Another scheme to
dynamically allot frequency is Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) scheme.
DECT implements a Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) scheme. In this
scheme, frequencies can not only be borrowed, but it is also possible to
freely assign frequencies to cells. In DCA scheme, there is always the
danger of interference with cells using the same frequency. But the
‘borrowed’ frequency can be blocked in the surrounding cells to avoid
interference. In both the BCA and DCA scheme, when the cell uses FDM
technology, it is very necessary to plan for the use of frequency, plan the
cell size and it also needs elaborate channel allocation schemes. The
problem faced during cell planning is that the cell size depends on the
current load and the load may keep on changing.
Let us now discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cellular systems
with small cells.
Advantages of cellular systems with small cells are the following:
 Higher capacity: Since SDM is implemented, same frequency can be
used again and again. If one transmitter is far away from another,
i.e., outside the interference range, it can reuse the same frequencies.
Due to frequency reuse, more amount of user can be accommodated in
a cell.
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 Less transmission power: If the cells are smaller, mobile station can
communicate to the less distant base station by the less transmission
power. This would save the energy of mobile station.
 Local interference only: With small cells, mobile stations and base
stations only have to deal with ‘local’ interference.
 Robustness: Cellular systems are decentralized and so they are more
robust against the failure of single components. If one antenna fails, this
only influences communication within a small area.
Small cells have some disadvantages as well:
 Infrastructure needed: Cellular systems need a complex infrastructure
to connect all base stations.
 Handover needed: The mobile station has to perform a handover when
changing from one cell to another. Frequent handover is a type of
unnecessary load for any cell.
 Frequency planning: Careful frequency planning is required in cellular
system using FDM technology to avoid interference between
transmitters using the same frequencies.
We can observe that cellular system has both advantages and
disadvantages when we use FDM or TDM as the multiplexing scheme. But
if we employ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) technology in a cell then we
do not need to consider about the interference due to frequency as it uses
code for multiplexing scheme with the same frequency. In CDM technology,
users are separated through the code they use and not through the
frequency. Hence, the cellular systems using CDM technology instead of
FDM do not need elaborate channel allocation schemes and complex
frequency planning.

Figure 3.13: Cell breathing depending on the current load

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CDM cells exhibit the characteristics of “cell breathing” as shown in

figure 3.13. That is to say that the cell shrinks and expands as the load
increases and decreases respectively in the cell. A CDM cell can cover a
larger area under a light load whereas it shrinks if the load increases. It is
because if more users are in a cell, the noise level increases. The higher the
noise, the higher the path loss and the higher the transmission errors.
Finally, mobile stations further away from the base station drop out of the
cell.
Self Assessment Questions
13. Use of sectorized antenna for cellular communication has benefits in
terms of _______________ usage and total numbers of users within
cell.
14. This scheme dynamically allots more frequencies to the Cells with more
traffic.
(a) Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
(b) Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA)
(c) Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)
(d) both (b) and (c)
15. Frequency planning is required in Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
technology. (True/False)

3.5 Summary
Let us summarize the important points discussed in this unit:
 The technique of converting information into a signal which is capable
for transmission through a medium (wire or air or vacuum) is called
modulation.
 In Analog modulation, the base band information carrying signal typically
called the message or information signal m (t) varies either the
amplitude or the angle of the carrier signal.
 Digital modulation is a technique of translating digital data (0 and 1) into
an analog signal which is called as baseband signal.
 The basic methods of digital modulation are (i) Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK) (ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and (iii) Phase Shift Keying
(PSK).
 In a spread-spectrum system mechanism, signals are spread across a

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wide bandwidth equivalent to noise like signals making them difficult to

intercept, demodulate, and intercept.
 In Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) mechanism, the signal is
spread when a user bit stream perform a XOR operation with a
sequence of bits called chipping sequence.
 In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) mechanism, the
Transmitter and receiver communicate by hopping into one different
channel for a certain time in certain pattern called hopping sequence.
 Cellular systems for mobile communications implement SDM and the
entire area of communication is subdivided into the smaller area called
Cell.
 The base station installed in each cell transmit the signals to mobile
station and receives the signals from the mobile station.

3.6 Terminal Questions

1. What is modulation? Differentiate Analog modulation and digital
modulation.
2. Write short notes on: (i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) (ii) Frequency
Shift Keying (FSK) and (iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
3. Draw the schematic diagram of DSSS transmitter and receiver and
explain its working principle.
4. Draw the schematic diagram of FHSS transmitter and receiver and
explain its working principle.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cellular systems for
mobile communication? Explain briefly.

3.7 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Modulation
2. frequency, amplitude
3. carrier
4. analog
5. True
6. (b) BFSK
7. bandwidth

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8. chipping
9. XOR, integrator
10. True
11. (c) Fast hopping system
12. synthesizer
13. traffic
14. (b) Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA)
15. False

Terminal Questions
1. Modulation is the technique of facilitating the transfer of information over
a medium. (Refer to section 3.2 for more details)
2. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): In ASK, the two binary values are
represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency.
(Refer to section 3.2.2 for more details)
3. In the DSSS receiver, the spread spectrum signal obtained, after the
user data and chipping sequence undergoes XOR operation, is passed
through the modulator. The radio carrier then shifts this signal to the
carrier frequency through modulator and is transmitted to air.
(Refer to section 3.3.1 for more details)
4. The first modulator of an FHSS transmitter modulates the user data
according to one of the digital-to-analog modulation schemes
(ASK, FSK, PSK etc.). (Refer to section 3.3.2 for more details)
5. Advantages of cellular systems with small cells are: (i) Higher capacity
(ii) Less transmission power (iii) Local interference only (iv) Robustness.
(Refer to section 3.4 for more details)

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